Module - 4 6 - Ge Ce 1

CHAPTER IV: ROCKS MECHANICS
The following topic to be discuss in this chapter, to wit:
Definition of Rock Mechanics; Branches of Rock Mechanics;

Significance in studying Rock Mechanics; Theoretical Considerations of
Rock Mechanics; & Rock Mechanics in the Civil Engineering Works/Field;
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Define of Rock Mechanics
2. Identify the Branches of Rock Mechanics
3. Know-how significant in studying Rock Mechanics
4. Determine the theoretical considerations of Rock Mechanics
5. Find out the Rock Mechanics in the field
4.1 Introduction
Rock mechanics is part of the broader scientific field of geomechanics

which refers to the science that studies the mechanical behavior of all earth
materials, including soils. The subject of rock mechanics was formally introduced
during the 1950s and was established later in the 1960s.
The term engineering rock mechanics is used to describe the engineering

application of rock mechanics to civil, mining, petroleum and environmental
engineering circumstances.
The aspects that need to consider when you try to understand what rock
mechanics is and where an engineer has to assess the properties and strengths
of the rock that can be use for foundations for structures. Civil engineers in
particular have to regularly deal with geotechnical matters where natural
conditions remain unknown and inferences have to be made based on
observations and experience, with some assistance from laboratory testing. By
contrast, the applied science of mechanics and structural engineering is based
on deduction that gives definite results.
Rock Mechanics:
 a discipline that uses the principles of mechanics to describe the

behavior of rock of engineering scale. It is that branch of
mechanics concerned with the response of rock to the force fields
of its physical environment.
 It is the theoretical and applied science of the mechanical

behavior of rock.
 Determines how a particular rock reacts when it is put to the use

required by mankind for buildings, roads, bridges, dams, tunnels,
and other civil engineering uses.
1
 Assess the bearing capacity of the rock on the surface and how
the force applied on the rock by the structures being built on it will
affect the rock at various depths.
 Find out the shear strength of the rock, which in turn will allow the
rock to resist the forces applied to it.
 Look into the response of rock when it is subjected to dynamic

loading that may be a result of manmade applications or natural
occurrences like earthquakes.
 Study the effect that defects in the rock from cavities, fissures,
joints and bedding planes can have on structures founded on
them.
 An important field in civil engineering as it applies in the majority

of infrastructure projects including dams, roads, tunnels, bridges,
buildings, and protection of slopes.
There is an important distinction between ‘rock mechanics’ and ‘rock

engineering’. When ‘rock mechanics’ is studied in isolation, there is no specific
engineering objective. The potential collapse of a rock mass is neither good nor
bad: it is just a mechanical fact. However, if the collapsing rock mass is in the
roof of a civil engineering cavern, there is an adverse engineering connotation.
Conversely, if the collapsing rock mass is part of a block caving system in mining
(where the rock mass is intended to fail), there is a beneficial engineering
connotation. In the civil engineering case, the integrity of the cavern is
maintained if the rock mass in the roof does not collapse.
The difference between ‘rock mechanics’ and ‘rock engineering’ is shown

in the figure below. Rock mechanics’ involves characterizing the intact rock
strength and the geometry and mechanical properties of the natural fractures of
the rock mass.
Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/engineering-rock-mechanic
ACTIVITY # 1
ESSAY. Write your answer in the space provided

QUESTION: Why Rock Mechanics is significant in the application of Civil Engineering
works?
2
4.2 Two Branches of Rock Mechanics:
The branch of mechanics concerned with the response of rock to the

force fields of its physical environment. In rock mechanics, the principles of
continuum and fracture mechanics are combined to quantify the response of
a rock subjected to a stress field. Rock mechanics can be divided into two
subcategories: engineering rock mechanics and geological rock mechanics.
The distinction between ‘rock mechanics’ itself (a) and
engineering applications of rock mechanics (b). In (a), F1…Fn are the
boundary forces caused by rock weight and current tectonic activity. In (b)
a tunnel is being constructed in a rock mass.
Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/engineering-rock-
mechanic
The above photograph shows the important two acronyms which

are the CHILE AND DIANE:
CHILE — Continuous, Homogeneous, Isotropic and Linearly Elastic;

DIANE — Discontinuous, Inhomogeneous, Anisotropic and Not-
Elastic.
These refer to two ways of thinking about and modelling the rock
mass.
In the CHILE case, it is assume an ideal type of material which is
not fractured, or if it is fractured the fracturing can be incorporated in the
elastic continuum properties.
In the DIANE case, the nature of the real rock mass is recognized
and we model accordingly, still often making gross approximations.
In Engineering rock mechanics is applied in human activities

including civil engineering, engineering geology, mining, petroleum, and
environmental engineering while geological rock mechanics deals with
the rock’s response caused by natural geological processes such as
faults, folds or fractures.
a) Structural rock mechanics, which is concerned with the stability
of engineering structures in which the material is
predominantly rock.
b) Comminution which is concerned with the reduction of rock to

small fragments by the application of external forces as in
drilling, blasting, cutting and grinding.
3
Both these branches of rock mechanics involve the control of rock
deformation and fracture processes. In the first case, excessive rock
failure (in this context, failure is taken to mean either excessive
deformation or fracture) must be avoided in order to preserve the stability
of the structure and, in the second case, rock fracture must be induced
with the minimum input of external energy.
ACTIVITY # 2
ESSAY. Write your answer in a separate sheet of paper.
QUESTION: Which of the two acronyms CHILE and DIANE be the first to start in
rock mechanics based on the picture? Why?
4.3 Significance in studying Rock Mechanics
Civil engineers usually deal with geotechnical matters where

natural conditions remain unknown and inferences have to be made
based on observations and experience, with some assistance from
laboratory testing. By contrast, the applied science of mechanics and
structural engineering is based on deduction that gives definite results.
These two aspects have to be considered when you try to understand
what rock mechanics is and where an engineer has to assess the
properties and strengths of the rock that he can use for foundations for
structures.
The following are the significance of rock mechanics:
 Determines how a particular rock reacts when it is put to

the use required by mankind for buildings, roads, bridges,
dams, tunnels, and other civil engineering uses.
 Assess the bearing capacity of the rock on the surface and
how the force applied on the rock by the structures being
built on it will affect the rock at various depths.
 Determine the shear strength of the rock, which in turn will
allow the rock to resist the forces applied to it.
 Determine the response of rock when it is subjected to
dynamic loading that may be a result of manmade
applications or natural occurrences like earthquakes.
 Study the effect that defects in the rock from cavities,
fissures, joints and bedding planes can have on structures
founded on them.
4
Rock as a Construction Material
• For laying structural foundations to support structures
• For constructing Underground openings
• For protecting slopes
• For supporting railway tracks – Ballasts
• As base and sub-base for roads and runways
• As aggregate in concrete
• Making facia for buildings.
Applications of Rock Mechanics:
SURFACE STRUCTURES
 Low rise Housing
 High Rise (Tower Blocks)
 High Loads (Dams, Power Plant, Bridges)
TRANSPORTATION ROUTES
 Highways, railways
 Canals
 Pipelines
SHALLOW EXCAVATIONS
 Quarries
 Open pits, strip mines
 Trenches, cuttings
ACTIVITY # 3
QUESTION: Which scope of rock mechanics affects the significance in engineering field?
Why?
4.4 Theoretical Considerations of Rock Mechanics
Rock Fracture - Griffith Theory
Griffith's theory of brittle fracture, modified by McClintock and

Walsh to allow for the predominantly compressive stresses in rock
mechanics, has been found to provide a reliable theoretical basis for the
prediction of rock fracture phenomena. This theory is based upon the
assumption that fracture initiates at inherent cracks and discontinuities
within the material and that propagation of these cracks occurs as a result
of the tensile stress which is induced at the crack tip under load. Brace
has shown that fracture in hard rock usually initiates in grain boundaries
which can be regarded as the inherent discontinuities required by the
Griffith theory.
Griffith's original theory was concerned with brittle fracture under

conditions of applied tensile stress and he based his calculations upon
the assumption that the inherent crack, from which fracture initiates, could
5
be treated as an elliptical opening. When applied to rock mechanics, in
which the applied stresses are predominantly compressive, this
simplifying assumption is no longer valid and the theory has to be
modified to account for the frictional forces which occur when the crack
faces are forced into contact. This modification was carried out by
McClintock and Walsh who made further simplifying assumptions
concerning the mechanism of crack closure. These simplifying
assumptions have recently been theoretically validated by Berg.
Additional Factors Governing Fracture
The Griffith theory was derived on the assumption that the

material contains a random distribution of uniform cracks and that the
inherent physical properties of the material remain constant. It is
interesting to consider to what extent the theoretical concepts of the
Griffith theory can be modified to cover cases in which the above
assumptions do not apply.
Fracture of Anisotropic rock
Fracture is any in geologic formation such as a joint or a

fault that divides the rock into two more pieces. It will sometimes
form deep fissure or crevice in the roc
Anisotropic rock refers to a rock whose engineering

properties vary with direction. An extreme example of a rock in
which inherent cracks are not randomly distributed is slate. If it is
assumed that slate contains two crack systems, one preferentially
oriented system of large bedding plane cracks and one randomly
oriented set of small grain boundary cracks, it becomes possible
to calculate the stress levels at which fracture would initiate under
various conditions.
Influence of environment upon rock strength
It is frequently assumed that the strength of rock is not

significantly influenced by the temperature or humidity of its
surroundings. It has, however, been demonstrated that this
assumption, particularly on the influence of humidity, can be
seriously in error.
The influence of temperature upon the strength of rock is

probably not significant within the normal range of temperatures
encountered by the civil or mining engineer. However, at great
depths where the temperatures approach the melting point of
some of the rock constituents, the reduction in strength may be
significant and could be of importance to those concerned with the
overall behavior of the earth's crust and with the origin of deep-
level earthquakes.
Influence of fluid pressure
In addition to the strength reduction associated with a high

moisture content, a further threat to the stability of a rock structure
occurs when water is present under pressure. This fluid pressure
6
reduces the compressive stress acting across a fissure or fracture
plane and hence the frictional resistance which causes
interlocking of blocks of rocks can be reduced. In an extreme
case, one block can be literally floated off another by the
buoyancy effect of water pressure. The role of fluid pressure in
determining the strength of a rock mass is fairly well understood16
and its influence can be allowed for in strength calculations.
The practical importance of the influence of moisture upon

the strength of rock in structural rock mechanics is the danger of a
normally stable structure becoming unstable in wet conditions. In
commination, the strength reduction obtained under wet
conditions results in more efficient cutting or drilling.
Time-dependent failure of rock
One of the least understood aspects of the mechanical

behavior of rock is the influence of time upon its deformation and
fracture. It is convenient to consider this subject under two
headings:
a. Weathering which is the gradual deterioration of an

exposed rock surface. This deterioration may take place
in the absence of applied stress and is due mainly to
physical and chemical processes which are governed
by the environment to which the rock is exposed;
b. Time-dependent mechanical behavior which involves

the deformation or fracture of rock under conditions of
constant applied stress.
Influence of Specimen Size
It is accepted that the strength of a brittle material is

dependent upon the size of the test specimen and yet very little
reliable quantitative data on this effect is available.
Stability of Rock Structures
In designing a rock structures such as the damp

foundation or underground excavation, the most important
consideration is the stability of the entire structure. Local rock
failure at the points of high stress or in zones of exceptionally low
strength may only be significant if this failure forms part of a
sequence of events, which leads to collapse of the structure.
Two main problem types:
In discussing this question it is necessary to distinguish

between two main types of structural rock mechanics problems:
a. Underground excavations in solid homogeneous rock,

such as the massive quartzite’s which occur in the
deep-level gold mines in South Africa, in which the
stability of the rock surrounding the excavation is
7
primarily dependent upon progressive failure of the rock
material.
b. Rock structures such as dam foundations and surface

excavations in which the material is so faulted and
fissured that the stability of the structure depends upon
the movement of interlocking blocks within the rock
mass rather than upon failure of the rock material.
Progressive failure of the rock surrounding an excavation
When a rock specimen is loaded in a hydraulically

actuated testing machine, the behavior of the specimen at the
point of fracture is obscured by the behavior of the testing
machine. The release of the energy stored in the hydraulic
system usually results in violent disintegration of the rock
specimen with the consequent loss of all post-fracture data. On
the other hand, an elevator of rock which forms part of a rock
mass and which is subjected to an identical state of stress to that
applied by the testing machine will behave in an entirely different
man out, what is the point of failure has been reached. In Rock
Mechanics this case, disintegration of the rock element may be
arrested by the transfer of load onto an adjacent development,
which previously carried a lower load. In this way, local fracture
induces a redistribution of stress, which may or may not result in
further fracture.
Stability of a rock mass
There’s no general rules analyzing the stability of a rock

mass. In any case, rock structures in which the rock is fissured
and faulted can take such a wide variety of forms that the only
logical approaches to treat each individual case on its merits.
Control of Fracture in a Rock Structure
Rock has several physical characteristics which distinguishes it from

other materials, and, of these, the most important structural characteristics are:
a) The large difference between the tensile and compressive strengths.

b) The rapid increase in strength with increasing natural or confining
pressure.
c) The tendency for the structural properties of some rocks to deteriorate
with time due to weathering.
Bearing these characteristics in mind, the engineer has the following
techniques to add his disposal for making optimum use of its materials:
i) The design of the structure to avoid, if possible concentrations of

tensile stress.
ii) The use of support means methods which increase the strength of the
structure by increasing lateral pressure or restraint in zones of high
compressive stress.
iii) The protection of surfaces which are liable to weather.
8
Design of rock structures for optimal stress distribution
In mining, the geometry of the orebody being mined dictates the layout of
the major excavations within the mine. The only practical control which the
engineer can exercise in this case is in support methods and in the sequence of
mining2. However, in the case of secondary excavations such service haulages,
airways, pumping chambers, a mine designer usually has a reasonable amount
of freedom, which he can use to position these excavations were the most
favourable stress distribution.
The calculation of the stress distribution around excavations is a complex

process which would certainly not benefit the average engineer to attempt to
learn. Fortunately, there are several relatively simple model techniques which
can be used, either by the engineer himself or by a university or research
organisation, which could undertake this work on a contract basis, to give
solutions which are sufficiently accurate and practical design purposes.
In the case of civil engineering structures such as damp foundations for

open-cast excavations, the engineering is usually in a position to design the
structure of optimum stress conditions (in relation to the structural material at his
disposal).
Use of support in rock structures
In this context, support denotes the use of materials other than rock to
improve the local properties of the rock and thereby improve the stability of the
structure as a whole. Hence, for example lining a shaft with concrete is frequently
used to inhibit local deterioration and failure of the rock surface.
Generally structural support it’s used to:
a) Support broken rock and to prevent it from breaking and
b) Improve the strength of rock mass by increasing lateral stress in

selected areas.
In the first case, the use of timber, steel or concrete structures or

of rock bolts is familiar to any engineer who has been concerned with
mining or tunnelling. The main purpose of this support is to minimise the
danger of falling rock and to prevent a loose pieces of rock from choking
a passage-way. The use of this type of support depends so much upon
local conditions that it would be meaningless to attempt to formulate
general rules. On the other hand, the use of support to increase the
strength of rock is a less well-known concept and deserves close
examination.
One of the principal features which distinguishes rock from other

structural materials, is the stress required to cause failure. In the case of
quartzite, the stress fracture increases by six units per every unit
increased in confining pressure. Hence, for quartzite with an unconfined
compressive strength of 30,000 psi., the stress required to fracture of
specimen, subjected to a confining pressure of 1000 psi., would be
36,000 psi.
9
If therefore, it is required to increase the strength of rock in a
particular area, this can best be achieved by artificially increasing the
triaxial compressive stresses acting on this area. This increase can be
achieved by the use of such devices as rock bolts or steel arches.
High tensile steel rock bolts have been used successfully in South
Africa to inhibit sidewall fracture of excavations. Rock bolting can be
particularly effective when joints are present in the rock since bolts placed
normal to the joint plane increase the resistance of the joint to shear
movement by increasing the friction forces and also by the pinning action
of the bolts themselves. The use of steel arches in tunnels provides
effective support for the broken roof rock and also increases the strength
of the sidewall. The volume increase associated with early sidewall
fracture results in a packing up of broken between the steel arch and the
solid rock surface. The restraint provided by these rock fragments is
usually adequate to prevent further sidewall failure.
Protection of rock surfaces from weathering
Many rock types deteriorate rapidly when exposed to the

atmosphere - a phenomenon commonly known as weathering. Hence a
rock which appears to have desirable structural properties when freshly
exposed may be unacceptable after having been allowed to wear there
for a few months. In some extreme cases in the author's experience, soft
rock specimens left exposed to the atmosphere between preparations
and testing have disintegrated into heaps of rubble within a few days.
In most cases, very simple remedial measures well prevent or at

least effectively inhibit weathering. Frequently painting or spraying the
exposed surface with a thin mixture of cement and water will provide
sufficient protection. Rocks which are particularly prone to weathering
may require a fairly thick covering of cement or concrete or some similar
sealant. A commercially available unit which sprays foam plastic onto
exposed rock surfaces has been found effective in some South African
coal mines.
10
ACTIVITY # 4
I. Match the concept. Match the concept found in Column A with the concepts in Column B. Write
your answers on your in the space provided.
COLUMN A COLUMN B
1. Weathering a. Based upon the assumption that fracture
initiates at inherent cracks and
discontinuities within the material and
that propagation of these cracks occurs
as a result of the tensile stress which is
induced at the crack tip under load
2. Anisotropic rock b. Any in geologic formation such as a joint
or a fault that divides the rock into two
more pieces
3. Fluid Pressure c. Reduces the compressive stress acting
across a fissure or fracture plane and
hence the frictional resistance which
causes interlocking of blocks of rocks
can be reduced
4. Fracture d. Refers to a rock whose engineering
5. Griffith's theory of properties vary with direction
brittle fracture
e. The gradual deterioration of an exposed
rock surface
f. McClintock and Walsh
4.5 Rock mechanics in the field
The successful solution of a rock mechanics problem usually depends

upon contributions made by the research worker and the practical engineer. In
order that the research work should obtain results of practical value, and, having
obtained such results, be able to communicate them to the ingenuity and
intelligible terms, it is essential that should remain in constant contact with the
field problem.
Analysis of Field Records
Analysis of the site records will often reveal the presence of

common factors which warrant further investigation. The statistical
analysis of records in depth below surface, type of excavation, proximity
to geological discontinuities, and among others. The analysis of mine
records has revealed factors which may be important in controlling the
collapse of coal pillars in board and pillar workings.
Geological observations
In the problem involving the behavior of a large rock mass, the

strength and deformation characteristics of the rock material may be of
secondary importance compared to the presence of geological
discontinuities such as faults or dykes. Hence, rocks slope, in which the
material may have tremendous mechanical properties, maybe unstable
due to the presence of a single or critically oriented fault. Consequently
11
come any rock mechanics investigation in the field should include a
geological examination of the site.
Stress, Strain and Deformation Measurements
Stresses, strain and displacements play an important role in

practically all rock behavior theories, the measurement of these quantities
is an important task in field rock mechanics.
a. Precise leveling
One of the most successful techniques used for the
study of rock deformation is the precise leveling of survey
benchmarks, installed either on surface or in underground
excavations. Using high quality level in instruments, the
careful observer can detect displacements. Since
displacements of several interest rate frequently occur in large
rock structures, the resolution of these precise labeling
techniques is adequate for most practical purposes.
b. Extensometer measurements in boreholes

Spring-loaded clamps which apply upright clamping
force against the walls of the portal can be used to form the
end of a tensioned measuring wire in a predetermined position
and any displacement of the clamp will result in a measurable
movement at the wire. If provision is made for the wire to pass
through the body of the clamp, to borehole can be used to
measure differential movements in the rock mass.
Strain gauge measurements
The electrical resistance strain gauge is used

extensively for the measurement of local strains in
engineering components and it is not surprising that
numerous attempts have been made to apply to the
measurement of strains in rock structures.
The advantages of this technique its simplicity and

the relatively low cost of the instrumentation and strain
cells. The cells have been successfully installed at depths
in excess of 160 feet in rock bodies.
c. Miscellaneous measuring techniques

Some investigations into the reason for this disking has
been carried out, and it has been suggested that the thickness
of the discs could be used as an indirect indication of the
stresses and the rock mass.
The Detection of Discontinuities in Rock
Fracture planes induced by stress changes in the

structure can play an important part in determining the stability
of the structure. The detection of these discontinuities, whether
12
inherent or induced to the rock, is the task of major importance
in field rock mechanics.
An obvious approach is the systematic mapping of the

visible traces of these discontinuities on the exposed surface
of an excavation. While this method can give useful
information, it suffers from severe limitations in that major
discontinuities can exist in the close proximity of the
excavation and, because of their orientation, cannot be
detected by visual examination.
An improvement on the visual examination of exposed

surfaces can be achieved by examining the inside services of
borehole spilled into the rock. But this purpose, several types
of borehole camera, utilizing both photographic and television
principles, have been placed on the market. A simple inclined
mirror surrounded by a cluster of lights is a device to push into
the borehole to the required depth in the image of the borehole
services are observed in the mirror by means of a telescope.
Any visual examination, whether of the surface of the

excavation or of the interior of a borehole, suffers from the
disadvantage that, insufficient measurements are to be made
to be a practical value, the method becomes excessively
tedious and time-consuming.
Sonic and seismic techniques
One of these devices, designed by the Canadian

Department of Mines and Technical surveys, measures the
time taken for a pressure way to travel from its source to a
detector. The time taken for such an elastic way to travel a
given distance depends upon the nature of the material end,
the more discontinuities which are present in the rock, the
longer will be this travel time.
The instrument consists of two almost identical probes

which are placed in boreholes in the rock. Hydraulically
actuated pistons gripped the probe in the borehole and force
the transducer into intimate contact with the rock surface. The
elastic waves generated by knocking the rods holding one of
the probes in the borehole with a hammer. A timing signal is
generated when this pulse leaves the probe and enters the
rock and is terminated when it leaves the rock and enters the
detector probe.
13
ACTIVITY # 5
TRUE OR FALSE. Write TRUE if the statement is true. If the statement/phrase is incorrect , write
FALSE. Write your answers on this activity box.
1. Detection of Continuities of rock is one of the devices,

designed by the Canadian Department of Mines and
Technical surveys, measures the time taken for a
pressure way to travel from its source to a detector.
2. The electrical resistance strain gauge is used extensively
for the measurement of local stress in engineering
components and it is not surprising that numerous
attempts have been made to apply to the measurement of
stress in rock structures.
3. One of the most successful techniques used for the study
of rock deformation is the global positioning system (GPS)
survey benchmarks, installed either on surface or in
underground excavations.
4. An obvious approach of the visible traces of these
discontinuities on the exposed surface of an excavation.
is the precise leveling.
5. Fracture planes induced by stress changes in the
structure can play an important part in determining the
stability of the rock mechanics.
SUMMARY
 Rock mechanics is part of the broader scientific field of geomechanics which refers
to the science that studies the mechanical behavior of all earth materials, including
soils. The subject of rock mechanics was formally introduced during the 1950s and
was established later in the 1960s.
 The term engineering rock mechanics is used to describe the engineering

application of rock mechanics to civil, mining, petroleum and environmental
engineering circumstances.
Rock Mechanics:
 a discipline that uses the principles of mechanics to describe the

behavior of rock of engineering scale. It is that branch of
mechanics concerned with the response of rock to the force fields
of its physical environment.
 It is the theoretical and applied science of the mechanical

behavior of rock.
 Determines how a particular rock reacts when it is put to the use

required by mankind for buildings, roads, bridges, dams, tunnels,
and other civil engineering uses.
14
 Assess the bearing capacity of the rock on the surface and how
the force applied on the rock by the structures being built on it will
affect the rock at various depths.
 Find out the shear strength of the rock, which in turn will allow the
rock to resist the forces applied to it.
 Look into the response of rock when it is subjected to dynamic

loading that may be a result of manmade applications or natural
occurrences like earthquakes.
 Study the effect that defects in the rock from cavities, fissures,
joints and bedding planes can have on structures founded on
them.
 An important field in civil engineering as it applies in the majority

of infrastructure projects including dams, roads, tunnels, bridges,
buildings, and protection of slopes.
 Two Branches of Rock Mechanics:
The branch of mechanics concerned with the response of rock to the

force fields of its physical environment. In rock mechanics, the principles of
continuum and fracture mechanics are combined to quantify the response of
a rock subjected to a stress field. Rock mechanics can be divided into two
subcategories: engineering rock mechanics and geological rock mechanics.
 Significance in studying Rock Mechanics
The following are the significance of rock mechanics:
 Determines how a particular rock reacts when it is put to

the use required by mankind for buildings, roads, bridges,
dams, tunnels, and other civil engineering uses.
 Assess the bearing capacity of the rock on the surface and
how the force applied on the rock by the structures being
built on it will affect the rock at various depths.
 Determine the shear strength of the rock, which in turn will
allow the rock to resist the forces applied to it.
 Determine the response of rock when it is subjected to
dynamic loading that may be a result of manmade
applications or natural occurrences like earthquakes.
 Study the effect that defects in the rock from cavities,
fissures, joints and bedding planes can have on structures
founded on them.
Rock as a Construction Material

• For laying structural foundations to support structures
• For constructing Underground openings
• For protecting slopes
• For supporting railway tracks – Ballasts
• As base and sub-base for roads and runways
15
• As aggregate in concrete
• Making facia for buildings.
Applications of Rock Mechanics:
SURFACE STRUCTURES
 Low rise Housing
 High Rise (Tower Blocks)
 High Loads (Dams, Power Plant, Bridges)
TRANSPORTATION ROUTES
 Highways, railways
 Canals
 Pipelines
SHALLOW EXCAVATIONS
 Quarries
 Open pits, strip mines
 Trenches, cuttings
 Theoretical Considerations of Rock Mechanics

 Rock Fracture - Griffith Theory
Griffith's theory of brittle fracture, modified by McClintock and

Walsh to allow for the predominantly compressive stresses in rock
mechanics, has been found to provide a reliable theoretical basis for the
prediction of rock fracture phenomena. This theory is based upon the
assumption that fracture initiates at inherent cracks and discontinuities
within the material and that propagation of these cracks occurs as a result
of the tensile stress which is induced at the crack tip under load.
Griffith's original theory was concerned with brittle fracture under

conditions of applied tensile stress and he based his calculations upon
the assumption that the inherent crack, from which fracture initiates, could
be treated as an elliptical opening.
 The consideration of the Rock mechanics in the field are the analysis of field
records; geological observations; and stress, strain and displacement.
 Instruments used for stress, strain, and displacement: Precise leveling,

Extensometer measurement of boreholes; and detection of discontinuities of rock
16
How Much Have you Learned?
SELF- ASSESSMENT EXAMINATION:
QUESTION: How relevant is the scope of rock mechanics in the field of engineering?
Why?
ASSIGNED READINGS AND/OR ENRICHMENT SUGGESTED READINGS
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/engineering-rock-mechanic
https://www.geoengineer.org/education/rock-mechanics
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270759837_Principles_of_Rock_Mechanics_F
or_ geology_civil_and_mining_engineering
https://www.slideshare.net/1971995/rock-mechanics-71413424
https://www.rocscience.com/assets/resources/learning/hoek/Rock-Mechanics-
Introduction-1966.pdf
Feedback
Exploring the different aspects of engineering geology particularly the rock

mechanics you will learn a lot but before you obtain those knowledge you need
to have this…
Success = Think Positively + Commitment to learn + Hardwork.
So, for your betterment and success to the succeeding lesson…you need
follow and have a good time management and study habit.
17
CHAPTER V: GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES

Overview of geologic structures; Geology in the field of Civil
Engineering; Definition of Geologic Structure; Type of Geologic Structures;
Measuring of Geologic Structures; Types of Secondary Geologic
Structures; Types of Compound Structure/Unconformities; Application of
Geologic Structures to Civil Engineering Problems
Learning Outcomes
1. Determine the geology in the field of civil engineering
2. Find out the types of geologic structures.
3. Distinguish between strain and stress
4. Determine the importance of folds, faults, joints and unconformities to civil
engineering.
5. Classify the effects of folds, faults, joints and unconformities to civil
engineering.
Overview of Geologic Structures
5.1 Geology in the field of Civil Engineering
Geology is the study of earth, the materials of which it is made, the

structure of those materials and the effects of the natural forces acting upon them
and is important to civil engineering because all work performed by civil
engineers involves earth and its features. Fundamental understanding of geology
is so important that it is a requirement in university-level civil engineering
programs. For a civil engineering project to be successful, the engineers must
understand the land upon which the project rests. Geologists study the land to
determine whether it is stable enough to support the proposed project. They also
study water patterns to determine if a particular site is prone to flooding. Some
civil engineers use geologists to examine rocks for important metals, oil, natural
gas and ground water.
Engineering geology is the application of the geology to engineering study

for the purpose of assuring that the geological factors regarding the location,
design, construction, operation and maintenance of engineering works are
recognized and accounted for. Engineering geologists provide geological and
geotechnical recommendations, analysis, and design associated with human
development and various types of structures. The realm of the engineering
geologist is essentially in the area of earth-structure interactions, or investigation
of how the earth or earth processes impact human made structures and human
activities.
18
Engineering geology studies may be performed during the planning,
environmental impact analysis, civil or structural engineering design, value
engineering and construction phases of public and private works projects, and
during post-construction and forensic phases of projects.
Geologic Structure
The rocks, which from the earth’s crust, undergo various
deformations, dislocations and disturbances under the influence of
tectonic forces. The result is the occurrence of different geological
structures like folds, fault, joints and unconformities in rocks. The
details of mode of formation, causes, types, classification,
importance etc of these geological structures from the subject
matter of structural geology.
Geologic structures are usually the result of the powerful

tectonic forces that occur within the earth. These forces fold and
break rocks, form deep faults, and build mountains. Repeated
applications of force—the folding of already folded rocks or the
faulting and offsetting of already faulted rocks—can create a very
complex geologic picture that is difficult to interpret. Most of these
forces are related to plate tectonic activity. Some of the natural
resources we depend on, such as metallic ores and petroleum,
often form along or near geologic structures. Thus, understanding
the origin of these structures is critical to discovering more
reserves of our nonrenewable resources.
Structural geology is the study of the processes that result

in the formation of geologic structures and how these structures
affect rocks. Structural geology deals with a variety of structural
features that can range in size from microscopic (such as traces of
earlier folds after multiple events of deformation have occurred) to
large enough to span the globe (such as mid-oceanic ridges).
ACTIVITY # 1
QUESTION: Is the geologic structures affects on the field of civil engineering? Justify your
answer.
5.2 Types of Geologic Structures

1. Primary Structures - those which develop at the time of
formation of the rocks.
19
2. Secondary Structures - which are those that develop in
rocks after their formation as a result
of their subjection to external forces.
3. Compound Structures / Unconformities - form by a

combination of events some of
which are contemporaneous with the
formation of a group of rocks taking
part in these "structures".
5.2.1 PRIMARY STRUCTURES
Stress - is the force applied over a given area of

the rock mass.
It is of three different kinds:
 Compressional stress, which tends to

squeeze the rock.
 Tensional stress, which tends to pull a rock
apart.
 Shear stress, which results from parallel forces
that act on different parts of the rock body in
opposite directions.
Strain - it is the change in the shape or

size of a rock in response to stress. A rock is said
to deform elastically if it can return to its original
size once the stress is removed. Plastic
deformation on the other hand, results in
permanent changes in the size and shape of the
rock, even after the stress is removed. Plastic
deformation of a rock is also known as ductile
deformation. After deforming plastically for some
time, a rock which continues to be subjected to
stress may finally break, a behaviour known as
brittle deformation.
Measuring Geological Structures:
 Strike – the direction in which a geological structure is present.

It is the direction of the trace of the intersection between the
beding plane.
 Dip - it means slope or inclination, it is expressed as direction
and angle. It is the direction along which the inclination of the
bedding plane occurs.
20
5.2.2 Types of Secondary Geologic Structures
A. FOLDS
Folds are bends or flexures in the earth's crust, and can

therefore be identified by a change in the amount and/or direction
of dip of rock units. Most folds result from the ductile deformation
of rocks when subjected to compressional or shear stress.
Types of Folds
1. Monocline – is a simple bend in the rock layers so that

they are no longer horizontal but are inclined. The oldest
rocks are at the bottom and the youngest are at the top.
2. Anticline – fold that arches upward. The rocks dip away
from the center of the fold. The oldest rocks are found at
the center of an anticline and the youngest ones are
draped over them at the top of the structure.
3. Syncline – fold that bends downward. The rocks curve
down to a center. The youngest rocks are at the center
and the oldest at the outside.
B. FAULTS
A fault is a fracture in the earth's rock units along which

there has been an observable amount of movement and
displacement. Unlike folds which form predominantly by
compressional stress, faults result from either tension,
compression or shear.
Types of Faults
1. Normal Fault - is a fault in which the hanging wall

appears to have moved downwards relative to the
footwall (i.e. downthrown block = hanging wall block).
2. Reverse Fault - is a fault in which the hanging wall
appears to have moved upwards relative to the footwall
(i.e. upthrown block = hanging wall block). Because the
displacement in both normal and reverse faults occurs
along the dip of the fault plane, they may be considered
types of dip slip faults.
3. Thrust Fault - is a reverse fault in which the fault plane
is dipping at low angles (< 45°). Thrusts are very
common in mountain chains (fold and thrust belts)
where they are characterized by transporting older
rocks on top of younger ones over long distances.
4. Strike Slip (Wrench, Tear or Trans Current) Fault - is
a fault in which the movement is horizontal along the
strike of the fault plane. Strike slip faults are either
dextral or sinistral. A dextral fault (also known as right
lateral fault) is one in which the block on the observer's
right hand side appears to have moved towards him,
21
whereas a sinistral strike slip fault (also known as left
lateral) is one in which the block on the observer's left
hand side appears to have moved towards him.
5. Oblique Slip Fault - is one in which the displacement
was both in the strike and dip directions (i.e. the
displacement has strike and dip components). Keep in
mind that an oblique slip fault can also be either normal
or reverse.
From this classification of faults, it can be seen that normal faults

result predominantly from tensional stress, reverse faults and thrusts from
compression (or shear), and strike slip faults from tension, compression
or shear.
C. JOINTS
Joints are fractures in the rocks characterized by no movement

along their surfaces. Although most joints are secondary structures, some
are primary, forming at the time of formation of the rocks.
Types of Joints
 Columnar Joints - are joints that form in basalts.

When the basaltic lava cools, it contracts giving rise
to hexagonal shaped columns.
 Mud Cracks - are joints that form in mud. As the
mud loses its water, it contracts and cracks.
 Secondary Joints - are joints that form in rocks as
a result of their subjection to any form of stress
(compression, tension or shear). Joints that is
oriented in one direction approximately parallel to
one another make up a joint set. Rocks often have
more than one set of joints with different
orientations, which may intersect, and are then
known as joint systems. Note that tensional stress
usually results in one set of joints, whereas
compression may form more than one set.
 Sheet joints - are joints that form in granitic rocks
in deserts causing them to break into thin parallel
sheets. These joints form when the rocks expand
as a result of the rapid removal of the overlying
rock cover, possibly due to faulting or quarrying.
This process is called exfoliation.
5.2.3 Types of Compound Structures/Unconformities
1. Angular unconformities: are those in which the angle of dip of

the younger layers is different from that of the older ones.
22
2. Disconformities: are those in which the units above and below
the unconformity surface are parallel to each other, but not
continuous in deposition or age.
3. Nonconformities: are those in which plutonic or metamorphic
rocks are covered by sedimentary or volcanic units.
ACTIVITY # 2
INSTRUCTION: Read comprehensively and following the instruction carefully.

Indicate by the correct letter of which the following
classes/types/descriptions of type of secondary geologic structure listed
below belong in, and Justify your answer:
a. Folds b. Faults c. Joints
1. Result from the ductile deformation of rocks when subjected to
compressional or shear stress.
2. Right lateral fault is one in which the block on the observer's right hand
side appears to have moved towards him.
3. Form in granitic rocks in deserts causing them to break into thin parallel
sheets.
4. Fracture in the earth's rock units along which there has been an
observable amount of movement and displacement.
5. Form in rocks as a result of their subjection to any form of stress
(compression, tension or shear)
5.3 IMPORTANCE AND EFFECTS OF FOLDS, FAULTS, JOINTS AND

UNCONFORMITIES TO CIVIL ENGINEERING
IMPORTANCE EFFECT/S
FOLDS 1. Location of dams  Change in Attitude
2. Location of tunnels  Shattering of Rocks
3. Location of reservoir  Weak in strength
4. Quarrying parameters
5. Ground water  Porous and pervious in
occurrence nature
6. Laying roads and  Strained nature
FAULTS railway tracks along  Fracture and shattering
hill of rocks along faults
7. Oil, gas and ore zones
deposits
 Serves as pathways for
water causes leakage
 Fault zone lubricated
with water are potential
sites for further
movements
 Gouge and breccia
23
causes problems
 Faults bring together,
different rocks hence
homogeneity is lost.
JOINTS 1. Location of dams  Sources of
and reservoir weakness in rocks,
2. Occurrence if pathways for
landslide seepage of water.
3. Quarrying  Jointed rocks,
4. Tunneling lubricated by the
presence of water,
are susceptible to
motion.
 Joints are usually
treated by grouting.
 Only a well jointed
and porous rock
can become a good
aquifer or n oil and
gas reservoir.
UNCONFORMITIES  They allow The
percolation of water
 It indicates a break
in the sequence of
rocks, and hence,
their engineering
properties
 Hence, exhaustive
studies have to be
done, to analyze the
mechanical
properties of rocks
in the vicinity of
unconformity.
ACTIVITY # 3
FALSE then write the correct word/phrase. Write your answers on a separate sheet
of paper
1. Serves as pathways for water causes leakage
for joints.
2. One of the importance of joints is to allow the
percolation of water
3. The effect of folds is the sources of weakness
in rocks, pathways for seepage of water
4. The importance of unconformities is the
Occurrence if landslide
5. Exhaustive studies have to be done, to
analyze the mechanical properties of rocks in
the vicinity of unconformity is one of the
importance for faults.
24
SUMMARY
 Geology is the study of earth, the materials of which it is made, the

structure of those materials and the effects of the natural forces acting
upon them and is important to civil engineering.
 Engineering geology is the application of the geology to engineering study

for the purpose of assuring that the geological factors regarding the
location, design, construction, operation and maintenance of engineering
works are recognized and accounted for. Engineering geologists provide
geological and geotechnical recommendations, analysis, and design
associated with human development and various types of structures.
 Geologic Structure. The rocks, which from the earth’s crust, undergo
various deformations, dislocations and disturbances under the influence
of tectonic forces. The result is the occurrence of different geological
structures like folds, fault, joints and unconformities in rocks. The details
of mode of formation, causes, types, classification, importance etc of
these geological structures from the subject matter of structural geology.
 Geologic structures are usually the result of the powerful tectonic forces
that occur within the earth. These forces fold and break rocks, form deep
faults, and build mountains. Repeated applications of force—the folding of
already folded rocks or the faulting and offsetting of already faulted
rocks—can create a very complex geologic picture that is difficult to
interpret.
 Structural geology is the study of the processes that result in the

formation of geologic structures and how these structures affect rocks.
Structural geology deals with a variety of structural features that can
range in size from microscopic (such as traces of earlier folds after
multiple events of deformation have occurred) to large enough to span
the globe (such as mid-oceanic ridges).
 Types of Geologic Structures. Primary Structures, Secondary

Structures, Compound Structures / Unconformities
25
INSTRUCTION: Read and follow the instruction carefully and comprehensively.

IDENTIFICATION. Identify the following statement/phrase.
1. Engineering geology the application of the geology to engineering
study for the purpose of assuring that the
geological factors regarding the location,
design, construction, operation and
maintenance of engineering works are
recognized and accounted for
2. Structural geology the study of the processes that result in the
formation of geologic structures and how these
structures affect rocks.
3. Type of Geologic refers to Primary Structures, Secondary
Structures Structures, Compound Structures /
Unconformities
4. Geologic Structures the result of the powerful tectonic forces that
occur within the earth. These forces fold and
break rocks, form deep faults, and build
mountains.
5. Angular unconformities refers those in which the angle of dip of the
younger layers is different from that of the older
ones.
6. Joints It is the fractures in the rocks characterized by
no movement along their surfaces.
7. Fault A fracture in the earth's rock units along which
there has been an observable amount of
movement and displacement.
8. Syncline Fold that bends downward. The rocks curve
down to a center. The youngest rocks are at
the center and the oldest at the outside.
9. Folds Bends or flexures in the earth's crust, and can
therefore be identified by a change in the
amount and/or direction of dip of rock units.
10. Stress The force applied over a given area of the rock
mass.
II. TRUE OR FALSE. Write TRUE if the statement is correct. If the statement/phrase is incorrect, write FALSE.
Write your answers on this activity box
Basalts 1. Columnar Joints are joints that form in secondary
joints.
nonconformities 2. Conformities: are those in which plutonic or
metamorphic rocks are covered by sedimentary or
volcanic units
Sheet joints 3. Joints system are joints that form in granitic rocks in
Compressional deserts causing them to break into thin parallel
Stress sheets
4. Tensional stress which tends to squeeze the rock.
Dip 5. strike means slope or inclination, it is expressed as
direction and
26angle
III. Does the secondary geologic structures gives significance to Civil Engineering projects/works?
Justify your Answer.
ASSIGNED READINGS AND/OR ENRICHMENT
https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/gauravhtandon1/structural-geology-ii-26485320
https://civilengineeringbible.com/article.php?i=36
https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/geology/geologic-structures/geologic-
structures- defined
https://www.scribd.com/doc/99879381/Engineering-Considerations-for-Geologic-
Structures
Feedback
Are you exhausted thinking the different cases as to theories in relation to

engineering field? Don’t give up! Always remember that you better answer
all problem you encountered rather than to escape the problem. Facing
dilemma is the key to understand on how to attack and solve in different
approach…in order for you to pass and have an exemplary remarks in every
lesson, never stop to analyze and solve. Good Luck to the next lesson or
chapter!
27
CHAPTER VI: ACTIVE TECTONICS AND EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS
Introduction to active tectonics and earthquake hazards; Types of

Earthquake; Types of Plate Boundaries; Relationship between faults and
earthquakes; Types of Fault; Cause and effect of Earthquake; Earthquake
Hazards; Problems and solutions addressed earthquake with respect to Civil
Engineering issues and concerns.
Learning Outcomes
6. Determine the tectonic and type of plate boundaries.
7. Learn about earthquake
8. Classify the earthquake hazards and its effects.
9. Find out the importance in the field of civil engineering in terms of problems
and solutions deal with earthquake.
6.1 Introduction
Civil Engineering works such as buildings and infrastructure are

the carriers of human civilization. They are, however, also the origins of
various types of disasters, which are referred to civil engineering
disasters. This module presents the concept of civil engineering disasters,
their characteristics, classification, causes, and mitigation technologies.
Civil engineering disasters are caused primarily by civil engineering
defects, which are usually attributed to improper selection of construction
site, hazard assessment, design and construction, occupancy, and
maintenance. From this viewpoint, many so-called natural disasters such
as earthquakes, strong winds, floods, landslides, and debris flows are
substantially due to civil engineering defects rather than the actual natural
hazards.
Civil engineering disasters occur frequently and globally and are
the most closely related to human beings among all disasters. It
emphasizes that such disasters can be mitigated mainly through civil
engineering measures, and outlines the related objectives and scientific
and technological challenges.
An earthquake is the sudden release of energy accumulated in the
Earth's crust, brought about by the movement of a fault. This shock
causes seismic waves to spread out in all directions.
Buildings are the structures where most risk is concentrated.
When an earthquake strikes an urban area, most losses, meaning that
both the loss of human life and economic, cultural and social losses -- are
caused by the deficient seismic behavior of buildings.
New techniques the vibrations produced by strong earthquakes
can cause serious damage to structural elements. As a general rule,
structures hold up due to their strength, their capacity to withstand
deformation and their ability to dissipate energy. In conventional design,
beams become deformed, are damaged or even break in order to prevent
buildings from collapsing. As an alternative to this practice, a new design
philosophy known as vibration control has emerged.
28
In civil engineering, this is an area of knowledge that treats
structures as dynamic systems -- that is, as systems subject to external
actions that, over the course of their useful lives, respond by exhibiting
particular behaviors
When it comes to earthquakes, an engineer will tell you better
safe than sorry. Earthquakes can be incredibly devastating, and
throughout history, there have been countless examples of entire cities
being brought low, with damage even causing fires and flooding
afterwards. Less than a century ago, a strong earthquake could
sometimes result in the deaths of many thousands of people.
TECTONIC PLATES AND PLATE BOUNDARIES
The Earth’s outer shell, the lithosphere, consisting of the crust and
uppermost mantle, is divided into a patchwork of large tectonic plates that
move slowly relatively to each other. There are 7-8 major plates and
many minor plates. Varying between 0 to 100mm per year, the movement
of a plate is driven by convection in the underlying hot and viscous
mantle.
Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic
trench formation occur along plate boundaries in zones that may be
anything from a few kilometers to a few hundred kilometers wide.
Tectonic plates of the Earth. Arrows pointing towards one another
indicate a convergent boundary which arrows pointing away indicate a
divergent boundary.
There are three main types of plate boundaries:

The plate boundaries are characterized by the way the plate move and
they are associated with different typr of surface phenomena.
1. Convergent boundaries: where two plates are colliding.

Subduction zones occur when one or both of the tectonic
plates are composed of oceanic crust. The denser plate is sub-
ducted underneath the less dense plate. The plate being forced
under is eventually melted and destroyed.
i. Where oceanic crust meets ocean crust
Island arcs and oceanic trenches occur
when both of the plates are made of oceanic crust.
Zones of active seafloor spreading can also occur
behind the island arc, known as back-arc basins.
These are often associated with submarine
volcanoes.
ii. Where oceanic crust meets continental crust
The denser oceanic plate is subducted,
often forming a mountain range on the continent.
The Andes is an example of this type of collision.
iii. Where continental crust meets continental crust
Both continental crusts are too light to
subduct so a continent-continent collision occurs,
creating especially large mountain ranges. The
most spectacular example of this is the Himalayas.
29
2. Divergent boundaries – where two plates are moving apart.
The space created can also fill with new crustal material
sourced from molten magma that forms below. Divergent
boundaries can form within continents but will eventually open up
and become ocean basins.
i. On land
Divergent boundaries within continents
initially produce rifts, which produce rift valleys.
ii. Under the sea
The most active divergent plate boundaries
are between oceanic plates and are often called
mid-oceanic ridges.
3. Transform boundaries – where plates slide/move passed each other.
The relative motion of the plates is horizontal. They can
occur underwater or on land, and crust is neither destroyed nor
created. Because of friction, the plates cannot simply glide past
each other. Rather, stress builds up in both plates and when it
exceeds the threshold of the rocks, the energy is released –
causing earthquakes.
ACTIVITY # 1
INSTRUCTION: Read comprehensively and following the instruction carefully.

Indicate by the correct letter of which the following classes/types/descriptions of type
of secondary geologic structure listed below belong in, and Justify your answer:
a. Convergent Boundaries b. Divergent Boundaries c. Transform Boundaries
1. Subduction zones occur when one or both of the tectonic plates are composed of
oceanic crust
2. relative motion of the plates is horizontal
3. Can form within continents but will eventually open up and become ocean basins.
4. Plates slide/move pass each other.
5. The plates are moving apart
6.2 What is Earthquake?
An Earthquake is a weak to violent shaking of the ground produced by the

sudden movement of rock materials below the earth’s surface. It is also the vibration of
Earth produced by the rapid release of energy. Earthquakes are one of nature’s most
frightening phenomena and an indication that earth is an internally active planet.
Focus and Epicenter

FOCUS - is the point within Earth where the earthquake starts.
EPICENTER – is the location on the surface directly above the focus.
Type of Earthquake
Tectonic Earthquake – is one that occurs when the earth’s crust breaks
due to geological forces on rocks and adjoining plates that cause physical
and chemical changes.
30
Volcanic Earthquake – is any earthquake that results from tectonic forces
which occur in conjunction with volcanic activity.
Collapse Earthquake – are small earthquake in underground caverns and

mines that are caused by seismic waves produced from expolsion of rock
on the surface.
Explosion Earthquake – an earthquake that is the result of the denotation

of a nuclear and/or chemical device.
Where do earthquakes occur?
Earthquakes occur along tectonic plate boundaries and active faults.
Earthquake Generators:
 An active fault is a fault that has moved within the last 10,000
years. It shows evidence or has documented history of its recent
movement.
 A trench is the deepest portion on the sea floor. It is a
manifestation of subduction zone where a tectonic plate moved or
is pushed under another tectonic plate.
What causes earthquake?

Earthquakes are caused by tectonic movement of earth’s crust. The main
cause is that when tectonic plates collide, one rides over the other, causing
orogeny (mountain building), earthquakes and volcanoes. The boundaries
between moving plates form the largest fault surface on earth. When they stick,
relative motion between the plates leads to increasing stress. This continues until
the stress rises and breaks, suddenly allowing sliding over the locked portion of
the fault, releasing the stored energy as shock waves.
There are basically three types of seismic waves P-waves also called
primary waves, S – waves also called secondary waves. There are two basic
types of surface waves: Rayleigh Waves and Love Waves.
P-Wave: The P - wave is the fastest of all seismic waves when an

earthquake occurs, these waves are the first to arrive at a recording station, it
can travel through solids, liquids and gases. Its speed is somehow 13 – 17 km/hr.
S-Wave: is the second fastest of all seismic wave when an earthquake

occurs. It can’t travel through liquids.
RAYLEIGH-Wave: R-wave, its speed is 0.91 speed of s-wave.

The particle motion is combination of the P and SV- vibrations. The particle
motion describes “retrograde ellipse” in the vertical plane. The most dangerous
wave because of its rolling movements.
Love-Wave – L-wave is dispersive in nature because they can

only propagate in a velocity-layered medium. Particle motion SH-motion, it has
high amplitude.
31
The earthquakes are caused by the vibrations set up in the earth’s crust
which spread outwards in all direction from the source of disturbance.
Causes of the Earthquakes fall into the following broad categories:

Volcanic Activities Volcanic explosions are certainly the most
common cause of earthquakes in the
neighborhood of active volcanoes. Such
earthquakes are, therefore, known as volcanic
earthquakes. This type of earthquake is caused
either under the influence of the increasing
pressure of volcanic gasses or the subterrean
movement of molten lava trying to come up on the
earth’s surface.
Folding and Faulting A fault is defined as a fracture plane along which
rocks have been displayed. The fracture of the
rock causing a tectonic earthquake is due to
elastic strains, which are greater than the strength
of the rock can with stand produced by the relative
displacement of nearby portions of the earth’s
Crust.
Plate Tectonics According to the theory of plate tectonics, the
surface of the earth consist of 15 plates
comprising the rigid upper mantle, and the oceanic
and continental crust.
Human Interference Human interference with nature cause artificial
with Nature earthquakes. The ground testing of H-combs
produces shock waves through overlying rocks
which results in an artificial earthquake.
Type of FAULT:
32
ACTIVITY # 2
QUESTION: 1. Why do earthquakes occur in the Philippines? Cite the most devastating
occurrence of earthquake in the Philippines.
2. What is the relationship between faults and earthquakes? What happens
to a fault when an earthquake occurs?
6.3 EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS

The type of hazards depends on the strength of seismic activity, along with such
factors as local topographic and built features, subsurface geology and groundwater. A
large earthquake will always be followed by a sequence of aftershocks.
Avoiding Effects of Ground Rupture

• Avoid construction of structures on top of an active fault
• House or building should be at least 5 meters away from the trace of the fault
33
Buffer Zone
• PHIVOLCS recommends a minimum of at least 5 meters buffer zone from each side of the fault trace or
from the edge of the deformation zone.
• Also refer to as fault avoidance zone
• No structure or building should be built within the buffer zone.
ACTIVITY # 3
FALSE then write the correct word/phrase. Write your answers on a separate
sheet of paper
epicenter 1. Magnitude is the location on the surface directly
above the focus..
tsunami 2. Tsunami is a a result of disruptive up, down, and
sideways vibration of the ground during earthquake.
liquefaction 3. Ground shaking is a phenomenon wherein
sediments, especially near bodies of water, behave
like liquid similar to a quick sand.
4. Earthquake-induce landslide is an earthquake
Ground rupture hazard where deformation on the ground that marks
the intersection of the fault with the earth’s surface.
5. One of the effect of ground rupture is sandboil
liquefaction
34
6.4 The importance of civil engineering field in terms of problems and solutions
deal with Earthquake.
Why are earthquakes so stressful on buildings?

Civil engineering requires solving problems in ways that can then actually
be used in real life scenarios. One of the particular challenges with
earthquakes is that buildings and other structures often only deal with vertical
stress or structure on a day-to-day basis, but when the ground shakes and
moves that creates horizontal stress.
This is the type of stress that early buildings weren’t designed for, and
those were the ones most likely to be damaged during a quake or outright
collapse. This horizontal stress is what is so challenging when it comes to
designing exceptionally safe buildings that can withstand even especially
strong earthquakes. When looking for ways to reinforce masonry and set up
foundations in a way that can absorb more of the pressure on behalf of the
building.
Earthquakes have driven civil engineering progress

There’s no question that advances in civil engineering have made an
enormous difference in not only minimizing property damage but also in saving
lives. Whether building better bridges, more shock absorbent buildings, or more
sound structures of any kind, the casualty numbers speak for themselves.
Civil engineering and earthquake hazard mitigation

Resultantly, engineers now develop mitigation plans incorporating
alternative measures, such as land planning, structure relocation and natural
land feature preservation.
Today, civil engineers follow design codes established using historical
natural hazard data and ever-evolving research. The American Society of Civil
Engineers (ASCE), the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and
the American Petroleum Institute (API) regularly conduct and disseminate
research findings as new developments emerge and society’s damage
tolerance diminishes.
An innovative natural/earthquake hazard mitigation tool

Civil engineers use a comparatively new technology, building information
modeling (BIM), to design secure buildings. BIM allows designers to uncover
building feature interaction during seismic events or accidental blasts and
allows designers from varying disciplines to collaborate in producing structures
that withstand atypical forces. Building information modeling software also
allows property owners to monitor and track mechanical systems for the entire
structure life cycle.
Designing Earthquake Safe Buildings and Structures

Buildings and structures are susceptible to the ravaging devastation of
earthquakes. Great amounts of research have been performed to determine what
types of buildings and structures are able to withstand an earthquake and how
structural engineers can design earthquake-safe buildings and structures for the
future.
 Flexibility is the Key
One of the most important physical traits of earthquake
safe buildings and structures is flexibility. A rigid structure will
crumble and collapse during the movement caused by an
35
earthquake. Taller structures are inherently more flexible than two
or three story buildings and structures. Shorter buildings and
structures require greater amounts of reinforcement to withstand
the forces of an earthquake.
 Materials Matter
The construction materials used in buildings and structures
can significantly help reduce the amount of damage caused during
an earthquake. Wood and steel have greater flexibility than
stucco, unreinforced concrete, or masonry.
 Earthquake Reinforcement
Buildings and structures can be created with additional
strategically placed beams that help transfer the energy of the sway of
the building during a quake to the base of the structure and the
surrounding earth. Reinforced beams and trusses can also help
prevent warping and collapse of buildings and structures during and
after an earthquake.
 Earthquake-Proof Foundations
Specially designed foundations for buildings and structures
can also help limit damage. Foundational plates can be layered to
allow for a sliding movement during a quake, providing a stable base
for the structure throughout the movement. Another type of
foundational alteration is the addition of flexible cushions in the
foundation. These flexible cushions absorb movement and energy
during an earthquake allowing the structure to remain intact.
 Soil Types Can Limit Damage

Softer soils and surrounding earth that contains a high amount
of moisture are more prone to induce greater amounts of structural
damage during an earthquake. This is partly due to the properties of
resonance as energy passes through the soil during the shocks of the
quake. Providing additional solid breaks in the soil surrounding the
foundation and building on solid earth, such as bedrock, greatly
reduces the likelihood of large amounts of damage to structures and
buildings.
 Saving Lives with Planned Failure

Some structures and buildings are designed to fail in a certain
way in the event of an earthquake. These planned failings allow for
protection of interior spaces where people are likely to be located. The
structures are also designed to limit the amount of rubble and debris
that is deposited around the foundation of the structure to keep from
damaging nearby buildings.
As advances in structural engineering are made and new
construction materials emerge, earthquake-safe buildings and
structures may soon be a reality.
36
Alternatives:
1. To use passive control systems such as base isolators or energy

dissipators
That is, to retrofit the structure with devices that will absorb
some energy in the event of an earthquake. Today, the most mature
and widely used technology is base isolation, which consists in adding
special supports that decouple the movement of the structure's base
from the movement of the ground. A flexible device is installed that
allows the base to move. The friction that this causes dissipates some
of the energy that would otherwise directly enter the structure. Another
system is to support the structure on flexible elements made from
materials such as neoprene. In this method, the deformation of the
support elements is what allows the base to move.
Energy-dissipation systems essentially consist of dampers
placed at the joints between structural elements -- for example, where
beams meet diagonal supports. During an earthquake, these devices,
made from very weak steel, may undergo plastic deformation or even
break, but only in very specific, predefined areas of the building.
The aim advantages of these control systems are their
simplicity, the possibility of replacing them if they age or break, and the
fact that they do not require an external energy source, since they work
by reacting to the movement of the structure. Nevertheless, when the
force of an earthquake exceeds a certain magnitude, the limitations of
these systems become clear.
2. To employ an active control system
This is designed to apply a force that counteracts that of the

earthquake. Active systems differ from passive systems in that they apply
force to the structure by means of a real-time process. A series of
sensors begin by measuring the structure's response (displacement,
velocity and acceleration). The measurements are digitized and sent to a
computer that carries out a control algorithm. This algorithm calculates
the value of the necessary displacement and governs the mechanism of
the actuators, which transform the signal into effective force. Active
systems have great potential but are difficult to implement in practice. The
main difficulty is a technological one, having to do with the way in which
forces can be applied to large structures such as buildings.
This is why much of the research in the field is focused on
developing semi-active strategies.
This intermediate line of work consists in designing passive
control devices whose characteristics, rather than being fixed at the time
of their construction, can be adjusted by a controller in real time on the
basis of the structure's response, as measured by the sensors.
37
ACTIVITY # 4
FALSE then write the correct word/phrase. Write your answers on a separate
sheet of paper
1. Energy-dissipation systems essentially consist

of dampers placed at the joints between
structural elements.
2. A rigid structure will crumble and collapse
during the movement caused by an earthquake.
3. A flexible device is installed that allows the
base to move.
4. Civil Engineers follow design codes established
using historical natural hazard data and ever-
evolving research.
5. Foundational plates can be layered to allow for
a sliding movement during a quake, providing a
stable base for the structure throughout the
movement.
SUMMARY
 Civil Engineering works such as buildings and infrastructure are the carriers of
human civilization. Natural disasters such as earthquakes, strong winds, floods,
landslides, and debris flows are substantially due to civil engineering defects
rather than the actual natural hazards.
 An earthquake is the sudden release of energy accumulated in the Earth's crust,
brought about by the movement of a fault. This shock causes seismic waves to
spread out in all directions.
 TECTONIC PLATES AND PLATE BOUNDARIES

 The Earth’s outer shell, the lithosphere, consisting of the
crust and uppermost mantle, is divided into a patchwork of
large tectonic plates that move slowly relatively to each
other.
 There are 7-8 major plates and many minor plates. Varying
between 0 to 100mm per year.
 The movement of a plate is driven by convection in the
underlying hot and viscous mantle.
Tectonic plates of the Earth. Arrows pointing towards one another
indicate a convergent boundary which arrows pointing away indicate a
divergent boundary.
 There are three main types of plate boundaries:

The plate boundaries are characterized by the way the plate move and
they are associated with different type of surface phenomena.
1. Convergent boundaries: where two plates are colliding.
38
 Subduction zones occur when one or both of the tectonic
plates are composed of oceanic crust. The denser plate is
sub-ducted underneath the less dense plate. The plate being
forced under is eventually melted and destroyed.
i. Where oceanic crust meets ocean crust
ii. Where oceanic crust meets continental crust
iii. Where continental crust meets continental crust
2. Divergent boundaries – where two plates are moving apart.
The space created can also fill with new crustal material
sourced from molten magma that forms below. Divergent
boundaries can form within continents but will eventually open up
and become ocean basins.
 On land: Divergent boundaries within continents
initially produce rifts, which produce rift valleys.
 Under the sea: The most active divergent plate
boundaries are between oceanic plates and are
often called mid-oceanic ridges.
3. Transform boundaries – where plates slide/move passed each other.
 An Earthquake is a weak to violent shaking of the ground produced by the

sudden movement of rock materials below the earth’s surface. It is also the
vibration of Earth produced by the rapid release of energy. Earthquakes are one
of nature’s most frightening phenomena and an indication that earth is an
internally active planet.
 FOCUS - is the point within Earth where the earthquake starts.

 EPICENTER – is the location on the surface directly above the focus.
 Type of Earthquake
Tectonic Earthquake – is one that occurs when the earth’s crust
breaks due to geological forces on rocks and adjoining plates that
cause physical and chemical changes.
Volcanic Earthquake – is any earthquake that results from

tectonic forces which occur in conjunction with volcanic activity.
Collapse Earthquake – are small earthquake in underground

caverns and mines that are caused by seismic waves produced
from expolsion of rock on the surface.
Explosion Earthquake – an earthquake that is the result of the

denotation of a nuclear and/or chemical device.
 There are basically three types of seismic waves P-waves also called primary
waves, S – waves also called secondary waves. There are two basic types of
surface waves: Rayleigh Waves and Love Waves.
 P-Wave: The P - wave is the fastest of all seismic waves when an

earthquake occurs, these waves are the first to arrive at a recording
station, it can travel through solids, liquids and gases. Its speed is
somehow 13 – 17 km/hr.
39
 S-Wave: is the second fastest of all seismic wave when an earthquake
occurs. It can’t travel through liquids.
 RAYLEIGH-Wave: R-wave, its speed is 0.91 speed of s-

wave. The particle motion is combination of the P and SV-
vibrations. The particle motion describes “retrograde
ellipse” in the vertical plane. The most dangerous wave
because of its rolling movements.
 Love-Wave – L-wave is dispersive in nature because they

can only propagate in a velocity-layered medium. Particle
motion SH-motion, it has high amplitude.
 Type of FAULT:
 Normal Fault
 Strike-slip Fault
 Thrust or reverse Fault
 EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS
The type of hazards depends on the strength of seismic activity, along
with such factors as local topographic and built features, subsurface geology
and groundwater. A large earthquake will always be followed by a sequence of
aftershocks.
 Ground rupture
 Ground shaking
 Liquefaction
 Earthquake – Induced Landslide
 Tsunami
40
INSTRUCTION: Read and follow the instruction carefully and comprehensively.
I. DEFINATION. Define the following terms.

1. Earthquake
2. Active Tectonics
3. Earthquake Hazards
4. Primary Waves
5. Thrust or reverse Fault
6. Dip
7. Love Waves
8. Divergent Boundaries
9. P – waves
10. Volcanic Earthquake
II. ESSAY. Discuss the following:

1. Type of Earthquake
2. Main types of Plate Boundaries
3. Basic Type of Surface Waves
4. Earthquake Hazards
5. Type of Fault
III. Fill-up the given Matrix below

Problems and solutions addressed earthquake with respect to Civil Engineering issues and
concerns.
Problem Indicator/Description Solution/Remedy

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
GOOD LUCK!!!
41
ASSIGNED READINGS AND/OR ENRICHMENT
https://online.norwich.edu/academic-programs/masters/civil-
engineering/resources/infographics/how-have-earthquakes-shaped-civil-engineering
https://www.gns.cri.nz/Home/Learning/Science-Topics/Earthquakes/Earthquakes-at-a-
Plate-Boundary/Tectonic-Plates-and-Plate-Boundaries
http://www.strucalc.com/designing-earthquake-safe-buildings-and-structures/
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11803-018-0420-6
PHIVOLCSUnderstandingEarthquakeHazards.pdf
Flyer-eq-and-e-hazards.pdf
Feedback
Analyzing every detail on various cases of the problem is the key to get your
correct solution and answer. Never stop comprehensively think the best
approach to attain higher rating. Good Luck to the next lesson!
42

Module - 4 6 - Ge Ce 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module - 4 6 - Ge Ce 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module - 4 6 - Ge Ce 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CHAPTER IV: ROCKS MECHANICS

The following topic to be discuss in this chapter, to wit:

Definition of Rock Mechanics; Branches of Rock Mechanics;

Rock mechanics is part of the broader scientific field of geomechanics

The term engineering rock mechanics is used to describe the engineering

 a discipline that uses the principles of mechanics to describe the

 It is the theoretical and applied science of the mechanical

 Determines how a particular rock reacts when it is put to the use

 Look into the response of rock when it is subjected to dynamic

 An important field in civil engineering as it applies in the majority

There is an important distinction between ‘rock mechanics’ and ‘rock

The difference between ‘rock mechanics’ and ‘rock engineering’ is shown

ESSAY. Write your answer in the space provided

The branch of mechanics concerned with the response of rock to the

The above photograph shows the important two acronyms which

CHILE — Continuous, Homogeneous, Isotropic and Linearly Elastic;

In Engineering rock mechanics is applied in human activities

b) Comminution which is concerned with the reduction of rock to

ESSAY. Write your answer in a separate sheet of paper.

4.3 Significance in studying Rock Mechanics

Civil engineers usually deal with geotechnical matters where

The following are the significance of rock mechanics:

 Determines how a particular rock reacts when it is put to

Applications of Rock Mechanics:

ESSAY. Write your answer in a separate sheet of paper.

4.4 Theoretical Considerations of Rock Mechanics

Rock Fracture - Griffith Theory

Griffith's theory of brittle fracture, modified by McClintock and

Griffith's original theory was concerned with brittle fracture under

Additional Factors Governing Fracture

The Griffith theory was derived on the assumption that the

Fracture of Anisotropic rock

Fracture is any in geologic formation such as a joint or a

Anisotropic rock refers to a rock whose engineering

Influence of environment upon rock strength

It is frequently assumed that the strength of rock is not

The influence of temperature upon the strength of rock is

Influence of fluid pressure

In addition to the strength reduction associated with a high

The practical importance of the influence of moisture upon

Time-dependent failure of rock

One of the least understood aspects of the mechanical

a. Weathering which is the gradual deterioration of an

b. Time-dependent mechanical behavior which involves

Influence of Specimen Size

It is accepted that the strength of a brittle material is

Stability of Rock Structures

In designing a rock structures such as the damp

Two main problem types:

In discussing this question it is necessary to distinguish

a. Underground excavations in solid homogeneous rock,

b. Rock structures such as dam foundations and surface

Progressive failure of the rock surrounding an excavation

When a rock specimen is loaded in a hydraulically

Stability of a rock mass

There’s no general rules analyzing the stability of a rock

Control of Fracture in a Rock Structure

Rock has several physical characteristics which distinguishes it from

a) The large difference between the tensile and compressive strengths.