STAG 3133

Soil Mechanics
Soil consistency
Prepared by: Dr Nor Shahidah Mohd Nazer
Introduction
• Fine-grained soils are comprised of varying proportions of clay, silt, sand and organic
matter, together with a typically minor quantity of coarser material.
• Early soil taxonomy was developed largely for agricultural purposes, with soil groups
defined by the relative abundance of their constituent particles (Casagrande, 1948).
• Attempts were made to adopt these systems for geotechnical purposes, however it was
evident by the mid-20th Century that the engineering behaviour of fine-grained soils was
poorly correlated with grain size.
• Arthur Casagrande argued that plasticity was the most important characteristic of fine-
grained soils and that this, rather than grain size, should be the basis of a new soil
classification system to be used for engineering purposes (Casagrande, 1948).
• Initially developed as part of the Allied effort during WWII, Casagrande’s Airfield
Classification System (ACS) would eventually become the Unified Soil Classification
System (USCS), the parent of many modern engineering-oriented soil classification
systems including NZGS (2005), AS 1726 and BS 5930.
 Soil consistency
• Soil consistency means the resistance of a soil at various moisture
contents to mechanical stresses or manipulations
• The consistency of soils is generally described at three soil moisture levels:
wet, moist and dry
• Consistency of a soil sample changes with the amount of water present.
Such change in soil consistency may be accurately measured in the
laboratory following standard procedures which determine the Atterberg
Limits
• This limit corresponds to the moisture content at which a soil sample
changes from one consistency to another
• Two of the Atterberg Limits are important: liquid limit and plastic limit
 Atterberg limits
• Basic measure of the nature of a fine-grained soil.
• Depending on the water content in the soil, it may appear in four
states: solid, semi-solid, plastic and liquid.
• In each state, consistency and behavior of the soil is different and so
are its engineering properties. Thus, the boundary between each
state can be defined based on a change in the soil's behavior.
 Shrinkage limit
• Shrinkage limit, SL, is the water
content where further loss of
moisture will not result in any
more volume reduction; water
content below which the soil
volume remains constant or
• The water content of the soil
when the water is just
sufficient to fill all the pores of
the soil and the soil is just
saturated
𝑀𝑖 −𝑀𝑑 − 𝑉𝑖 −𝑉𝑑 𝜌𝑤
• 𝑆𝐿 = 𝑥100
𝑀𝑠
Deriving soil Specific Gravity from soil
Shrinkage Limit
• Using some of the measurements made during the determination of the shrinkage limit in the
laboratory, one can calculate the value of specific gravity of soil solids easily.
• Following are the steps involved.
• The soil is mixed with distilled water such that the water content of the soil paste is slightly above the liquid limit
of the soil, which ensures the complete filling of the soil voids with water.
• After the moisture equilibration of the soil paste is achieved, the soil paste is worked into the shrinkage dish
without entrapping the air bubbles in the soil paste in the dish and the mass of the wet soil paste in the shrinkage
dish (m1) is recorded. The entrapped air bubbles, if any, can be removed by keeping the shrinkage dish with wet soil
paste in a vacuum desiccator, with the vacuum pressure applied.
• The volume of the wet soil mass (V) in the shrinkage dish is taken as the volume of the shrinkage dish itself.
Conventionally, the volume of the shrinkage dish is measured by the mercury displacement method. However, it can
also be measured by directly measuring the internal dimensions of the shrinkage dish with a slide calipers. Prakash
et al. (2009) have shown that the volume of the shrinkage dish measured by the slide calipers is the same as that
obtained from mercury displacement method.
• After allowing the wet soil mass in the shrinkage dish to air dry to prevent the cracking of the soil pat, the air dried
soil pat is oven dried for 24 h at 105–110 C to constant mass. The oven dried soil pat is cooled in a desiccator and
the mass of the dry soil pat (md) is recorded.
• The value of specific gravity of soil solids is then calculated using below equation
𝑚𝑑
• 𝐺𝑠 =
𝑉𝜌 − 𝑚 −𝑚
𝑊 1 𝑑

where 𝜌w = density of water (which can be taken 1 g/ cm3 ); m1 = mass of the wet soil paste in the
shrinkage dish, in g; md = mass of the dry soil pat in g; V = volume of the wet soil paste in the shrinkage
dish, in cm3 .
It may be noted that for determining the specific gravity, volume of the dry soil pat is not required.
Shrinkage ratio, R
• Another soil parameter that is often determined in conjunction with
the SL is the shrinkage ratio, which is an indicator of how much
volume change is possible as changes in water content above the SL
occur.
• The shrinkage ratio (SR) is defined as the ratio of a given volume
change, expressed as a percentage of the dry volume, to the
corresponding change in water content above the SL, expressed as a
percentage of the mass of oven-dried soil:
∆𝑉/𝑉𝑜
• 𝑆𝑅 = where ∆𝑉 is soil volume change cm3, 𝑉𝑜 is volume of
∆𝑚𝑤 /𝑚𝑜
oven-dried soil cm3, ∆𝑚𝑤 is change in water mass g, 𝑚o is mass of
oven-dried soil g
 Plastic limit
• Plastic limit, PL, is the percentage moisture
content at which a soil changes with decreasing
wetness from the plastic to the semi- solid
consistency or with increasing wetness from
the semi-solid to the plastic consistency.
• PL= Mass of water/Mass of oven-dried soil x
100
• Plastic limit is the lower limit of the plastic
state. A small increase in moisture above the
plastic limit destroys cohesion of the soil.
• It is the water content at which soil starts to
transform from plastic to rigid condition, from
kneadable to brittle
• It is also the water content at which the soil just
begins to crumble when rolled to 3mm thread
Plastic limit test
• To obtain the plastic limit, roll
‘worms’ of soil until they just start to
crumble at a diameter of 0.125 in
/3.2mm
• Define the water content at which
the soil crumbles
 Excercise
During a plastic limit test, the following data were obtained :
• Wet weight + container = 22.12 g
• Dry weight + container = 20.42 g
• Weight of container = 1.50 g
What is the PL of the soil?
 Liquid limit
• Liquid limit, LL: is defined as the percentage
moisture content at which a soil changes with
decreasing wetness from liquid to plastic
consistency or with increasing wetness from
plastic to liquid consistency.
• It is the water content at which a soil changes
from plastic to liquid behavior. The
importance of this liquid limit test is to
classify soils.
• LL is the water content at which a groove cut
into a soil pad in liquid limit device closes
over 0.5” width in exactly 25 taps
• The ratio of liquid limit to shrinkage limit
(LL/SL) if large, indicating the soil may
undergo undesirable volume change due to
change in moisture.
Liquid limit test: Cassagrande
• 2 types of test:
a. Cassagrande liquid limit device
• Liquid limit is the water content at which the
soil close the groove in just 25 blows in
Casagrande’s liquid limit device.
• As it is difficult to get exactly 25 blows in a test,
3 to 4 tests are conducted and the number of
blows (N) required in each test is determined.
• A semi-log plot is then drawn between log N
and the water content (w). The liquid limit is the
water content corresponding to N=25, as
obtained from the plot.
Liquid Limit test: Drop-cone
penetrometer
• Drop-cone penetrometer/Fall-cone test
• In the test, a soil sample is placed in a 55 mm diameter, 40
mm deep metal cup.
• A stainless steel cone weighing 80 g (including the shaft) and
having a 30° angle is positioned so that its tip just touches
the sample.
• The cone is released for 5 seconds so that it may penetrate
the soil.
• The liquid limit is defined as the water content of the soil
which allows the cone to penetrate exactly 20 mm during
that period of time.
• Because it is difficult to obtain a test with exactly 20 mm
penetration, the procedure is performed multiple times with
a range of water contents and the results are interpolated
• More accurate for low plasticity soils
Plasticity index, PI
• At moisture contents between the two limits the soil is in a plastic
state,so that the arithmetical difference between the two values,
known as the plasticity index.
• It is a measure of the range of moisture content over which the soil
behaves plastically.
• 𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿
Cassagrande plasticity chart
• Uses plasticity index and liquid limit as
parameters as indexes to the properties of
fine-grained soils
• Since clay is the material which causes a soil
to be plastic, it would be expected that a fine
soil mixture that is predominantly clay would
have a larger plasticity index than a mixture
which is predominantly silt or fine sand.
• Empirical boundaries - Above A-line: Clays,
Below A-line: Silts and organic silts
• Left of B-line: low plasticity, Right: High
Plasticity
• U-line: the upper limit of the relationship
between PI and LL for any soil found so far.
Anything plotted above U-line should be
considered as in error and should be
rechecked.
A line and U line equation
Activity
𝑃𝐼
• 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
%𝑊𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 2𝜇𝑚
• Classification according to Skempton, 1953:
<0.75 (Inactive), 0.75-1.25 (normal), >1.25 (active)
• Higher activity means higher more clay like
behavior, higher swelling, higher shrinkage,
higher compressibility
• Typical values of activities for various clay
minerals:
• Kaolinite – 0.33-0.46
• Illite – 0.9
• Montmorillonite (Ca) – 1.5
• Montmorillonite (Na) – 7.2
 Excercise
Clay A Clay B
LL 60 50
PL 25 30
% finer than 2𝜇𝑚 25 40

Two clays, A and B, have the following characteristics. Calculate their activity values and compare their
engineering behavior.
Significance of Atterberg limits
1. Indicator of soil sensitivity
• Sensitive soil : the disturbed (or remolded) shear strength is more than 8x less than
the undisturbed shear strength
• We can use the Atterberg limits to compute the liquidity index, which can be a good
indicator of sensitivity
𝑊𝑛 − 𝑃𝐿
𝐿𝐼 =
𝑃𝐼
• If a fine-grained soils has LI>1, it can be a good indicator that the soil is sensitive
Significance of Atterberg limits
2. Indicator of clay type
• We can use the Atterberg limits along
with the hydrometer test to compute the
Activity, which can be a good indicator of
the clay mineral type
• How the clay reacts with presence of
water
Significance of Atterberg limits
3. Indicator of swelling potential

Swelling potential PI
Low 0-15
Medium 10-35
High 20-35
Very High >35
Significance of Atterberg limits
4. Indicator of stress history
• If LI ≥ 1, soil is probably normally consolidated (soil is currently
experiencing its maximum load)
• If LI < 1, soil is probably over consolidated (soil experienced its
greatest load in the past)
Significance of Atterberg limits
5. Classification of soil type
• The USCS
• British Standard
Assignment
Estimate PI and the probable mineral of each clay soils. Use table 4.2 to estimate the minerals