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METALLIC BONDING
Metallic Bonding, Introduction

The bonding in metals is explained best by the molecular
orbital theory, which we have already discussed in the
context of covalent bonding. The arrangement of atoms in a
metal crystal can be interpreted in terms of the packing of
hard spheres. These packing arrangements are common to
both metals and ionic compounds. Thus, a study of metallic
bonding provides a link between covalent and ionic
bonding.
Metallic Bonding
• It is the free movement of electrons throughout the metal
structure that can be used to explain the high electrical
and thermal conductivity of metals together with their high
reflectivity.
• The lack of directional bonding can be used to account for
the high malleability and ductility of most metals since
metal atoms can readily slide over one another to form
new metallic bonds.
• Whereas simple covalent molecules generally have low
melting points and ionic compounds have high melting
points, metals have melting points ranging from -39°C for
mercury to 3410°C for tungsten.
Bonding Models
• Any theory of metallic bonding must account for the key
properties of metals, the most important feature of which is the
high electrical conductivity.
• The simplest metallic bonding model is the electron-sea (or
electron-gas) model. In this model, the valence electrons are
free to move through the bulk metal structure (hence the term
electron sea) and even leave the metal, thereby producing
positive ions.
• any model should account for the high thermal conductivity and
the high reflectivity (metallic luster) of metals
• Valence electrons are free to move through the bulk metal
structure (hence the term electron sea) and even leave the
metal, thereby producing positive ions.
Molecuar Orbital
Molecular orbital theory provides a more comprehensive model of
metallic bonding.
This extension of molecular orbital theory is sometimes called band
theory, which we will illustrate by looking at the orbitals of lithium.
Structure of Metals
• In a metal crystal, the atoms are arranged in a repeating
array that is called a crystal lattice.
• The packing of metal atoms is really a problem in
geometry
Simple Cubic
• Each atom is touched by four other atoms in its own plane plus one
atom above and one below, a total of six neighboring atoms
• As a result, it is said that each atom has a coordination number of six.
• The simple cubic arrangement is not very compact and is known only
for polonium in metal structures
body-centered cubic (bcc)
• An alternative cubic packing arrangement is to place the second layer
of atoms over the holes in the first layer. The third layer then fits over
the holes in the second layer—which happens to be exactly over the
first layer.
• Each atom is touched by four atoms above and four atoms below
• Thus, body centered cubic results in a coordination number of eight.
Hexagonal arrangement
Properties of the different packing types
common packing arrangements
Unit Cells
• The simplest arrangement of spheres, which, when
repeated, will reproduce the whole crystal structure, is
called a unit cell
Alloys
• A combination of two or more solid metals is called an alloy.
The atoms in alloys are held together by metallic bonds just like
the component metallic elements.
• In the former, the molten metals blend to form a homogeneous
mixture. To form a solid solution, the atoms of the two metals
have to be about the same size, and the two metallic crystals
must have the same structure. In addition, the metals must
have similar chemical properties.
Nanometal Particles
• Up to now we have been discussing the properties of bulk metals. If
the metal atoms are in very small clusters, then their properties, such
as color and melting point, can be significantly different from those of
a large crystal.
• The dependence of melting point on
particle size is the phenomenon that
we will discuss here. For bulk metals,
the atoms are bonded to their nearest
neighbors through the delocalized
orbitals. In the case of nanometals,
the particles are so small—always of
the order of tens of nanometers—a
high proportion of the atoms are on
the particle surface and therefore are
only bonded to the atoms beside or
beneath them.
Magnetic Properties of Metals
• Diamagnetism and paramagnetism occur within individual
atoms. Here we introduce two types of bulk magnetic
behavior: ferromagnetism and antiferromagnetism.
Ferromagnetism
• Ferromagnetism is found in metals that have unpaired
electrons in their d or f orbitals. Electrons in these orbitals
must weakly interact with those in neighboring atoms for
the effect to occur.
• When a ferromagnetic material is heated, the atomic
vibrations cause a breakdown of the magnetic domains
until, at the Curie point (Figure 4.19), the material reverts
to the weaker paramagnetic behavior. Only four metals
exhibit ferromagnetism and have a Curie transition above
0°C: iron, cobalt, nickel, and gadolinium.
Antiferromagnetism
• Antiferromagnetism is similar to ferromagnetism except
that the weak interactions between neighboring atoms
result in an antiparallel alignment (Figure 4.18b). Thus,
the attraction into a magnetic field is weaker than the
paramagnetic effect would predict but only up to the Néel
temperature (Figure 4.19), at which the antiferromagnetic
material reverts to paramagnetic behavior.
Antiferromagnetism is the rarer of the two bulk behaviors.
It is found for chromium and in ironmanganese alloys.
Ferrimagnetism
• In a special case of antiferromagnetism, the numbers of
opposing spins do not balance, resulting in a net
magnetization in one direction (Figure 4.18c). This is
called ferrimagnetism. The most common ferrimagnetic
material is Fe3O4, the mixed-oxidation-state iron(II)–
iron(III) oxide. This oxide is important as the magnetic
component of ferrofluids—magnetic liquids. These liquids
are attracted to magnetic fields; actually, the colloidal solid
iron oxide particles within the bulk liquid are attracted into
the magnetic fi eld

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METALLIC BONDING

Metallic Bonding, Introduction

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