EE 361

Introduction to Communication
CHAPTER 2
SIGNALS and SIGNAL SPACE
 Signals
• Mathematically, a signal is a function of time.
• This function may represent
– the voltage or current produced by a source or transducer
– the electric field produced by an antenna
– the intensity of light produced by a light-emitting diode (LED)
– etc.
• Sometimes, a signal may be a function of more than one
variable, e.g.
– a picture is a function of two spatial variables, whose values represent
intensities.
– a video signal is a sequence of picture signals.
• An electric signal may represent any electrical quantity, e.g.
voltage, current, light intensity, electric field intensity, etc.
• Usually, an electric signal is either a voltage or a current.
Signals and Signal Space: 2
 Systems
• A system is an entity that processes a set of signals (inputs)
to yield another set of signals (outputs).
• Mostly, we will deal with single-input single-output systems.
• A system may be made up of physical components, such as an
electric circuit, a mechanical system, or a hydraulic system
• Or it may be an algorithm that computes an output from an
input signal.
• It may also be an abstract system represented by a purely
mathematical model, e.g. differential equation
• We represent a system by a block with inputs entering the
block and outputs exiting the block.

Outputs
Inputs

System

Signals and Signal Space: 3

 Time Average Operator
 We define the time average g t  of a signal g t  as
1 T /2
g t   lim  g t dt
T  T T /2
 If g t  is a periodic signal with a period T0 , then
1
g t    g t dt
T0 0T

where  is the integral over any period of g t 

T0
 Properties :
 1g1 t   2g2 t   1 g1 t   2 g2 t 
if g1 t  and g2 t  exist
 a  a if a is constant
 cos 0t  sin 0t  0 if 0  0
 cos2 0t  sin2 0t  1 / 2 if 0  0
Signals and Signal Space: 4
 Energy and Power
 The energy E g of a signal g t  is defined as
 2
Eg   g t  dt V 2s or A2s

 The power Pg of a signal g t  is defined as
1 T /2 2
Pg  lim  g t  dt V 2 or A2
T  T T /2
2
 time average of g t 
2
 g t 
2
 We use g t  instead of g 2 t  to allow for complex signals
 Pg is the mean square value of g t 
 Pg is the root mean square (rms) value of g t 
Signals and Signal Space: 5
 Energy and Power
Facts :
 Eg    Pg  0
 Pg  0  Eg  
 Eg  0  g t   0 almost everywhere

 Units of Signal Energy and Power:

• The standard units of signal energy and power are the
joule (J) and the watt (W).
• It is very common to express signal power in a
logarithmic scale, i.e. decibel (dB):
– 10 log10(P)  dBW
– 30+10 log10(P)  dBm

Signals and Signal Space: 6

 Energy and Power
Example: Find the energy and power of the signal shown below?
g t 

2
2e t /2
t
1
Solution :
 Energy and Power
Example: Find the energy and power of the signal shown below?
g t 

2
2e t /2
t
1
Solution :
 0  2
 E g   g t dt   2 dt   2e t /2  dt  4  4  8
2 2
 1 0  
1 T /2 2 1 0 2 T /2 2 
 Pg  lim  g t dt  lim   2 dt   2e  dt 
 t /2 
T  T T /2 T  T  1
 0   
1
 0  4 lim 
T  T

1  e T /2  0
 Recall: E g    Pg  0

Signals and Signal Space: 7

 Energy and Power
Example: Find the energy and power of the signal shown below?
g t 

1 0 1 3
t
2 2
1

Solution:

Signals and Signal Space: 8

 Energy and Power
Example: Find the energy and power of the signal shown below?
g t 

1 0 1 3
t
2 2
1

Solution :
This is a periodic signal with a period of T0  2
 Eg  

1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1
 Pg   g t dt   g t dt   t dt 
2

T0 T0 2 1 2 1 3
 Recall: Pg  0  E g  

Signals and Signal Space: 8

 Energy and Power
Example :
Determine the power and rms value of
(a) g t   C cos 0t   , 0  0,C real
(b) g t   C 1 cos 1t  1   C 2 cos 2t  2 , 1  2  0,C 1,C 2 real
(c) g t   De
j 0t

Solution :
C2
(a) Pg  g t   C cos 0t     C
2 2 2 2
cos 0t   
2
 1  cos 20t  2 
2
 
2  
C   C2
  1  cos 20t  2   
2    2
 0 if 0 0  

C
rms value  Pg 
2
What happens if   ?

Signals and Signal Space: 9

 Energy and Power
Example :
Determine the power and rms value of
(b) g t   C 1 cos 1t  1   C 2 cos 2t  2 , 0  1  2  0,C 1,C 2 real
Solution :

C 
2
(b) Pg  g t  
2
1
cos 1t  1   C 2 cos 2t  2 

 C 12 cos2 1t  1   C 22 cos2 2t  2   2C 1C 2 cos 1t  1  cos 2t  2 

 C 12 cos2 1t  1   C 22 cos2 2t  2   2C 1C 2 cos 1t  1  cos 2t  2 
 
1/2 if 10 1/2 if 10
C 12 C 22

2

2
  
 C 1C 2 cos 1  2  t  1  2  cos 1  2  t  1  2 

 

2 2

 

C1 C 2  

2

2  

 
 
 C 1C 2  cos 1  2  t  1  2  cos 1  2  t  1  2 






 



 0 if 1 2 0 0 if 12 


 2

2
 C1  C 2 / 2
rms value  Pg  C 2
1 
 C 22 / 2
What happens if    ?

Signals and Signal Space: 10

 Energy and Power
Example :
Determine the power and rms value of
(c) g t   De
j 0t

Solution :
2 2 2
(c) Pg  g t 
j 0t 2 j 0t 2
 De D e D

1
2
rms value  Pg  D D

Signals and Signal Space: 11

 Classification of Signals
Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals
• A signal that is specified for every value of time is a
continuous time signal
• A signal that is specified only at a discrete set of time values
is a discrete time signal
– Can be obtained by sampling a continuous-time signal
– Can occur if we perform measurements at constant time steps

A Continuous-Time Signal A Discrete-Time Signal

2 2

1 1

0 0

-1 -1

-2 -2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Signals and Signal Space: 12

 Classification of Signals
Analog and Digital Signals
• A signal whose amplitude can take on any value in a continuous
range is an analog signal, i.e. an analog signal amplitude can
take on an infinite number of values
• A signal whose amplitude can take on values from a discrete
(usually finite) set of values is a digital signal
– Computer data is digital; take on one of two values (binary signals)
Analog Digital
Continuous-
time
Discrete-time

Signals and Signal Space: 13

 Classification of Signals
Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
A signal g t  is said to be periodic if there exists a positive
constant T such that
f t  T   f t  for all t
The smallest value of T that satisfies the periodicity condition
is the period of the signal g t , and is denoted as T0
A signal is aperiodic if it is not periodic
Properties :
 f t  nT0   f t  for any integer n
 A periodic signal must be infinite in time
Periodic Signal

g t  Aperiodic Signal

g t 
1
2
1 0 1 3
t 2e t /2
2 2
1 t
1

Signals and Signal Space: 14

 Classification of Signals
Energy and Power Signals :
 A signal g t  is said to be energy signal if
Eg  
i.e. an energy signal is a finite-energy signal
 A signal g t  is said to be power signal if
0  Pg  
i.e. a power signal is a finite-power signal
Facts :
 A signal cannot be energy and power at the same time
since E g    Pg  0
 A signal can be neither energy nor power signal
Example: any signal with infinite power, e.g. f t   e t
 Almost all periodic signals are power signals;
however, not all power signals are periodic

Signals and Signal Space: 15

 Classification of Signals
Deterministic and Random Signals
• A signal whose physical description is known completely,
either in a mathematical form or a graphical form, is a
deterministic signal
• A random signal is only known in terms of probabilistic
description, e.g. mean, mean square value, probability
distribution, etc.
• Most of the noise signals encountered in practice are random
signals
• All “useful” message signals are random.

Signals and Signal Space: 16

 Some Useful Signal Operations
• Time Shifting
g t 

t
g t T 

delay

t
T
g t  T 

advance

t
T

Signals and Signal Space: 17

 Some Useful Signal Operations
• Time Scaling
g t  g t  g t 

T1 T2
t T1 T2
t T1 T2
t
g 2t  g at  g at 

a 1 0 a 1

T1 / 2 T2 / 2
t T1 / a T2 / a
t T1 / a T2 / a
t

g t / 2

2T1 2T2
t

Signals and Signal Space: 18

 Some Useful Signal Operations
Example :
For the shown g t  and z t , sketch (a) g 3t  (b) z t / 2
g t  z t 
1

0.5
6
15 24
t 3 1 t
12

1

g 3t  z t / 2
1

0.5
t t

1

Signals and Signal Space: 19

 Some Useful Signal Operations
• Time Inversion or Time Reversal
g t  g t 

2 2

2 2
5
t 5
t
1 1

g t  This is time

inversion or time g t  This is not
reversal

1
2
5
2
t
2
5 t 5
1 2

Signals and Signal Space: 20

 Some Useful Signal Operations
Example :
For the shown signal g t , sketch g t , g t  2, g 2  t 
g t  g t 

e t /2

5 1 t t

g t  2 g 2  t 

t t

Signals and Signal Space: 21

 Unit Impulse (Dirac Delta) Function
The Unit Impulse Function  t  or the Dirac Delta Function is defined as
0, t  0
 t   

 , t  0


  t dt  1

i.e. it is zero everywhere except at t  0 and its area is 1.

Area or
Magintude

1 1  t 

0
height  
area  1 always
t t
  0

2 2

Signals and Signal Space: 22

 Properties of the  Function
Properties of the  Function :
 Multiplication by a Function
 t   t    0  t  if  t  is defined at t  0
 t   t  T    T   t  T  if  t  is defined at t  T
 Sampling or Sifting Property


  t   t dt   0 if  t  is defined at t  0




  t   t  T dt   T  if  t  is defined at t  T

 Integration
b

  t dt  1 if 0  a,b 
a
b

  t T dt  1 if T  a,b 
a
 Symmetry Property (even function)
 t    t 
 Scaling Property
1
 at    t , a  0
a

Signals and Signal Space: 23

 Unit Step Function
The Unit Step Function is defined as u t 
1, t  0
u t    1
0, t  0

Properties : 0
t
g t , t  0 u t  T 
 g t  u t   
0, t 0
 1
i.e. multiplying by u t  eliminates the
negative-time side of g t  0
t
T
t 0,
 t 0 u t  T 
     d   
 1, t0
 1
 u t 
t
du t  T 0
 From this result it follows that   t 
dt
Signals and Signal Space: 24
 Other Common Functions
Signum or Sign Function :
sgn t 

1, t  0

 1
sgn t   
0, t0
 0 t

1, t  0

 1

Remark:
In MATLAB, the “sgn” function is called “sign”

Signals and Signal Space: 25

 Other Common Functions
Rectangular Pulse :

1, t 1/ 2

rect t    t   

0, otherwise

center of pulse
t  a 
  
rect t    t 
area of pulse =
 b  width of pulse

1 1

1 0 1
t  21 b a ab
t
  a
2 2 2 2

Signals and Signal Space: 26

 Other Common Functions
Triangular Pulse :

1 t , t  1

tri t    t   

0, otherwise

center of pulse
t  a 
  
tri t    t   b 
area of pulse =
½ width of pulse

1 1

1 0 1 t  21 a b a a b t

Signals and Signal Space: 27

 Other Common Functions
Sa t 
sampling function : main

sin t 
lobe

Sa t  
t t
0  2

sinc function : sinc t 

sin t 
sinc t    Sa t 
t
0 1 2 t
Warning :
Lathi uses "sinc" for "sa". The definition that we have used is the most common in the
literature. Also, MATLAB uses the same definition that we use for the "sinc" function.

Signals and Signal Space: 28

Signals and Signal Space: 29
Signals and Signal Space: 30
Signals and Signal Space: 31
Signals and Signal Space: 32
Signals and Signal Space: 33
Signals and Signal Space: 34
Signals and Signal Space: 35
Signals and Signal Space: 36
Signals and Signal Space: 37
Signals and Signal Space: 38
Signals and Signal Space: 39
Signals and Signal Space: 40
Signals and Signal Space: 41
Signals and Signal Space: 42
Signals and Signal Space: 43
Signals and Signal Space: 44
Signals and Signal Space: 45
Signals and Signal Space: 46
Signals and Signal Space: 47
Signals and Signal Space: 48
Signals and Signal Space: 49
Signals and Signal Space: 50
Signals and Signal Space: 51
Signals and Signal Space: 52
Signals and Signal Space: 53
Signals and Signal Space: 54
 Exponential Fourier Series
MATLAB: exfs1.m

N t  
N 
2 1  e  /2 e
  1  j 4n 
j 2nt

n N

Signals and Signal Space: 55

 Exponential Fourier Series
g t   T t 
0

t
Example : 3T0 2T0 T0 0 T0 2T0 3T0

Find the all forms of Fourier series for the shown impulse train function

T t     t  kT  0
0
k 
Solution :
This is a periodic function with period T0 .
1 T0 /2 1 T0 /2 1
Gn 
T0 T0 /2 T0
 
t e
 jn 0t
dt 
T0 T0 /2
 
t e
 jn 0t
dt 
T0
  
1
 T t     t  kT0    
jn 0t j 2n t /T0
Gne  e
0
k  n  T0 n 
 
1
   t  kT0   e (a very useful identity)
j 2n t /T0

k  T0 n 

Signals and Signal Space: 56

 Fourier Series
MATLAB: exfs2.m
N=1 N=5
3 15

2 10

1 5

0 0

-1 -5
-5 0 5 -5 0 5

N=10 N=100
40 250

30 200

150
20
100
10
50
0 0

-10 -50
-5 0 5 -5 0 5

Signals and Signal Space: 57

 Fourier Spectra
 The Fourier spectrum of a periodic signal g t  is a plot of the Fourier
series coefficinet Gn as a function of   n 0 .
 Since Gn is complex in general, we may plot
 Gn  and  Gn  vs. 
or
Gn and Gn vs. 
 A plot of Gn vs.  or n is called the "magnitude spectrum"
 A plot of Gn vs.  or n is called the "phase spectrum"
 For a real-valued signal g t ,
Gn  Gn*  complex spectrum is conjugate symmetric in 
Gn  Gn  magnitude spectrum is an even function of 
Gn  Gn  phase spectrum is an odd function of 
 The magnitude spectrum is called the "line spectrum"

Signals and Signal Space: 58

 Fourier Spectra
Magnitude Spectrum
0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

j Gn j
0.3

Gn 

2 1  e  /2  0.2

0.1
 1  j 4n  0

 
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
 /2
2 1 e ! = n! 0

Gn 
 1  16n 2 Phase Spectrum

Gn   tan1 4n 

2

1
Gn

0
6

-1

-2
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
! = n! 0
MATLAB: exfs1b.m

Signals and Signal Space: 59

 Parseval’s Theorem
 A periodic signal g t  is a power signal, and every term in
its Fourier series is also a power signal
 The power Pg of g t  is equal to the power of its Fourier series,
which is equal to the sum of the powers of its Fourier components
 2
Pg  
n 
Gn
 This is "Parseval's Theorem" for periodic signals.
 If g t  is a real-valued, then
 2 2  2
Pg  
n 
Gn  G 0  2  Gn
n 1

Signals and Signal Space: 60

 Properties of the Fourier Series
 x t  is a periodic signal with period T0 and Complex Fourier series coefficients X n
 y t  is a periodic signal with period T0 and Complex Fourier series coefficients Yn
 0  2 / T0
Periodic Complex Fourier
Property
Signal Series Coefficients
x t  Xn
y t  Yn
Linearity a1x t   a2y t  a1X n  a2Yn
Time Delay x t  t0 
 jn 0t0  jn 2 t0 /T0
e Xn  e Xn
Frequency Shift x t   e x t 
jM 0t j 2 Mt /T0
e X n M
Complex Conjugate x  t  X  n
Time Reversal x t  X n
dx t  2n 
Time Differentiation jn 0X n  j Xn
dt T0

Signals and Signal Space: 61