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Unit Conversion Constants

Quantity S.I. to English English to S.I.

Length 1 m = 3.2808 ft 1 ft = 0.3048 m

Area 1 m2 = 10.7639 ft2 1 ft2 = 0.0929 m2

Volume 1 m3 = 35.3134 ft3 1 ft3 = 0.02832 m3

Mass 1 kg = 2.20462 lb 1 lb = 0.4536 kg

Density 1 kg/m3 = 0.06243 lb/ft3 1 lb/ft3 = 16.018 kg/m3

Force 1 N = 0.2248 lbf 1 lbf = 4.4482 N

Pressure 1 N/m2 = 1.4504 × 10–4 lbf /in2 1 lbf /in2 = 6894.8 N/m2

Pressure 1 bar = 14.504 lbf /in2 1 lbf /in2 = 0.06895 bar

Energy 1 kJ = 0.94783 Btu 1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ

(heat, work) 1 kW hr = 1.341 hp hr 1 hp hr = 0.7457 kW hr

Power 1 W = 1.341 × 10–3 hp 1 hp = 745.7 W

Heat flow 1 W = 3.4121 Btu/hr 1 Btu/hr = 0.29307 W

Specific heat 1 kJ/kg°C = 0.23884 Btu/lb°F 1 Btu/lb°F = 4.1869 kJ/kg°C

Surface tension 1 N/m = 0.068522 lbf /ft 1 lbf /ft = 14.5939 N/m

Thermal conductivity 1 W/m°C = 0.5778 Btu/hr ft°F 1 Btu/hrft°F = 1.7307 W/m°C

Convection coefficient 1 W/m2°C = 0.1761 Btu/hrft2°F 1 Btu/hr ft2°F = 5.6783 W/m2°C

Dynamic viscosity 1 kg/ms = 0.672 lb/fts 1 lb/fts = 1.4881 kg/ms

= 2419.2 lb/ft hr or Ns/m2

Kinematic viscosity 1 m2/s = 10.7639 ft2/s 1 ft2/s = 0.092903 m2/s

Universal gas const. 8314.41 J/kg mol K

= 1545 ft lbf /mol R
= 1.986 B tu/lb mol R

Stefan Boltzmann const. 5.67 W/m2K4 = 0.174 Btu/hr ft2 R4

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UNIT CONVERSION CONSTANTS xvi

Quantity S.I. to Metric Metric to S.I.

Force 1 N = 0.1019 kgf 1 kgf = 9.81 N

Pressure 1 N/m2 = 10.19 × 10–6 kgf /cm2 1 kgr /cm2 = 98135 N/m2

Pressure 1 bar = 1.0194 kgf /cm2 1 kgf /cm2 = 0.9814 bar

Energy 1 kJ = 0.2389 kcal 1 kcal = 4.186 kJ

(heat, work) 1 Nm (= 1 J) = 0.1019 kgf m 1 kgf m = 9.81 Nm (J)

Energy
(heat, work) 1 kWhr = 1.36 hp hr 1 hp hr = 0.736 kW hr

Power (metric) 1 W = 1.36 × 10–3 hp 1 hp = 736 W

Heat flow 1 W = 0.86 kcal/hr 1 kcal/hr = 1.163 W

Specific heat 1 kJ/kg°C = 0.2389 kcal/kg°C 1 kcal/kg°C = 4.186 kJ/kg°C

Surface tension 1 N/m = 0.1019 kgf /m 1 kgf/m = 9.81 N/m

Thermal conductivity 1 W/m°C = 0.86 kcal/hrm°C 1 kcal/hrm°C = 1.163 W/m°C

Convection coefficient 1 W/m2°C = 0.86 kcal/hrm2°C 1 kcal/hrm2°C = 1.163 W/m2°C

Dynamic viscosity 1 kg/ms (Ns/m2) = 0.1 Poise 1 poise = 10 kg/ms (Ns/m2)

Kinematic viscosity 1 m2/s = 3600 m2/hr 1 m2/hr = 2.778 × 10–4 m2/s

1 Stoke = cm2/s = 0.36 m2/hr = 10–4 m2/s

Universal gas const. 8314.41 J/kg mol K = 847.54 m kgf/kg mol K

= 1.986 kcal/kg mol K

Gas constant in air (SI) = 287 J/kg K

Stefan Boltzmann const. 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2 K4 = 4.876 × 10–8 kcal/hr m2 K4

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Chapter 1
1
AN OVERVIEW OF HEAT TRANSFER

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The present standard of living is made possible by the energy available in the form of heat
from various sources like fuels. The process by which this energy is converted for everyday use
is studied under thermodynamics, leaving out the rate at which the energy is transferred. In
all applications, the rate at which energy is transferred as heat, plays an important role. The
design of all equipments involving heat transfer require the estimate of the rate of heat transfer.
There is no need to list the various equipments where heat transfer rate influences their
operation.
The driving potential or the force which causes the transfer of energy as heat is the
difference in temperature between systems. Other such transport processes are the transfer of
momentum, mass and electrical energy. In addition to the temperature difference, physical
parameters like geometry, material properties like conductivity, flow parameters like flow
velocity also influence the rate of heat transfer.
The aim of this text is to introduce the various rate equations and methods of
determination of the rate of heat transfer across system boundaries under different situations.

1.1 HEAT TRANSFER

The study of heat transfer is directed to (i) the estimation of rate of flow of energy as heat
through the boundary of a system both under steady and transient conditions, and (ii) the
determination of temperature field under steady and transient conditions, which also will
provide the information about the gradient and time rate of change of temperature at various
locations and time. i.e. T (x, y, z, τ) and dT/dx, dT/dy, dT/dz, dT/dτ etc. These two are interrelated,
one being dependent on the other. However explicit solutions may be generally required for
one or the other.
The basic laws governing heat transfer and their application are as below:
1. First law of thermodynamics postulating the energy conservation principle: This
law provides the relation between the heat flow, energy stored and energy generated in a
given system. The relationship for a closed system is: The net heat flow across the system
bondary + heat generated inside the system = change in the internal energy, of the
system. This will also apply for an open system with slight modifications.
The change in internal energy in a given volume is equal to the product of volume
density and specific heat ρcV and dT where the group ρcV is called the heat capacity of the
system. The basic analysis in heat transfer always has to start with one of these relations.

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2 FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

2. The second law of thermodynamics establishing the direction of energy transport

as heat. The law postulates that the flow of energy as heat through a system boundary will
always be in the direction of lower temperature or along the negative temperature gradient.
3. Newtons laws of motion used in the determination of fluid flow parameters.
4. Law of conservation of mass, used in the determination of flow parameters.
5. The rate equations as applicable to the particular mode of heat transfer.

1.2 MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER

1.2.1. Conduction: This is the mode of energy transfer as heat due to temperature
difference within a body or between bodies in thermal contact without the
involvement of mass flow and mixing. This is the mode of heat transfer through solid
barriers and is encountered extensively in heat transfer equipment design as well as in heating
and cooling of various materials as in the case of heat treatment. The rate equation in this
mode is based on Fourier’s law of heat conduction which states that the heat flow by
conduction in any direction is proportional to the temperature gradient and area
perpendicular to the flow direction and is in the direction of the negative gradient.
The proportionality constant obtained in the relation is known as thermal conductivity, k, of
the material. The mathematical formulation is given in equation 1.1.
Heat flow, Q = – kA dT/dx ...(1.1)
The units used in the text for various parameters are:
Q – W, (Watt), A – m2, dT – °C or K (as this is only temperature interval, °C and K can
be used without any difficulty). x – m, k – W/mK.
For simple shapes and one directional steady conditions with constant value of thermal
conductivity this law yields rate equations as below:
1. Conduction, Plane Wall (Fig. 1.1), the integration of the equation 1.1 for a plane
wall of thickness, L between the two surfaces at T1 and T2 under steady condition leads to
equation 1.2. The equation can be considered as the mathematical model for this problem.
T1 − T2
Q= ...(1.2)
( L / kA )
Example 1.1: Determine the heat flow across a plane wall of 10 cm thickness with a constant
thermal conductivity of 8.5 W/mK when the surface temperatures are steady at 100°C and
30°C. The wall area is 3m2. Also find the temperature gradient in the flow direction.
Solution: Refer to Fig. 1.1 and equation 1.2:
k
T1 = 100°C, T2 = 30°C, L = 10 cm = 0.1 m,
T1
k = 8.5 W/mK, A = 3 m2.
Therefore, heat flow, Q = (100 – 30) / (0.1/(8.5 × 3))
= 17850 W or 17.85 kW. Q

Referring to equation 1.1 T2

Q = – kA dT/dx
x1
17850 W = – 8.5 × 3 dT/dx. L
Therefore dT/dx = – 17850/(8.5 × 3) x2

= – 700°C/m Fig. 1.1. Physical model for

example 1.1

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AN OVERVIEW OF HEAT TRANSFER 3

This is also equal to – (100 – 30)/0.1 = – 700°C/m, as the gradient is constant all through
the thickness.

Chapter 1
T1 Q T2 I V2
V1

L/kA R

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.2. Electrical analogy (a) conduction circuit (b) Electrical circuit.
The denominator in equation 1.2, namely L/kA can be considered as thermal resistance
for conduction. An electrical analogy is useful as a concept in solving conduction problems
and in general heat transfer problems.
1.2.2. Thermal Conductivity: It is the constant of proportionality in Fourier’s equation and
plays an important role in heat transfer. The unit in SI system for conductivity is W/mK. It is
a material property. Its value is higher for good electrical conductors and single crystals like
diamond. Next in order or alloys of metals and non metals. Liquids have conductivity less than
these materials. Gases have the least value for thermal conductivity.
In solids heat is conducted in two modes. 1. The flow of thermally activated electrons
and 2. Lattice waves generated by thermally induced atomic activity. In conductors the
predominant mode is by electron flow. In alloys it is equal between the two modes. In insulators,
the lattice wave mode is the main one. In liquids , conduction is by atomic or molecular diffusion.
In gases conduction is by diffusion of molecules from higher energy level to the lower level.
Thermal conductivity is formed to vary with temperature. In good conductors, thermal
conductivity decreases with temperature due to impedance to electron flow of higher
electron densities. In insulators, as temperature increases, thermal atomic activity also
increases and hence thermal conductivity increases with temperature. In the case of
gases, thermal conductivity increases with temperature due to increased random activity
of atoms and molecules. Thermal conductivity of some materials is given in table 1.1.
Table 1.1. Thermal conductivity of some materials at 293 K

Material Thermal conductivity, W/mK

Copper 386.0
Aluminium 204.2
Carbon Steel 1% C 43.3
Chrome Steel 20% Cr 22.5
Chrome Nickel Steel 12.8
Concrete 1.13
Glass 0.67
Water 0.60
Asbestos 0.11
Air 0.026

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