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General Physics for Sciences and Engineering Faculties

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 General Physics
Principles and Applications

Lectures in General Physics

for Sciences and Engineering Faculties
By
Dr. Hasan Maridi
Visiting Professor at Heavy ion Laboratory, University of Warsaw, Poland
Assistant Professor of Theoretical Nuclear Physics at Taiz University, Yemen
https://sites.google.com/site/hasanmaridi

3rd edition, 2020

2

Preface
In general, study the physics concepts provide the student with a clear and
logical presentation of the basic concepts and principles of physics and to
strengthen an understanding of the concepts and principles through a broad
range of interesting applications to the real world.
General physics gives the concepts and applications of the physics concepts in
sciences and engineering. I hope it to be a good course for our students in
Engineering faculties. It is essential that the students understand the basic
concepts and principles before attempting to solve assigned problems. You
can best accomplish this goal by carefully reading the textbook before you
attend your lecture on the covered material. When reading the text, you
should jot down those points that are not clear to you.
This Lecture notes based on Physics for Scientists and Engineers by Serway and
its Power point slides from Cengage Learning Company, and then they edited
by including concepts, examples, and solved problems.
Hasan Maridi
Visiting Professor at Heavy ion Laboratory, University of Warsaw, Poland
https://sites.google.com/site/hasanmaridi
June 2020
3
 Contents
Chapter 1 Measurement 11 Chapter 2 The Force and Laws of Motion
1.1 Standards of Length, Mass, and Time 33
1.2 Matter and Model Building 2.1 The Concept of Force

1.3 Dimensional Analysis 2.2 Newton’s First Law

1.4 Conversion of Units 2.3 Mass

1.5 Coordinate Systems 2.4 Newton’s Second Law

1.6 Vector and Scalar Quantities 2.5 The Gravitational Force and Weight

1.7 Some Properties of Vectors 2.6 Newton’s Third Law

1.8 Components of a Vector and Unit 2.7 Some Applications of Newton’s Laws
Vectors 2.8 Forces of Friction
1.9 Scalar Product of Vectors
 Contents
Chapter 3 Static Equilibrium and 4.4 Potential Energy of a System

Elasticity 53 4.5 The Isolated System

3.1 The Rigid Object in Equilibrium 4.6 Power

3.2 The Center of Gravity

3.3 Examples of Rigid Objects in Static
Equilibrium
3.4 Elastic Properties of Solids
3.4 Stress, Strain, and Elasticity Modulus

Chapter 4 Energy 77
4.1 Systems and Environments
4.2 Work Done by a Constant Force
4.3 Kinetic Energy and the Work–Kinetic
Energy Theorem
 Contents
Chapter 6 Temperature and
Chapter 5 Fluid Mechanics 89
Thermodynamics 121
5.1 Fluid Properties
6.1 Temperature and the Zeroth Law of
5.2 Viscosity Thermodynamics
5.3 Surface Tension 6.2 Thermometers and the Celsius
5.4 Pressure Temperature Scale

5.5 Variation of Pressure with Depth 6.3 The Absolute Temperature Scale

5.6 Pressure Measurements 6.4 Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids

5.7 Buoyant Forces and Archimedes' 6.5 An Ideal Gas

Principle 6.6 Heat and Internal Energy
5.8 Fluid Dynamics 6.7 Specific Heat
5.9 Continuity Equation 6.8 The First Law of Thermodynamics
5.10 Bernoulli’s Equation and its 6.9 Energy Transfer Mechanisms
Applications
 Contents
Chapter 8 Light and Optics 177
Chapter 7 Sound Wave 149
8.1 The Nature of Light
7.1 Propagation of a Disturbance
8.2 The Ray Approximation
7.2 The Traveling Wave Model
8.3 The Light Reflection
7.3 The Speed of Waves on Strings
8.4 The Light Refraction
7.4 Speed of Sound Waves
8.5 Fiber Optics
7.5 Periodic Sound Waves
8.7 Images Formed by Flat Mirrors
7.6 Intensity of Sound Waves
8.8 Images Formed by Spherical Mirrors
7.7 Sound Level
8.9 Thin Lenses
7.8 The Doppler Effect
8.10 Optical Instruments: The Camera, The
7.9 Shock Waves
Simple Magnifier, The Compound
7.10 Ultrasound and its Applications Microscope.
8.11 The Eye, Myopia, Hyperemia
 Contents
9.12 Electrical Power
Chapter 9 Electricity 203
9.13 Resistors in Series and Parallel
9.1 Properties of Electric Charges
9.14 Electric Power
9.2 Coulomb’s Law
9.15 Electrical Safety
9.3 The Electric Field
Chapter 10 Magnetism 245
9.4 Electric Field Lines
10.1 Magnetic Poles, Magnetic Fields
9.5 Electric Potential and Potential Difference
10.2 Magnetic force
9.6 Definition and Calculating of Capacitance
10.3 Charged Particle move in a Magnetic Field
9.7 Combinations of Capacitors
10.5 Mass Spectrometer, Cyclotron
9.8 Capacitors with Dielectrics
10.7 Biot-Savart Law,
9.9 Electric Current
9.10 Resistance
9.11 Resistance and Temperature
 9

Contents
Chapter 11 Nuclear Physics and its 11.10 Radiation Damage
Applications, Radioactivity 269 11.11 Radiation Detectors
11.1 Some Properties of Nuclei 11.12 Uses of Radiation
11.2 Radioactivity
11.3 The Decay Processes
11.4 Natural Radioactivity
11.5 Nuclear Reactions
11.6 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance and
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
11.7 Nuclear Fission
11.8 Nuclear Reactors
11.9 Nuclear Fusion
10
 General Physics
for Science and Engineering Faculties
Dr. Hasan Maridi
Visiting Professor at Heavy ion Laboratory, University of Warsaw, Poland
Assistant Professor of Theoretical Nuclear Physics at Taiz University, Yemen
https://sites.google.com/site/hasanmaridi

Chapter 1 – Measurements
12

Physics
Fundamental Science
 Concerned with the fundamental principles of the Universe
 Foundation of other physical sciences
 Has simplicity of fundamental concepts
Divided into six major areas:
 Classical Mechanics
 Relativity
 Thermodynamics
 Electromagnetism
 Optics
 Quantum Mechanics
13

Objectives of Physics
To find the limited number of fundamental laws that govern natural phenomena
To use these laws to develop theories that can predict the results of future
experiments
Express the laws in the language of mathematics
 Mathematics provides the bridge between theory and experiment.

Theory and Experiments

Should complement each other
When a discrepancy occurs, theory may be modified or new theories formulated.
 A theory may apply to limited conditions.
 Example: Newtonian Mechanics is confined to objects traveling slowly with respect
to the speed of light.
 Try to develop a more general theory
14

Measurements
Used to describe natural phenomena
Each measurement is associated with a physical quantity
Need defined standards
Characteristics of standards for measurements
 Readily accessible
 Possess some property that can be measured reliably
 Must yield the same results when used by anyone anywhere
 Cannot change with time

Standards of Fundamental Quantities

Standardized systems
 Agreed upon by some authority, usually a governmental body
SI – Systéme International (Main system used in this text)
 Agreed to in 1960 by an international committee
Fundamental Quantities and Their Units

Quantity SI Unit
Length meter

Mass kilogram

Time second

Temperature Kelvin

Electric Current Ampere

Luminous Intensity Candela

Amount of Substance mole

16

 In mechanics, three fundamental quantities are used: Length, Mass, Time

 All other quantities in mechanics can be expressed in terms of the three
fundamental quantities.

Derived quantities can be expressed as a mathematical combination of

fundamental quantities.
Examples:
 Area
 A product of two lengths

 Speed
 A ratio of a length to a time interval

 Density
 A ratio of mass to volume
17

Prefixes
Prefixes correspond to powers of 10.
Each prefix has a specific name and has a specific abbreviation.
The prefixes can be used with any basic units.
They are multipliers of the basic unit.
Examples: 1 mm = 10-3 m 1 mg = 10-3 g
 Models of Matter
Some Greeks thought matter is made of atoms.
No additional structure
JJ Thomson (1897) found electrons and showed
atoms had structure.
Rutherford (1911) determined a central nucleus
surrounded by electrons.
Nucleus has structure, containing protons and
neutrons
 Number of protons gives atomic number
 Number of protons and neutrons gives mass
number
Protons and neutrons are made up of quarks.
Six Quarks: Up, down, strange, charmed, bottom, top
 Fractional electric charges
 +⅔ of Up, charmed, top
 ⅓ of Down, strange, bottom
19

Basic Quantities and Their Dimension

Dimension has a specific meaning – it denotes the physical nature of a quantity.

Dimensions are often denoted with square brackets.
 Length [L]
 Mass [M]
 Time [T]

Dimensions and Units

Each dimension can have many actual units.
Table 1.5 for the dimensions and units of some derived quantities
20

Dimensions and Units

21

Dimensional Analysis
Technique to check the correctness of an equation or to assist in deriving an
equation
Dimensions (length, mass, time, combinations) can be treated as algebraic
quantities.
 Add, subtract, multiply, divide
Both sides of equation must have the same dimensions.
Any relationship can be correct only if the dimensions on both sides of the equation
are the same.
Cannot give numerical factors: this is its limitation
Example: Given the equation: x = ½ at 2 Check dimensions on each side:
L
L  T2  L
T 2

The T2’s cancel, leaving L for the dimensions of each side.

 The equation is dimensionally correct.
 There are no dimensions for the constant.
22

Dimensional Analysis to Determine a Power Law

Determine powers in a proportionality
 Example: find the exponents in the expression
x  a mt n
 You must have lengths on both sides.
 Acceleration has dimensions of L/T2
 Time has dimensions of T.
 Analysis gives x  at 2
Example
Suppose that the acceleration of a particle moving in circle of radius r with uniform
velocity v is proportional to the rn and v m. Use the dimensional analysis to
determine the power n and m.
Solution
Let us assume a is represented in this expression a =
Where k is the proportionality constant of dimensionless unit.
The right hand side
23

The left hand side

Therefore

hence

n+m=1 and m=2

Therefore. n =-1 and the acceleration a is

k=1
24

Conversion of Units
When units are not consistent, you may need to convert to appropriate ones.
See Appendix A for an extensive list of conversion factors.
Units can be treated like algebraic quantities that can cancel each other out.
Always include units for every quantity, you can carry the units through the entire
calculation.
Multiply original value by a ratio equal to one.
Example:
15.0 in  ? cm
 2.54 cm 
15.0 in    38.1cm
 1in 
 Note the value inside the parentheses is equal to 1, since 1 inch is defined
as 2.54 cm.
25

conversions
26

conversions
27

Coordinate Systems
Used to describe the position of a point in space
Common coordinate systems are:
Cartesian Coordinate System
In Cartesian (Also called rectangular) coordinate system: x-
and y- axes intersect at the origin Points are labeled (x,y)
Polar Coordinate System
Origin and reference line are noted
Point is distance r from the origin in the direction of angle ,
from reference line. The reference line is often the x-axis.
Points are labeled (r,). Based on forming a right triangle
from r and 
x = r cos  and y = r sin 
y
If the Cartesian coordinates are known: tan 
x
r  x2  y 2
28

Example

The Cartesian coordinates of a point in

the xy plane are (x,y) = (-3.50, -2.50) m,
as shown in the figure. Find the polar
coordinates of this point.
Solution: From Equation 3.4,
r  x2  y 2
 ( 3.50 m)2  ( 2.50 m)2
 4.30 m
and from Equation 3.3,
y 2.50 m
tan    0.714
x 3.50 m
  216 (signs give quadrant)
29

Vectors and Scalars

A scalar quantity is completely specified by a single value with an appropriate
unit and has no direction. It may be positive or negative.
A vector quantity is completely described by a number and appropriate units
plus a direction.
Example: A particle travels from A to B along
the path shown by the broken line.
This is the distance traveled and is a scalar.
The displacement is the solid line from A to B
The displacement is the solid line from A to B and it is a vector
The displacement is independent of the path taken between the two points.
Vector Notation
Text uses bold with arrow to denote a vector: A or for printing is simple bold
print: A. When dealing with just the magnitude of a vector in print, an italic letter
will be used: A or | A |
 The magnitude of the vector has physical units.
 The magnitude of a vector is always a positive number.
30

Equality of Two Vectors

Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and the same direction.
A  B if A = B and they point along parallel lines
Adding Vectors
Vector addition is very different from adding scalar quantities.
When adding vectors, their directions must be taken into account.
The resultant is drawn from the origin of the first
vector to the end of the last vector.
Measure the length of the resultant and its angle.

The negative of the vector will have the same

magnitude, but point in the opposite direction.
 Represented as A 


A
B
B
A
 

A
A
0  


A
B
C

A
BC 

 as A B
To subtract two vectors use AB  
 31

Components of a Vector
A component is a projection of a vector along an
axis. Any vector can be completely described by its
components.
It is useful to use rectangular components.
 Ax and Ay are the projections of the vector
along the x- and y-axes.



The x-component of a vector is the projection along the x-axis. 
A
xAc
o
s
The y-component of a vector is the projection along the y-axis. A y  A
s
i
n
This assumes the angle θ is measured with respect to the x-axis.
If not, do not use these equations, use the sides of the triangle directly.
The components are the legs of the right triangle whose hypotenuse is the length of A.
 
A
AAa
n
dt
a
n
A
22
xy
A
x
 
1y

 May still have to find θ with respect to the positive x-axis

In a problem, a vector may be specified by its components or its magnitude and
direction.
32

Unit Vectors
A unit vector is a dimensionless vector with a
magnitude of exactly 1.
Unit vectors are used to specify a direction and have
no other physical significance.

The symbols î , ĵ, and k̂ represent unit vectors

They form a set of mutually perpendicular vectors in
a right-handed coordinate system
The magnitude of each unit vector is 1
ˆi  ˆj  kˆ  1

Ax is the same as Ax î and Ay is the same as Ay ĵ

etc.
The complete vector can be expressed as:

A  Ax ˆi  Ay ˆj
 33

Adding Vectors Using Unit Vectors

Using R  A B
Then   
R  Ax ˆi  Ay ˆj  Bx ˆi  By ˆj 
R   Ax  Bx  ˆi   Ay  By  ˆj
R  Rx ˆi  Ry ˆj

So Rx = Ax + Bx and Ry = Ay + By
Ry
R  Rx  Ry   tan
2 2 1

Rx
Three-Dimensional Extension
R  A x y z x  
ˆi  A ˆj  A kˆ  B ˆi  B ˆj  B kˆ
y z 
R  Ax  B  ˆi   A y  B  ˆj   A  B  kˆ

x y z z
R
R  R x ˆi  R y ˆj  R z kˆ 
R R
2 2 2
R R 
x y z xc
1
ox
s,e
tc
.
R
The result of the multiplication or division of a vector by a scalar is a vector.
The magnitude of the vector is multiplied or divided by the scalar
34

Example
 General Physics
for Science and Engineering Faculties
Dr. Hasan Maridi
Visiting Professor at Heavy ion Laboratory, University of Warsaw, Poland
Assistant Professor of Theoretical Nuclear Physics at Taiz University, Yemen
https://sites.google.com/site/hasanmaridi

Chapter 2 - Force and Laws of Motion

 Forces
 A force is that which causes an
acceleration. Formulated by Sir Isaac
Newton (1642 – 1727)
Classes of Forces
Contact forces involve physical contact
between two objects. Examples a, b, c
Field forces act through empty space.
Examples d, e, f

Fundamental Forces
Gravitational force: Between objects
Electromagnetic forces: Between electric charges
Nuclear force: Between subatomic particles
Weak forces: Arise in certain radioactive decay processes
Note: These are all field forces.
37

Newton’s First Law

states that an object at rest will remain at rest and an object in motion will remain
in motion with a constant velocity unless acted on by a net external force.
 Can conclude that any isolated object is either at rest or moving at a
constant velocity
The First Law also allows the definition of force as that which causes a change
in the motion of an object.
The tendency of an object to resist any attempt to change its velocity is called
inertia.
Mass is that property of an object that specifies how much resistance an object
exhibits to changes in its velocity.
Mass is a scalar quantity. The SI unit of mass is kg.
Mass and weight are two different quantities.
Weight is equal to the magnitude of the gravitational force exerted on the object.
 Weight will vary with location.
 mearth = 3 kg; mmoon = 3 kg
 wearth = 30 N; wmoon ~ 6 N
38

Newton’s Second Law

states that the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force
acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass. Force is the cause of changes
in motion, as measured by the acceleration.
 Remember, an object can have motion in the absence of forces.

a
 F
  F  ma
m
 F is the net force. May also be called the total force, resultant force
 This is the vector sum of all the forces acting on the object.
Newton’s Second Law can be expressed in terms of components:
 SFx = m ax
 SFy = m ay
 SFz = m az

The SI unit of force is the newton (N).

 1 N = 1 kg·m / s2
39

Example
Two forces, F1 and F2, act on a 5-kg mass. If F1 =20 N
and F2 =15 N,
find the acceleration in (a) and (b) of the Figure
Solution
(a) F = F1 + F2 = (20i + 15j) N
F = ma \20i + 15j = 5 a
a = (4i + 3j) m/s2 or a = 5m/s2
(b) F2x = 15 cos 60 = 7.5 N
F2y = 15 sin 60 = 13 N
F2 = (7.5i + 13j) N
F = F1 + F2 = (27.5i + 13j) = ma = 5 a
a = (5.5i + 2.6j) m/s2 or a = 6.08m/s2
40

Gravitational Force
The gravitational force, Fg , is the force that the earth exerts on an object.
This force is directed toward the center of the earth.
From Newton’s Second Law:
 Fg  mg
Its magnitude is called the weight of the object.
 Weight = Fg= mg
 g, and therefore the weight, is less at higher altitudes.
 This can be extended to other planets, but the value of g varies from planet
to planet, so the object’s weight will vary from planet to planet.
 The weight is a property of a system of items: the object and the Earth.
Note about units:
 Kilogram is not a unit of weight.
 1 kg = 2.2 lb is an equivalence valid only on the Earth’s surface.
41

Newton’s Third Law

If two objects interact, the force F12 exerted by object 1
on object 2 is equal in magnitude and opposite in F
21
direction to the force exerted by object 2 on object 1.
 F12  F21
 Note on notation: FAB is the force exerted by A on B.
The action force is equal in magnitude to the reaction
force and opposite in direction.
 One of the forces is the action force, the other is the
reaction force.
The normal force (table on monitor) is the reaction of the
force the monitor exerts on the table. (Figure a)
 Normal means perpendicular, in this case
The action (Earth on monitor) force is equal in magnitude
and opposite in direction to the reaction force, the force
the monitor exerts on the Earth.
Free Body Diagram
In a free body diagram, you want the forces acting on
a particular object. (Figure b)
 Model the object as a particle
The normal force and the force of gravity are the
forces that act on the monitor.
The most important step in solving problems
involving Newton’s Laws is to draw the free body
diagram.
Be sure to include only the forces acting on the
object of interest.
Include any field forces acting on the object.
Do not assume the normal force equals the weight.
The forces that act on the object are shown as being
applied to the dot. The free body helps isolate only
those forces acting on the object and eliminate the
other forces from the analysis.
43

The object in Equilibrium

If the acceleration of an object is zero, the object is said to be in equilibrium.
 The model is the particle in equilibrium.
Mathematically, the net force acting on the object is zero.
SF = 0

Equilibrium, Example
A lamp is suspended from a chain of negligible mass.
The forces acting on the lamp are:
 the downward force of gravity
 the upward tension in the chain
Applying equilibrium gives

F y  0  T  Fg  0  T  Fg
44

The Object Under a Net Force, example

Forces acting on the crate:
 A tension, acting through the rope, is the
magnitude of force T
 The gravitational force, F
g

 The normal force, n , exerted by the floor

Apply Newton’s Second Law in component form:

F x  T  max

F y  n  Fg  0  n  Fg
Solve for the unknown(s)
If the tension is constant, then a is constant and the
kinematic equations can be used to more fully
describe the motion of the crate.
Equilibrium, Example
Conceptualize the traffic light
 Assume cables don’t break
 Nothing is moving
Categorize as an equilibrium problem
 No movement, so acceleration is zero
Analyze
 Construct a diagram for the forces acting on the
light
 Construct a free body diagram for the knot where
the three cables are joined
 The knot is a convenient point to choose since all
the forces of interest act along lines passing
through the knot.
 Apply equilibrium equations to the knot
 Find T1 , T2 and T3 from applying equilibrium in
the x- and y-directions to the knot
46

Equilibrium, Example, final

Finalize
 Think about different situations and see if the results are reasonable.
 Knowing that the knot is in equilibrium (a = 0) allows us to write
47

Frictional Force
Friction and energy loss
due to friction appear
every day in our life.
The maximum force of
friction F is
F = µ N
Where N is a Normal
force.
µ Is the coefficient
between the two
surfaces.
The value of µ depends
upon the two materials
in contact , and it is
essentially independent
of the surface area , as
shown in Table 1.
 48

When a person is walking , as the heel of the foot touches the ground a force is
transmitted from the foot to the ground. we can resolve this force into horizontal and
vertical components. the vertical reaction force is applied by the surface and is
labeled N (normal force ).
we can resolve this force into horizontal
and vertical components . the vertical
reaction force is applied by the surface
and is labeled N (normal force ).
the horizontal reaction component must
be applied by frictional forces, as
shown in figure.

Measurements have been made of the horizontal force component of the heel as
it strikes the ground when a person is walking , and it has been to be
= 0.15 W, where W is the person’s weight.
The frictional force is large enough both when the heel touches down and when
the toe leaves the surface to prevent a person from slipping. this how large
the frictional force must be in order to prevent the heel from slipping.
 Friction Example, 1
A 3kg block starts from rest at the top of 30o
incline and slides with a = 1.78 m/s2. Find
(a) the coefficient of kinetic friction between the
block and the plane
(b) the friction force acting on the block

Solution
Given m = 3kg,  = 30o
mg sin30 - f = ma  f = m(g sin30 -a)  f =
9.37N
N - mg cos30 = 0  N = mg cos30
f = 9.37N
mk =N/f = 0.368
Friction, Example 2
Draw the free-body diagram, including the
force of kinetic friction.
Continue with the solution as with any
Newton’s Law problem.
This example gives information about the
motion which can be used to find the
acceleration to use in Newton’s Laws.
51

Dynamics force
According to second law of Newton, the force is equal
F = ma
momentum = mv
The change in momentum Δ(mv) over a short interval of time is
F = Δ(mv ) / Δt
Example 1
A 60 Kg person walking at 1 m/sec bumps into a wall and stops in a
distance of 2.5 cm in about 0.05 sec . what is the force developed
on impact ?
Δ(mv) = (60 Kg ) (1m/sec) – (60 Kg ) ( 0 m/sec)
= 60 Kg m/sec
the force developed on impact is
F = Δ(mv )/Δt = 60Kg m/sec / 0.05 = 1200 Kg m/sec²
F = 1200 Newton
52

Example 2
A. A person walking at 1 m/sec hits his head on a steel beam . Assume his
head stops in 0.5 cm in about 0.01 sec . If the mass of his head is 4Kg,
What is the force developed ?
Δ(mv)=(4Kg)(1m/sec)-(4Kg)(0m/sec) = 4 Kg m/sec
F = Δ(mv ) / Δt = 4 kg m/sec /0.01
F = 400 Newton
b. if the steel beam has 2 cm of padding and Δt is increased to 0.04 sec ,
what is the force developed ?
F = Δ(mv)/ Δt
F = ( 4 Kg m/sec) / 0.04 sec
F = 100 Newton
 General Physics
for Science and Engineering Faculties
Dr. Hasan Maridi
Visiting Professor at Heavy ion Laboratory, University of Warsaw, Poland
Assistant Professor of Theoretical Nuclear Physics at Taiz University, Yemen
https://sites.google.com/site/hasanmaridi

Chapter 3 - Static Equilibrium and Elasticity

54

Static Equilibrium
Equilibrium implies that the object moves with both constant velocity and
constant angular velocity relative to an observer in an inertial reference frame.
Will deal now with the special case in which both of these velocities are equal to
zero
 This is called static equilibrium.
Static equilibrium is a common situation in engineering.
The principles involved are of particular interest to civil engineers, architects, and
mechanical engineers.
Rigid Object in Equilibrium
In the particle in equilibrium model a particle moves with constant velocity
because the net force acting on it is zero.
 The objects often cannot be modeled as particles.
For an extended object to be in equilibrium, a second condition of equilibrium
must be satisfied.
 This second condition involves the rotational motion of the extended object.
Torque
  Fr
 The tendency of the force to cause a rotation about O
depends on F and the moment arm d. The net torque on a
rigid object causes it to undergo an angular acceleration.
The net external force on the object must equal zero.
  Fext  0
 If the object is modeled as a particle, then this is the only condition that must
be satisfied.
The net external torque on the object about any axis must be zero.
  ext 0
 This is needed if the object cannot be modeled as a particle.
These conditions describe the rigid object in equilibrium analysis model.
We will restrict the applications to situations in which all the forces lie in the xy
plane. There are three resulting equations:
 SFx = 0 , SFy = 0
 Sz = 0
 Center of Mass
An object can be divided into many small particles.
 Each particle will have a specific mass and specific
coordinates.
The x coordinate of the center of mass will be
m x i i
xCM  i

m i
i

Similar expressions can be found for the y and z coordinates.

Center of Gravity
All the various gravitational forces acting on all the various
mass elements are equivalent to a single gravitational force
acting through a single point called the center of gravity (CG).
Each particle contributes a torque about an axis through the
origin equal in magnitude to the particle’s weight multiplied by
its moment arm.
The center of gravity of the object coincides with its center of
mass.
57

stability
Why things fall over
if the center of gravity is supported, the
object will not fall over.
You generally want a running back with a
low CG, then it’s harder to knock him
down.
The lower the CG the more stable an
object is. Stable, not easy to knock over!
Condition for stability
If the CG is above the edge, the object
will not fall.
If the vertical line extending down from
the CG is inside the edge the object will
return to its upright position,
the torque due to gravity brings it back.
58

Problem-Solving Strategy – Equilibrium Problems

Conceptualize
 Identify all the forces acting on the object.
 Image the effect of each force on the rotation of the object if it were the only
force acting on the object.
Categorize
 Confirm the object is a rigid object in equilibrium.
 The object must have zero translational acceleration and zero angular
acceleration.
Analyze
 Draw a diagram.
 Show and label all external forces acting on the object.
 Particle under a net force model: he object on which the forces act can be
represented in a free body diagram as a dot because it does not matter where
on the object the forces are applied.
 Rigid object in equilibrium model: Cannot use a dot to represent the object
because the location where the forces act is important in the calculations.
59

Problem-Solving Strategy – Equilibrium Problems, 2

Analyze, cont
 Establish a convenient coordinate system.
 Find the components of the forces along the two axes.
 Apply the first condition for equilibrium (SF=0). Be careful of signs.
 Choose a convenient axis for calculating the net torque on the rigid object.
 Choose an axis that simplifies the calculations as much as possible.
 Apply the second condition for equilibrium.
 The two conditions of equilibrium will give a system of equations.
 Solve the equations simultaneously.
Finalize
 Make sure your results are consistent with your diagram.
 If the solution gives a negative for a force, it is in the opposite direction to what
you drew in the diagram.
 Check your results to confirm SFx = 0, SFy = 0, S = 0.
 60

Center of Gravity of Humans

Another technique used to determine the center of gravity of
humans is described in the figure below.
A board of length l is supported at its ends resting on scales
adjusted to read zero with the board alone.
When a person lies on the board the scales read w1 and w2.

The condition for the torque S = 0

can be used to Find X.
The torque about point P is
 61

The Seesaw Revisited Example

A seesaw consisting of a uniform board of mass M
and length L supports a father and daughter
with masses mf and md, respectively, as shown
in Figure. The support (called the fulcrum) is
under the center of gravity of the board, the
father is a distance d from the center, and the
daughter is a distance L/2 from the center.
(A) Determine the magnitude of the upward force n exerted by the support on the
board.
 SFy = 0

 SFx = 0 The equation also applies, but we do not need to consider it because
no forces act horizontally on the board.)
(B) Determine where the father should sit
to balance the system.
 SFx = 0, SFy = 0, Sz = 0 that
 62

Example A Weighted Hand

F is the upward force exerted by the
biceps and R is the downward force
exerted by the upper arm at the
joint.

This value for F can be substituted into

to give R =533 N. As this example
shows, the forces at joints and in
muscles can be extremely large.
Horizontal Beam Example
Conceptualize
 The beam is uniform.
 So the center of gravity is at the
geometric center of the beam.
 The person is standing on the
beam.
 What are the tension in the cable
and the force exerted by the wall
on the beam?
Categorize
 The system is at rest, categorize
as a rigid object in equilibrium.

63
Horizontal Beam Example, 2
Analyze
 Draw a force diagram.
 Use the pivot in the problem (at the wall) as
the pivot.
 This will generally be easiest.
 Note there are three unknowns (T, R, ).
Analyze, cont.
 The forces can be resolved into
components.
 Apply the two conditions of equilibrium to
obtain three equations.
 Solve for the unknowns.
Finalize
 The positive value for θ indicates the
direction of R was correct in the diagram.
64
Ladder Example
Conceptualize
 The ladder is uniform.
 So the weight of the ladder acts through its geometric
center (its center of gravity).
 There is static friction between the ladder and the
ground.
Categorize
 Model the object as a rigid object in equilibrium.
Analyze
 Draw a diagram showing all the forces acting on the
ladder.
 The frictional force is ƒs = µs n.
 Let O be the axis of rotation.
 Apply the equations for the two conditions of equilibrium.
 Solve the equations.
65
66

Elasticity
So far we have assumed that objects remain rigid when external forces act on
them.
 Except springs
Actually, all objects are deformable to some extent.
 It is possible to change the size and/or shape of the object by applying
external forces.
Internal forces resist the deformation.
Stress
 Is proportional to the force causing the deformation
 It is the external force acting on the object per unit cross-sectional area.
Strain
 Is the result of a stress
 Is a measure of the degree of deformation
67

Elastic Modulus
The elastic modulus is the constant of proportionality between the stress and the
strain.
 For sufficiently small stresses, the stress is directly proportional to the stress.
 It depends on the material being deformed.
 It also depends on the nature of the deformation.
The elastic modulus, in general, relates what is done to a solid object to how that
object responds.
stress
elastic mod ulus 
strain

Various types of deformation have unique elastic moduli.

Young’s Modulus: Measures the resistance of a solid to a change in its length
Shear Modulus: Measures the resistance of motion of the planes within a solid
parallel to each other
Bulk Modulus: Measures the resistance of solids or liquids to changes in their
volume
Young’s Modulus
The bar is stretched by an amount DL under the
action of the force F.
The tensile stress is the ratio of the magnitude of
the external force to the cross-sectional area A.
The tension strain is the ratio of the change in
length to the original length.
Young’s modulus, Y, is the ratio of those two ratios:
F
tensile stress
Y  A
tensile strain DL
Li
Units are N / m2
Experiments show that for certain stresses, the
stress is directly proportional to the strain. This is the
elastic behavior part of the curve.
When the stress exceeds the elastic limit, the
substance will be permanently deformed.
With additional stress, the material ultimately breaks.
 69

Shear Modulus
Another type of deformation occurs when a force acts parallel to one of its faces
while the opposite face is held fixed by another force.
This is called a shear stress.
For small deformations, no change in volume occurs with this deformation.
 A good first approximation
The shear strain is Dx / h.
 Dx is the horizontal distance the sheared
face moves.
 h is the height of the object.
The shear stress is F / A.
 F is the tangential force.
 A is the area of the face being sheared.
The shear modulus is the ratio of the shear stress to the shear strain.
F
shear stress
S  A
shear strain Dx Units are N / m2
h
70

Example
A 200-kg load is hung on a wire having a length of 4.00 m, cross-sectional area
0.200 x10-4m2, and Young’s modulus 8.00 x 1010N/m2. What is its increase in
length?
Example
Assume that Young’s modulus for bone is 1.5x10^10 N/m2 and that a
bone will fracture if more than 1.5x10^8 N/m2 is exerted. (a) What is the
maximum force that can be exerted on the femur bone in the leg if it has a
minimum effective diameter of 2.50 cm? (b) If a force of this magnitude is
applied compressively, by how much does the 25.0-cm-long bone shorten?
Example
A man leg can be thought of as a shaft of bone 1.2 m long. If the strain is 1.3x10-4
when the leg supports his weight, by how much is his leg shortened?
71

Example: Shear stress on the spine

Between each pair of vertebrae of the spine is a disc of cartilage of thickness 0.5
cm. Assume the disc has a radius of 0.04 m. The shear modulus of cartilage
is 1 107 N=m2. A shear force of 10 N is applied to one end of the disc while
the other end is held fixed. (a) What is the resulting shear strain? (b) How far
has one end of the disc moved with respect to the other end?
Solution: (a) The shear strain is caused by the shear force,

(b) A shear strain is dened as the displacement over the height,

Bulk Modulus
Another type of deformation occurs when a force of
uniform magnitude is applied perpendicularly over the
entire surface of the object.
The object will undergo a change in volume, but not in
shape.
The volume stress is defined as the ratio of the
magnitude of the total force, F, exerted on the surface
to the area, A, of the surface.
 This is also called the pressure.
The volume strain is the ratio of the change in volume
to the original volume.
The bulk modulus is the ratio of the volume stress to
the volume strain.
DF
B
volume stress
 A   DP
volume strain DV DV
Vi Vi
The negative indicates that an increase in pressure will
result in a decrease in volume.
The compressibility is the inverse of the bulk modulus.
73

Moduli and Types of Materials

Both solids and liquids have a bulk modulus.
Liquids cannot sustain a shearing stress or a tensile stress.
 If a shearing force or a tensile force is applied to a liquid, the liquid will flow
in response.
74
Prestressed Concrete

If the stress on a solid object exceeds a certain value, the object fractures.
Concrete is normally very brittle when it is cast in thin sections.
 The slab tends to sag and crack at unsupported areas.
The slab can be strengthened by the use of steel rods to reinforce the concrete.
The concrete is stronger under compression than under tension.
75

Pre-stressed Concrete, cont.

A significant increase in shear strength is achieved if the reinforced concrete is
pre-stressed.
As the concrete is being poured, the steel rods are held under tension by external
forces.
These external forces are released after the concrete cures.
This results in a permanent tension in the steel and hence a compressive stress
on the concrete.
This permits the concrete to support a much heavier load.
76
 General Physics
for Science and Engineering Faculties
Dr. Hasan Maridi
Visiting Professor at Heavy ion Laboratory, University of Warsaw, Poland
Assistant Professor of Theoretical Nuclear Physics at Taiz University, Yemen
Energy of a System https://sites.google.com/site/hasanmaridi

Chapter 4 – Energy, work, and power

78

Introduction to Energy
The concept of energy is one of the most important topics in science and
engineering.
Every physical process that occurs in the Universe involves energy and energy
transfers or transformations.
Energy is not easily defined.
Systems
A system is a small portion of the Universe.
A valid system:
 May be a single object or particle
 May be a collection of objects or particles
 May be a region of space
 May vary with time in size and shape

System Example
A force applied to an object in empty space
Work
The work, W, done on a system by an agent exerting a
constant force on the system is the product of the
magnitude F of the force, the magnitude Dr of the
displacement of the point of application of the force, and
cos , where  is the angle between the force and the
displacement vectors.
A force does no work on the object if the force does not
move through a displacement.
 The work done by a force on a moving object is zero
when the force applied is perpendicular to the
displacement of its point of application.
 Work can be given as W  F Dr cos   F  Dr
Work is a scalar quantity.
The unit of work is a joule (J = N · m )
 1 joule = 1 newton . 1 meter = kg ∙ m² / s²
Example: The normal force and the gravitational force do
no work on the object. cos  = cos 90° = 0
80

Kinetic Energy
One possible result of work acting as an influence on a system is that the system
changes its speed. The system could possess kinetic energy.
Kinetic Energy is the energy of a particle due to its motion.
 K = ½ mv2
 K is the kinetic energy
 m is the mass of the particle
 v is the speed of the particle
A change in kinetic energy is one possible result of doing work to transfer energy
into a system. Calculating the work:

 F dx  
xf xf
Wext   ma dx
xi xi
vf
Wext   mv dv
vi

1 1
Wext  mv f2  mv i2
2 2
Wext  K f  K i  DK
This is the Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem.
 81

Potential Energy
The system is the Earth and the book. Do work on the book by
lifting it slowly through a vertical displacement. Dr   y f  y i  ˆj
The work done on the system must appear as an increase in the
energy of the system. The energy storage mechanism is called
potential energy.
Gravitational potential energy is the energy associated with an
object at a given location above the surface of the Earth.

 
Wext  Fapp  D r

Wext  (mgˆj)   y f  y i  ˆj

Wext  mgy f  mgy i
The quantity mgy is identified as the gravitational potential
energy,
Ug.= mgy , Ug is a scalar. Units are joules (J)
Work may change the gravitational potential energy of the
system. Wext = Dug
82

Energy Review
Kinetic Energy: Associated with movement of members of a system
Potential Energy: Determined by the configuration of the system such as
Gravitational and Elastic Potential Energies
Internal Energy: Related to the temperature of the system

Types of Systems
Non-isolated systems: Energy can cross the system boundary in a variety of
ways.
 Total energy of the system changes
Isolated systems: Energy does not cross the boundary of the system
 Total energy of the system is constant
Conservation of energy
 Can be used if no non-conservative forces act within the isolated system
 Applies to biological organisms, technological systems, engineering
situations, etc
83

Ways to Transfer Energy Into or Out of A System

In non-isolated systems, energy crosses the boundary of the system during some
time interval due to an interaction with the environment.
Work – transfers energy by applying a force and causing a displacement of the
point of application of the force.
Mechanical Wave – transfers energy by allowing a disturbance to propagate
through a medium.
Heat – the mechanism of energy transfer that is driven by a temperature
difference between two regions in space.
Matter Transfer – matter physically crosses the boundary of the system, carrying
energy with it.
Electrical Transmission – energy transfer into or out of a system by electric
current.
Electromagnetic Radiation – energy is transferred by electromagnetic waves.

83
84

Examples of Ways to Transfer Energy

85

Conservation of Energy
Energy is conserved
 This means that energy cannot be created nor destroyed.
 If the total amount of energy in a system changes, it can only be due to the fact
that energy has crossed the boundary of the system by some method of
energy transfer.
Mathematically, DEsystem = ST
 Esystem is the total energy of the system
 T is the energy transferred across the system boundary by some mechanism
 Established symbols: Twork = W and Theat = Q
The primarily mathematical representation of the energy version of the analysis
model of the non-isolated system is given by the full expansion of the above
equation.
 D K + D U + DEint = W + Q + TMW + TMT + TET + TER
 TMW – transfer by mechanical waves
 TMT – by matter transfer
 TET – by electrical transmission
 TER – by electromagnetic transmission
86

Isolated System
For an isolated system, DEmech = 0
 Remember Emech = K + U
 This is conservation of energy for an isolated system with no non-
conservative forces acting.
If non-conservative forces are acting, some energy is transformed into internal
energy.
Conservation of Energy becomes DEsystem = 0
 Esystem is all kinetic, potential, and internal energies
 This is the most general statement of the isolated system model.
The changes in energy can be written out and rearranged.
Kf + Uf = Ki + Ui
 Remember, this applies only to a system in which conservative forces act.
 Example – Ball in Free Fall
Determine the speed of the ball at a height y above
the ground.
Conceptualize: Use energy instead of motion
Categorize:
 System is the ball and the Earth
 System is isolated. Use the isolated system model
 Only force is gravitational which is conservative
Analyze
 Apply the Conservation of Mechanical Energy
 Kf + Ugf = Ki + Ugi
 Ki = 0, the ball is dropped
 Solve for vf v f  2g  h  y 
Finalize: The equation for vf is consistent with the
results obtained from the particle under constant
acceleration model for a falling object.
88

Power
Power is the time rate of energy transfer.
dE
The instantaneous power is defined as P
dt

Using work as the energy transfer method, this can also be written as
W
Pavg 
Dt
The instantaneous power is the limiting value of the average power as Dt
approaches zero.
W dW dr
P lim
Dt 0   F  Fv
Dt dt dt
The SI unit of power is called the watt.
 1 watt = 1 joule / second = 1 kg . m2 / s3
Units of power can also be used to express units of work or energy.
 1 kWh = (1000 W)(3600 s) = 3.6 x106 J
 General Physics
for Science and Engineering Faculties
Dr. Hasan Maridi
Visiting Professor at Heavy ion Laboratory, University of Warsaw, Poland
Assistant Professor of Theoretical Nuclear Physics at Taiz University, Yemen
https://sites.google.com/site/hasanmaridi

Chapter 5 - Fluid Mechanics

90

States of Matter
Solid
 Has a definite volume and shape
Liquid
 Has a definite volume but not a definite shape
Gas – unconfined
 Has neither a definite volume nor shape

Fluids
A fluid is a collection of molecules that are randomly arranged and held together
by weak cohesive forces and by forces exerted by the walls of a container.
Both liquids and gases are fluids.
Fluids do not sustain shearing stresses or tensile stresses.
The only stress that can be exerted on an object submerged in a static fluid is
one that tends to compress the object from all sides.
The force exerted by a static fluid on an object is always perpendicular to the
surfaces of the object.
91

Viscosity
Real fluids (especially liquids) exhibit a kind of internal friction called viscosity.
Fluids that flow easily (like water and gasoline) have a fairly low viscosity;
liquids like molasses that are “thick” and flow with difficulty have a high
viscosity.
There are two different types of viscosity defined. The more common is dynamic
viscosity; the other is kinematic viscosity.
Dynamic Viscosity
When a body is placed under transverse (shear) stress s = Ft/A, the resulting
strain e is the tangential displacement x divided by the transverse distance l :

where S is the shear modulus. Fluid flow undergoes a similar kind of shear
stress; however, with fluids, we find that the stress is not proportional to the
strain, but to the rate of change of strain:
92

Dynamic Viscosity
where v is the fluid velocity. The proportionality constant , which takes the place
of the shear modulus, is the dynamic viscosity. The SI units of dynamic
viscosity are Pascal-seconds (Pa s). Other common units are the poise (1 P =
0.1 Pa s) and the centipoise (1 cP = 0.001 Pa s).
Viscosity, especially liquid viscosity, is temperature dependent. You’ve probably
noticed this from everyday experience: refrigerated maple syrup is fairly thick
(high viscosity), but if you warm it on the stove it becomes much thinner (low
viscosity).
Kinematic Viscosityn.
The kinematic viscosity is defined as
the dynamic viscosity divided by
the density:

SI units for kinematic viscosity are

m2/s. Other common units are
stokes (1 St = 10-4 m2/s) and
centistokes (1 cSt = 10-6 m2/s).
 93

Surface tension
A fluid is matter that has no definite shape and adjusts
to the container that it is placed in.
Gases and liquids are both fluids. All fluids are made
of molecules. Every molecules attracts other
molecules around it.
Liquids exhibit surface tension. A liquid has the
property that its free surface tends to contract to
minimum possible area and is therefore in a state of
tension.
The surface tension of the water allows the insect to
walk on the water without sinking.
The molecules of the liquid exerts attractive forces on
each other, which is called cohesive forces. Deep
inside a liquid, a molecule is surrounded by other
molecules in all directions. Therefore there is no net
force on it. At the surface, a molecule is surrounded
by only half as many molecules of the liquid,
because there are no molecules above the surface.
94

Surface tension, definition

The force of contraction is at right angles to an imaginary line of unit length,
tangential to the surface of a liquid, is called its surface tension T or γ :

. Here F is the force exerted by the "skin" of the Liquid. The SI unit of the surface
tension is N/m.

Why are soap bubbles spherical?

Generally, a system under the influence of forces moves towards an equilibrium
configuration that corresponds to minimum potential energy. The sphere
contains the most volume for the least area ⇒ minimum surface potential
energy. There are no cubic raindrops.
 95

Capillary Action
The molecules of the liquid exerts attractive forces on each
other, which is called cohesive forces.
When liquids come into contact with a solid surface, the
liquid's molecules are attracted by the solid's molecules
(called adhesive forces).
If these adhesive forces are stronger than the cohesive
forces, the liquid's molecules are pulled towards the solid
surface and liquid surface becomes curved inward (e.g.
water in a narrow tube).
If cohesive forces are stronger the surface becomes curved
outwards (e.g. with mercury instead).
This also explains why certain liquids spread when placed on
the solid surface and wet it (e.g., water on glass) while
others do not spread but form globules (e.g., mercury on
glass).
The behavior of the liquids in both Figures is called capillary
action.
Pressure
The pressure P of the fluid at the level
to which the device has been
submerged is the ratio of the force to
the area.

Pressure is a scalar quantity.

 Because it is proportional to the
magnitude of the force.
If the pressure varies over an area,
evaluate dF on a surface of area dA as
dF = P dA.
Unit of pressure is pascal (Pa)
1Pa  1 N/m2
97

Density Notes
Density is defined as the mass per unit volume of the substance.
where r is the density, m is the mass of the substance and V is the Volume. The
unit of density in SI unit system is kg/m3.
The values of density for a substance vary slightly with temperature since volume
is temperature dependent.
The various densities indicate the average molecular spacing in a gas is much
greater than that in a solid or liquid.
 Variation of Pressure with Depth
If a fluid is at rest in a container, all portions of the fluid must
be in static equilibrium.
All points at the same depth must be at the same pressure.
Examine the darker region, a sample of liquid within a
cylinder.
 It has a cross-sectional area A.
 Extends from depth d to d + h below the surface.
Three external forces act on the region.
The liquid has a density of r
 Assume the density is the same throughout the fluid.
The three forces are:
 Downward force on the top, P0A
 Upward on the bottom, PA
 Gravity acting downward, Mg
 The mass can be found from the density: M = ρ V = ρ A h.
99

Pressure and Depth, final

Since the net force must be zero:

F  PAˆj  P Aˆj  Mgˆj  0

o
 This chooses upward as positive.
Solving for the pressure gives
 P = P0 + r g h
The pressure P at a depth h below a point in the liquid at which the pressure is P0
is greater by an amount r g h.

Atmospheric Pressure
If the liquid is open to the atmosphere, and P0 is the pressure at the surface of
the liquid, then P0 is atmospheric pressure.
P0 = 1.00 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa
100

Pascal’s Law

The pressure in a fluid depends on depth and on the

value of P0.
An increase in pressure at the surface must be
transmitted to every other point in the fluid.
This is the basis of Pascal’s law.
 Named for French science Blaise Pascal.
Pascal’s Law states a change in the pressure Applications to Pascal’s Law:
applied to a fluid is transmitted undiminished to
Hydraulic brakes
every point of the fluid and to the walls of the
container. Car lifts
F1 F2 Hydraulic jacks
P1  P2 
A1 A2
Forklifts
 Pascal’s Law, Example
An important application of Pascal’s Law is a
hydraulic press. The volume of liquid pushed
down on the left must equal the volume
pushed up on the right.
Since the volumes are equal, A1Dx1  A2 Dx2
Combining the equations,
 F1Dx1  F2 Dx2 which means Work1 =
Work2. This is a consequence of
Conservation of Energy.
Example
In a hydrochloric piston of radius 5cm and 50cm for the small and large pistons
respectively. Find the weight of a car that can be elevated if the force exerted by
the compressed air is (F1 = 100N).
Solution F1 F2 A  (0.05) 2
P  F2  1 F1 F2  100  10000 N
As shown in Figure A2 A1 A2  (0.005) 2
 Pressure Measurements:
Barometer Invented by Torricelli
A long closed tube is filled with mercury and inverted in a
dish of mercury.
 The closed end is nearly a vacuum.
Measures atmospheric pressure as Po = ρHg g h
One 1 atm = 0.760 m (of Hg)
Manometer
A device for measuring the pressure of a gas contained in
a vessel.
One end of the U-shaped tube is open to the atmosphere.
The other end is connected to the pressure to be
measured.
Pressure at B is P = Po+ρgh
The height can be calibrated to measure the pressure.
103

Manometer
The difference in height, "ℎ," which is the sum of
the readings above and below zero, indicates
the gauge pressure (𝑝 =ρ gℎ().
When a vacuum (low pressure) is applied to one
leg, the liquid rises in that leg and falls in the
other.
The difference in height, "ℎ," which is the sum of
the readings above and below zero, indicates
the amount of vacuum.
The manometer is a part of a device
called a sphygmomanometer
104

Absolute vs. Gauge Pressure

P = P0 + r g h
P is the absolute pressure.
The gauge pressure is P – P0.= r g h. This is what you measure in your tires.
Example: Calculate the pressure at an ocean depth of 500m. Assume the density of
water is 103kg/m3 and the atmospheric pressure is 1.01×105Pa..
Solution

Example: What is the pressure on a swimmer 5 𝑚 below the surface of a lake?

Solution: Using the depth of the swimmer is ℎ = 5 𝑚𝑚,
the density for water is 𝜌 = 1000 𝑘g𝑚−3, and
the atmospheric pressure is 1.013×105 𝑃a.
So using equation 𝑝 = 𝑝𝑎 + 𝜌 𝑔 ℎ to calculate the pressure on the swimmer to be:
105

Example
A simple U-tube that is open at both ends is partially filled
with water. Kerosene ( rk= 0.82×103kg/m3) is then
poured into on arm of the tube, forming a column 6cm
height, as shown in Figure. What is the difference h in
the heights of the two liquid surfaces?
Solution
Buoyant Force and Archimedes’s Principle
The buoyant force is the upward force exerted by a fluid on
any immersed object.
The magnitude of the buoyant force always equals the
weight of the fluid displaced by the object.
 This is called Archimedes’s Principle.
The pressure at the bottom of the cube is greater than the
pressure at the top of the cube.
The pressure at the top of the cube causes a downward
force of Ptop A.
The pressure at the bottom of the cube causes an upward
force of Pbot A.
B = (Pbot – Ptop) A = (ρfluid g h) A
B = ρfluid g Vdisp
 Vdisp = A h is the volume of the fluid displaced by the cube.
B=Mg
 Mg is the weight of the fluid displaced by the cube.
107

Archimedes's Principle: Totally Submerged Object

An object is totally submerged in a fluid of density rfluid.
The volume Vdisp of the fluid is equal to the volume of the object, Vobj.
The upward buoyant force is B = rfluid g Vobject
The downward gravitational force is Fg = Mg = = robj g Vobj
The net force is B - Fg = (rfluid – robj) g Vobj

If the density of the object is less than the density

of the fluid, the unsupported object accelerates
upward.
If the density of the object is more than the
density of the fluid, the unsupported object sinks.
If the density of the submerged object equals the
density of the fluid, the object remains in
equilibrium.
The direction of the motion of an object in a fluid
is determined only by the densities of the fluid
and the object.
108

Archimedes’s Principle: Floating Object

The density of the object is less than the density of the fluid.
The object is in static equilibrium.
The object is only partially submerged.
The upward buoyant force is balanced by the downward force of gravity.
Volume of the fluid displaced corresponds to the volume of the object beneath
the fluid level.
The fraction of the volume of a floating object that is below the fluid surface is
equal to the ratio of the density of the object to that of the fluid.
Archimedes’s Principle, Iceberg Example
What fraction of the iceberg is below water?
The iceberg is only partially submerged and so
Vdisp / Vice = rice / rseawater applies
About 89% of the ice is below the water’s
surface.
109

Archimedes’s Principle, Crown Example

Archimedes was (supposedly) asked, “Is the crown
made of pure gold?”
Crown’s weight in air = 7.84 N
Weight in water (submerged) = 6.84 N
Buoyant force will equal the apparent weight loss
 Difference in scale readings will be the buoyant
force
Categorize the crown as a particle in equilibrium.
SF = B + T 2 – F g = 0
B = F g – T2
(Weight in air – apparent “weight” in water)
Archimedes’s principle says B = rgV
 Find V
Then to find the material of the crown, rcrown = mcrown in air / V
110

Example
A solid object has a weight of 5N. When it is suspended from a spring scale and
submerged in water, the scale reads 3.5N as shown in Figure. What is the density
of the object?
Solution
The buoyant force (B) = the weight of the water displaced (Wwater)
B = 5 – 3.5 = 1.5N
Wwater = mg = r V g
hence, r V g = 1.5
111

Example
A cube of wood 20cm on a side and having a density of 0.65×103kg/m3floats on
water. What is the distance from the top of the cube to the water level?
Solution
(a) According to Archimedes principle
B = rw V g = (1g/cm3)×[20×20×(20-h)]g
but
B = weight of the wood = mg = rwood Vwood g = (0.65g/cm 3)(20) 3 hence,
(1g/cm3)×[20×20×(20-h)]g = (0.65g/cm3)(20) 3
20 – h =20×0.65 then h = 20(1-0.65) = 7cm
(b) B = W + Mg where M is the mass of lead
1(20)3 g = (0.65)(20)3 g + Mg
M = 20 3(1- 0.65) = 2800 g = 2.8kg
 112

Types of Fluid Flow

Laminar flow
 Steady flow
 Each particle of the fluid follows a smooth path.
 The paths of the different particles never cross each other.
 Every given fluid particle arriving at a given point has the same velocity.
Turbulent flow
 An irregular flow characterized by small whirlpool-like regions.
 Turbulent flow occurs when the particles go above some critical speed.

Ideal Fluid Flow

 The fluid is non-viscous – internal friction is neglected
 The flow is steady: all particles passing through a point have the same velocity.
 The fluid is incompressible: the density of the incompressible fluid remains
constant.
 The flow is irrotational: the fluid has no angular momentum about any point.
Equation of Continuity
Consider a fluid moving through a pipe of non-uniform size
Consider the small blue-colored portion of the fluid.
At t = 0, the blue portion is flowing through a cross section of
area A1 at speed v1.
At the end of Δt , the blue portion is flowing through a cross
section of area A2 at speed v2.
The mass that crosses A1 in some time interval is the same
as the mass that crosses A2 in that same time interval.
m1 = m2 or r A1v1 Δt = r A2v2 Δt
The fluid is incompressible, so r is a constant.
A1v1 = A2v2 = constant
 This is called the equation of continuity for fluids.
The speed is high where the tube is constricted (small A).
The speed is low where the tube is wide (large A).
The product, Av, is called the volume flux or the flow rate.
114
Example: A water pipe of radius 3cm is used to fill a 40liter bucket. If it takes 5min
to fill the bucket, what is the speed v at which the water leave the pipe?
Solution:
The cross sectional area of the pipe A is

Example: If pipe 1 diameter = 50mm, mean velocity 2m/s, pipe 2 diameter 40mm
takes 30% of total discharge and pipe 3 diameter 60mm. What are the values
of discharge and mean velocity in each pipe?
Bernoulli’s Equation, 1
Daniel Bernoulli. (1700 – 1782)
Consider the two shaded segments.
The volumes of both segments are equal.
The net work done on the segment is W =(P1 –
P2) V.
Part of the work goes into changing the kinetic
energy and some to changing the gravitational
potential energy.
The work is negative because the force on the
segment of fluid is to the left and the
displacement of the point of application of the
force is to the right. Part of the work goes into
changing in kinetic energy of the segment of
fluid:
 DK = ½ mv22 - ½ mv12
 The masses are the same since the
volumes are the same.
116

Bernoulli’s Equation, 2
 There is no change in the kinetic energy of the gray portion since we are
assuming streamline flow.
The change in gravitational potential energy:
 DU = mgy2 – mgy1
The work also equals the change in energy.
Combining:
 (P1 – P2)V =½ mv22 - ½ mv12 + mgy2 – mgy1
Rearranging and expressing in terms of density:
P1 + ½ rv12 + ρgy1 = P2 + ½ rv22 + ρgy2
This is Bernoulli’s Equation as applied to an ideal fluid and is often expressed as
P + ½ r v 2 + r g y = constant
When the fluid is at rest, this becomes P1 – P2 = r g h which is consistent with
the pressure variation with depth we found earlier .
 As the speed increases, the pressure decreases.
117

Example
A large storage tank filled with water develops a small
hole in its side at a point 16m below the water level. If
the rate of flow from the leak is 2.5×10-3m3/min,
determine (a) the speed at which the water leaves the
hole and (b) the diameter of the hole.
Solution
(a) The top of the tank is open then P1 = Pa
The water flow rate is 2.5×10-3m3/min = 4.167×10-5m3/s
Assuming the speed v1 = 0, and P1=P2=Pa
Applications of Fluid Dynamics – Airplane Wing
Streamline flow around a moving airplane wing.
Lift is the upward force on the wing from the air.
Drag is the resistance.
The curvature of the wing surfaces causes the pressure
above the wing to be lower than that below the wing due to
the Bernoulli effect.
The lift depends on the speed of the airplane, the area of
the wing, its curvature, and the angle between the wing and
the horizontal.
In general, an object moving through a fluid experiences lift
as a result of any effect that causes the fluid to change its
direction as it flows past the object.
Some factors that influence lift are:
 The shape of the object
 The object’s orientation with respect to the fluid flow
 Any spinning of the object
 The texture of the object’s surface
Golf Ball Example
The ball is given a rapid backspin.
The dimples increase friction.
 Increases lift
It travels farther than if it was not spinning.
The lift gained by spinning the ball more than
compensates for the loss of range due to the effect
of friction on the translational motion of the ball.
Atomizer Example
A stream of air passes over one end of an open
tube.
The other end is immersed in a liquid.
The moving air reduces the pressure above the
tube.
The fluid rises into the air stream.
The liquid is dispersed into a fine spray of
droplets.
120
 General Physics
for Science and Engineering Faculties
Dr. Hasan Maridi
Visiting Professor at Heavy ion Laboratory, University of Warsaw, Poland
Assistant Professor of Theoretical Nuclear Physics at Taiz University, Yemen
https://sites.google.com/site/hasanmaridi

Chapter 6 – Heat and Temperature

122

Thermal Contact and Thermal Equilibrium

Two objects are in thermal contact with each other if energy can be exchanged
between them.
The energy is exchanged due to a temperature difference.
Thermal equilibrium is a situation in which two objects would not exchange
energy by heat or electromagnetic radiation if they were placed in thermal
contact. They are at the same temperature.

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

If objects A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third object C, then
A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
 Let object C be the thermometer. Since they are in thermal equilibrium with
each other, there is no energy exchanged among them.
Temperature can be thought of as the property that determines whether an
object is in thermal equilibrium with other objects.
A thermometer is a device that is used to measure the temperature of a system.
Thermometers are based on the principle that some physical property of a
system changes as the system’s temperature changes.
Thermometer, Liquid in Glass
A common type of thermometer is a
liquid-in-glass.
The material in the capillary tube
expands as it is heated.
The liquid is usually mercury or alcohol.

Calibrating a Thermometer
A thermometer can be calibrated by placing it in contact with some natural
systems that remain at constant temperature.
Common systems involve water
 A mixture of ice and water at atmospheric pressure
 Called the ice point of water
 A mixture of water and steam in equilibrium
 Called the steam point of water
Once these points are established, the length between them can be divided into
a number of segments.
124

Celsius Scale
The ice point of water is defined to be 0o C.
The steam point of water is defined to be 100o C.
The length of the column between these two points is divided into 100
increments, called degrees.

Problems with Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers

An alcohol thermometer and a mercury thermometer may agree only at the
calibration points.
The discrepancies between thermometers are especially large when the
temperatures being measured are far from the calibration points.
The thermometers also have a limited range of values that can be measured.
 Mercury cannot be used under –39o C
 Alcohol cannot be used above 85o C
Absolute Zero
The thermometer readings are virtually
independent of the gas used.
If the lines for various gases are extended,
the pressure is always zero when the
temperature is –273.15o C.
This temperature is called absolute zero.
Absolute zero is used as the basis of the
absolute temperature scale.
The size of the degree on the absolute scale
is the same as the size of the degree on the
Celsius scale.
To convert: TC = T – 273.15
The units of the absolute scale are kelvins.
The absolute scale is also called the Kelvin
scale. Named for William Thomson, Lord
Kelvin
126

Fahrenheit Scale
A common scale in everyday use in the US. Named for Daniel Fahrenheit
Temperature of the ice point is 32oF.
Temperature of the steam point is 212o.
There are 180 divisions (degrees) between the two reference points.
5
DTC  DT  DTF
9
Comparison of Scales
Celsius and Kelvin have the same size degrees, but different starting points.
 TC = T – 273.15
Celsius and Fahrenheit have different sized degrees and different starting points.
9
TF  TC  32 F
5
To compare changes in temperature
Ice point temperatures 0oC = 273.15 K = 32o F
Steam point temperatures 100oC = 373.15 K = 212o F
127

Thermal Expansion
Thermal expansion is the increase in the size of an object with an increase in its
temperature.

Linear Expansion
Assume an object has an initial length L.
That length increases by DL as the temperature changes by DT.
We define the coefficient of linear expansion as
DL / Li
a
DT

A convenient form is DL = aLi DT

This equation can be written in terms of the initial and final conditions of the object:
 Lf – Li = a Li (Tf – Ti)
The coefficient of linear expansion, a, has units of (oC)-1
Some materials expand along one dimension, but contract along another as the
temperature increases. Since the linear dimensions change, it follows that the
surface area and volume also change with a change in temperature.
128

Some Coefficients
129

Example: Expansion of a railroad track

(a) A steel railroad track has a length of 30.0 m when the temperature is 0 oC.
What is the length on a hot day when the temperature is 40.0 oC?
(b) (b) What is the stress caused by this expansion?
Solution:
(a) The change in length due to the temperature change,

So the new length is 30.013 m.

(b) The railroad undergoes a linear expansion, so this is a tensile strain,
130

Volume Expansion
The change in volume is proportional to the original volume and to the change in
temperature.
DV = bVi DT
 b is the coefficient of volume expansion.
 For a solid, b  3a
 For a liquid or gas, b is given in the table

Area Expansion
The change in area is proportional to the original area and to the change in
temperature:
 DA = 2aAi DT
131

An Ideal Gas
For gases, the interatomic forces within the gas are very weak.
State variables describe the state of a system.
Variables may include:
 Pressure, temperature, volume, internal energy
The state of an isolated system can be specified only if the system is in thermal
equilibrium internally.
 For a gas in a container, this means every part of the gas must be at the
same pressure and temperature.
It is useful to know how the volume, pressure, and temperature of the gas of
mass m are related.
The equation that interrelates these quantities is called the equation of state.
The ideal gas model can be used to make predictions about the behavior of
gases.
132

The Mole
The amount of gas in a given volume is conveniently expressed in terms of the
number of moles, n.
One mole of any substance is that amount of the substance that contains
Avogadro’s number of constituent particles.
 Avogadro’s number is NA = 6.022 x 1023
 The constituent particles can be atoms or molecules.
The number of moles can be determined from the mass of the substance:

m
n
M

 M is the molar mass of the substance.

 Can be obtained from the periodic table
 Is the atomic mass expressed in grams/mole
 Example: He has mass of 4.00 u so M = 4.00 g/mol
 m is the mass of the sample.
 n is the number of moles.
133
Gas Laws
When a gas is kept at a constant temperature, its pressure is inversely
proportional to its volume (Boyle’s law).
When a gas is kept at a constant pressure, its volume is directly proportional to
its temperature (Charles and Gay-Lussac’s law).
When the volume of the gas is kept constant, the pressure is directly proportional
to the temperature (Guy-Lussac’s law).

Ideal Gas Law

The equation of state for an ideal gas combines and summarizes the other gas
laws:
PV = nRT
This is known as the ideal gas law.
R is a constant, called the Universal Gas Constant.
 R = 8.314 J/mol ∙ K = 0.08214 L ∙ atm/mol ∙ K
From this, you can determine that 1 mole of any gas at atmospheric pressure and
at 0o C is 22.4 L.
It is common to call P, V, and T the thermodynamic variables of an ideal gas.
134

Example
Pure helium gas is admitted into a tank containing a movable piston. The initial
volume, pressure and temperature of the gas are 15x10-3m3, 200kPa and
300K respectively. If the volume is decreased to 12x10-3m3 and the pressure
is increased to 350KPa, find the final temperature of the gas.
Solution
Since the gas can not escape from the tank then the number of moles is
constant,
135

Internal Energy
Internal energy is all the energy of a system that is associated with its
microscopic components.
 These components are its atoms and molecules.
 The system is viewed from a reference frame at rest with respect to the
center of mass of the system.
The kinetic energy due to its motion through space is not included.
Internal energy does include kinetic energies due to:
 Random translational motion
 Rotational motion
 Vibrational motion
Internal energy also includes potential energy between molecules
136

Heat
Heat is defined as the transfer of energy across the boundary of a system due to
a temperature difference between the system and its surroundings.
The term heat will also be used to represent the amount of energy transferred by
this method.
There are many common phrases that use the word “heat” incorrectly.
Heat, internal energy, and temperature are all different quantities.
 Be sure to use the correct definition of heat.
 One calorie is the amount of energy transfer necessary to raise the
temperature of 1 g of water from 14.5oC to 15.5oC.
 The “Calorie” used for food is actually 1 kilocalorie.
 The standard in the text is to use Joules.
more precise, measurements determined the amount of mechanical energy
needed to raise the temperature of water from 14.5oC to 15.5oC.
1 cal = 4.186 J
 This is known as the mechanical equivalent of heat.
137

Heat Capacity
The heat capacity, C, of a particular sample is defined as the amount of energy
needed to raise the temperature of that sample by 1oC.
If energy Q produces a change of temperature of DT, then Q = C DT.
Specific Heat
Specific heat, c, is the heat capacity per unit mass.
If energy Q transfers to a sample of a substance of mass m and the temperature
changes by DT, then the specific heat is

Q
c
m DT
The specific heat is essentially a measure of how thermally insensitive a substance
is to the addition of energy.
 The greater the substance’s specific heat, the more energy that must be added
to a given mass to cause a particular temperature change.
The equation is often written in terms of Q : Q = m c DT
Water has the highest specific heat of common materials.
138

Some Specific Heat Values

 139

Example
A quantity of hot water at 91°C and another cold one at 12°C. How much kilogram
of each one is needed to make an 800 liter of water bath at temperature of 35°C.
Solution
Assume the mass of hot water 𝑚𝐻 and cold one is 𝑚𝐶,
800 liter of water is equivalent to 800 kg, So 𝑚𝐻+𝑚𝐶=800,
From the conservation of energy
140

Supercooling
If liquid water is held perfectly still in a very clean container, it is possible for the
temperature to drop below 0o C without freezing.
This phenomena is called supercooling.
It arises because the water requires a disturbance of some sort for the molecules
to move apart and start forming the open ice crystal structures.
 This structure makes the density of ice less than that of water.
If the supercooled water is disturbed, it immediately freezes and the energy
released returns the temperature to 0o C.
Superheating
Water can rise to a temperature greater than 100o C without boiling.
This phenomena is called superheating.
The formation of a bubble of steam in the water requires nucleation site.
 This could be a scratch in the container or an impurity in the water.
When disturbed, the superheated water can become explosive.
 The bubbles will immediately form and hot water is forced upward and out of
the container.
141

Mechanisms of Energy Transfer In Thermal Processes

The heat is a transfer of the energy from a high temperature object to a lower
temperature one. There are various mechanisms responsible for the transfer:
Conduction, Convection, Radiation

Conduction
It is an exchange of kinetic energy between microscopic particles by collisions.
 The microscopic particles can be atoms, molecules or free electrons.
 Less energetic particles gain energy during collisions with more energetic
particles.
Rate of conduction depends upon the characteristics of the substance.
In general, metals are good thermal conductors.
 They contain large numbers of electrons that are relatively free to move
through the metal.
 They can transport energy from one region to another.
Poor conductors include asbestos, paper, and gases.Conduction can occur only if
there is a difference in temperature between two conducting medium.
 Conduction, equation

The slab at right allows energy to transfer from the region

of higher temperature to the region of lower temperature.
The rate of transfer is given by:

A is the cross-sectional area. L is the length of a rod

H (or P) = rate of conduction heat transfer (Watt)
k is the thermal conductivity of the material.
 Good conductors have high k values and good
insulators have low k values
143

Example
An aluminum pot contains water that is kept steadily boiling (100 ºC). The
bottom surface of the pot, which is 12 mm thick and 1.5x104 mm2 in area, is
maintained at a temperature of 102°C by an electric heating unit. Find the
rate at which heat is transferred through the bottom surface. Compare this
with a copper based pot.
Solution
144

Convection
Energy transferred by the movement of a substance.
It is a form of matter transfer:
 When the movement results from differences in
density, it is called natural convection.
 When the movement is forced by a fan or a
pump, it is called forced convection.
Example
Air directly above the radiator is warmed and
expands.
The density of the air decreases, and it rises.
A continuous air current is established
145

Radiation
Radiation does not require physical contact.
All objects radiate energy continuously in the form of electromagnetic waves due
to thermal vibrations of their molecules.
Rate of radiation is given by Stefan’s law.
P= σAeT4
 P is the rate of energy transfer, in Watts.
 σ = 5.6696 x 10-8 W/m2 . K4
 A is the surface area of the object.
 e is a constant called the emissivity.
 e varies from 0 to 1
 The emissivity is also equal to the absorptivity.

 T is the temperature in Kelvins.

An ideal absorber is defined as an object that absorbs all of the energy incident
on it. e = 1
This type of object is called a black body.
146

Energy Absorption and Emission by Radiation

With its surroundings, the rate at which the object at temperature T with
surroundings at To radiates is
 Pnet = σAe (T 4 –To4)
 When an object is in equilibrium with its surroundings, it radiates and absorbs
at the same rate.
 Its temperature will not change

Example: A student tries to decide what to wear is staying in a room that is at

20°C. If the skin temperature is 37°C, how much heat is lost from the body in
10 minutes? Assume that the emissivity of the body is 0.9 and the surface area
of the student is 1.5 m2.
Solution
Using the Stefan-Boltzmann's law

The total energy lost during 10 min is

147

The Dewar Flask

A Dewar flask is a container designed to minimize the
energy losses by conduction, convection, and
radiation.
 Invented by Sir James Dewar (1842 – 1923)
It is used to store either cold or hot liquids for long
periods of time.
 A Thermos bottle is a common household
equivalent of a Dewar flask.
The space between the walls is a vacuum to minimize
energy transfer by conduction and convection.
The silvered surface minimizes energy transfers by
radiation.
 Silver is a good reflector.
The size of the neck is reduced to further minimize
energy losses.
148
 General Physics
for Science and Engineering Faculties
Dr. Hasan Maridi
Visiting Professor at Heavy ion Laboratory, University of Warsaw, Poland
Assistant Professor of Theoretical Nuclear Physics at Taiz University, Yemen
https://sites.google.com/site/hasanmaridi

Chapter 7 - Sound Waves

150

Types of Waves
Example of a wave
 A pebble hits the water’s surface.
 The resulting circular wave moves outward from the creation point.
 An object floating on the disturbed water will move vertically and horizontally
about its original position, but does not undergo any net displacement.
In wave motion, energy is transferred over a distance.
Matter is not transferred over a distance.
There are two main types of waves.
 Mechanical waves
 Some physical medium is being disturbed.
 The wave is the propagation of a disturbance through a medium.

 Electromagnetic waves
 No medium required.
 Examples are light, radio waves, x-rays
Pulse on a String
The wave is generated by a flick on one end of the string.
The string is under tension.
A single bump is formed and travels along the string.
 The bump is called a pulse.
 The speed of the pulse is v.
The string is the medium through which the pulse travels.
 Individual elements of the string are disturbed from
their equilibrium position.
The pulse has a definite height. It has a definite speed of
propagation along the medium.
The shape of the pulse changes very little as it travels
along the string.
Terminology: Amplitude and Wavelength
The crest of the wave is the location of the maximum
displacement of the element from its normal position.
 This distance is called the amplitude, A.
The wavelength, l, is the distance from one crest to the next.
The period, T , is the time interval required for two identical
points of adjacent waves to pass by a point.
The frequency, ƒ, is the number of crests (or any point on the
wave) that pass a given point in a unit time interval.
1
ƒ
T
When the time interval is the second, the units of frequency
are s-1 = Hz. Hz is a hertz
Example
The wavelength, l, is 40.0 cm
The amplitude, A, is 15.0 cm
The wave function can be written as y = A cos(kx – t).
153

Speed of Waves
Since speed is distance divided by time,
v = l / T= l ƒ
 The speed depends on the properties of the medium being disturbed.
The wave function is given by  2 
y ( x, t )  A sin   x  vt  
l 
 This is for a wave moving to the right.
 For a wave moving to the left, replace x – vt with x + vt.
We can also define the angular wave number (or just wave number), k.
2
k
l
The angular frequency can also be defined.
2
  2 ƒ
T
The wave function can be expressed as y = A sin (k x – t).
If x  0 at t = 0, the wave function can be generalized to y = A sin (k x – t + f)
where f is called the phase constant.
154

Example
A sinusoidal wave traveling in the positive x direction has an amplitude of 15.0
cm, a wavelength of 40.0 cm, and a frequency of 8.00 Hz. The vertical
position of an element of the medium at t ! 0 and x ! 0 is also 15.0 cm, as
shown in Figure. Find the wave number k, period T, angular frequency w
and speed v of the wave.
Solution
155

Speed of a Wave on a String

The speed of the wave depends on the physical characteristics of the string and
the tension to which the string is subjected.
tension T
v 
mass/length m

This assumes that the tension is not affected by the pulse.

Energy in Waves in a String
Waves transport energy when they propagate through a medium. Every element
has the same total energy.
the total kinetic energy in one wavelength is Kl = ¼m 2A 2l
The total potential energy in one wavelength is Ul = ¼m 2A 2l
This gives a total energy of El = Kl + Ul = ½m 2A 2l
Power Associated with a Wave
 The power is the rate at which the energy is being transferred:
1
El 2 m Al
2 2
1
P   m 2 A2v
T T 2
156

Introduction to Sound Waves

Waves can move through three-dimensional bulk media.
Sound waves are longitudinal waves.
Sound waves cannot be transmitted through vacuum. The transmission of sound
requires at least a medium, which can be solid, liquid, or gas.
 Commonly experienced as the mechanical waves traveling through air that
result in the human perception of hearing
 As the sound wave travels through the air, elements of air are disturbed from
their equilibrium positions.
 Accompanying these movements are changes in density and pressure of the
air.
The mathematical description of sinusoidal sound waves is very similar to
sinusoidal waves on a string.
The categories cover different frequency ranges.
Audible waves are within the sensitivity of the human ear. [20Hz - 20kHz]
Infrasonic waves have frequencies below the audible range. [less than 20kHz]
Ultrasonic waves have frequencies above the audible range. [larger than 20kHz]
 157

Transverse Wave
(water wave)

compression
Compression Wave
(increase in pressure)
(sound)
rarefaction
(Decrease in pressure)

The illustration above shows a comparison of a transverse wave such as a water

wave and the compression wave sound wave.
158

Characteristics of sound
A sound wave has characteristics just like any other type of wave, including
amplitude, velocity, wavelength and frequency.
Amplitude
The amplitude of a sound wave is the same thing as its loudness. Since sound is
a compression wave, its loudness or amplitude would correspond to how
much the wave is compressed. It is sometimes called pressure amplitude
Wavelength (λ )
Wavelength is the distance from one crest to another of a wave. Since sound is a
compression wave, the wavelength is the distance between maximum
compressions
Frequency (f )
The frequency of sound is the rate at which the waves pass a given point. It is
also the rate at which a guitar string or a loud speaker vibrates.
Period (T) :is the time taken by a crest to move forward one wave length.
159

Speed or velocity of sound

The relationship between velocity, wavelength and frequency is:
velocity = wavelength x frequency
Since a crest moves forward a distance λ in
a time T .
velocity (v ) = λ / T = λf
Where T= 1 / f
V= λf m/sec
Resonance :The ability of an object to vibrate by absorbing energy of its own
natural frequency is called resonance
Producing a Periodic Sound Wave
A one-dimensional periodic sound wave can be
produced by causing the piston to move in simple
harmonic motion.
The darker parts of the areas in the figures represent
areas where the gas is compressed. The compressed
region is called a compression.
When the piston is pulled back, the gas in front of it
expands. The low-pressure regions are called
rarefactions.
Both regions move at the speed of sound in the
medium.
The distance between two successive compressions
(or rarefactions) is the wavelength.
Speed of Sound in a Gas
Consider an element of the gas between the piston
and the dashed line.
Initially, this element is in equilibrium under the
influence of forces of equal magnitude.
 There is a force from the piston on left.
 There is another force from the rest of the gas.
 These forces have equal magnitudes of PA.
 P is the pressure of the gas.
 A is the cross-sectional area of the tube.

The change in pressure can be related to the

volume change and the bulk modulus:

DV v
DP  B B x
V v
162

Speed of Sound in a Gas, cont.

The speed of sound in a gas is
B
v
r
 The bulk modulus of the material is B.
 The density of the material is r
Example Find the speed of sound in water, which has a bulk modulus of 2.1 &
109 N/m2 at a temperature of 0°C and a density of 1.00 & 103 kg/m3.
Solution
163

Speed of Sound Waves, General

The speed of sound waves in a medium depends on the compressibility and the
density of the medium.
The speed of all mechanical waves follows a general form:
elastic property
v
inertial property

For a solid rod, the speed of sound depends on Young’s modulus and the density
of the material.
Speed of Sound in Air
The speed of sound also depends on the temperature of the medium.
 This is particularly important with gases.
For air, the relationship between the speed and temperature is
TC
v  (331 m/s) 1 
273
 The 331 m/s is the speed at 0o C.
 TC is the air temperature in Celsius.
164

Speed of Sound in Gases, Example Values

A Point Source
A point source will emit sound waves equally in all
directions. This can result in a spherical wave.
This can be represented as a series of circular arcs
concentric with the source.
Each surface of constant phase is a wave front.
The radial distance between adjacent wave fronts that
have the same phase is the wavelength λ of the wave.
Radial lines pointing outward from the source, representing
the direction of propagation, are called rays.
The power will be distributed equally through the area of
the sphere.
The wave intensity at a distance r from the source is
 Power avg  Power avg
I 
A 4 r 2
This is an inverse-square law.The intensity decreases in
proportion to the square of the distance from the source.
166

Example: Intensity Variations of a Point Source

A point source emits sound waves with an average power output of 80.0 W.
(A) Find the intensity 3.00 m from the source.
SOLUTION
Because a point source emits energy in the form of spherical waves

(B) Find the distance at which the intensity of the sound is 1.00 108 W/m2.
167

Sound Level
The range of intensities detectible by the human ear is very large.
It is convenient to use a logarithmic scale to determine the intensity level, b
I 
b  10log  
 Io 
I0 is called the reference intensity.
 It is taken to be the threshold of hearing. I0 = 1.00 x 10-12 W/ m2
 I is the intensity of the sound whose level is to be determined.
b is in decibels (dB)
Threshold of pain: I = 1.00 W/m2; b = 120 dB
Threshold of hearing: I0 = 1.00 x 10-12 W/ m2 corresponds to b = 0 dB
What is the sound level that corresponds to an intensity of 2.0 x 10-7 W/m2 ?
b = 10 log (2.0 x 10-7 W/m2 / 1.0 x 10-12 W/m2)
= 10 log 2.0 x 105 = 53 dB
Rule of thumb: A doubling in the loudness is approximately equivalent to an
increase of 10 dB.
168

Sound Levels
The Doppler Effect
The Doppler effect is the apparent change in frequency (or wavelength) that
occurs because of motion of the source or observer of a wave.
 When the relative speed of the source and observer is higher than the speed
of the wave, the frequency appears to increase.
 When the relative speed of the source and observer is lower than the speed
of the wave, the frequency appears to decrease.

Doppler Effect, Observer Moving

The observer moves with a speed of vo.
Assume a point source that remains
stationary relative to the air.
It is convenient to represent the waves as
wave fronts.
 These surfaces are called wave fronts.
 The distance between adjacent wave
fronts is the wavelength.
170

Doppler Effect, Observer Moving, cont

The speed of the sound is v, the frequency is ƒ, and the wavelength is l
When the observer moves toward the source, the speed of the waves relative to
the observer is v ’ = v + vo.
 The wavelength is unchanged.
The frequency heard by the observer, ƒ ’, appears higher when the observer
approaches the source.

 v  vo 
ƒ'   ƒ
 v 
The frequency heard by the observer, ƒ ’, appears lower when the observer
moves away from the source.
 v  vo 
ƒ'   ƒ
 v 
Doppler Effect, Source Moving
Consider the source being in motion while
the observer is at rest.
As the source moves toward the observer,
the wavelength appears shorter.
As the source moves away, the wavelength
appears longer.
When the source is moving toward the
observer, the apparent frequency is higher.
 v 
ƒ'   ƒ
 v  vs 
When the source is moving away from the
observer, the apparent frequency is lower.

 v 
ƒ'   ƒ
 v  v s 
172

Doppler Effect, General

Combining the motions of the observer and the source
 v  vo 
ƒ'   ƒ
 v  vs 
The signs depend on the direction of the velocity.
 A positive value is used for motion of the observer or the source toward the
other.
 A negative sign is used for motion of one away from the other.
Convenient rule for signs.
 The word “toward” is associated with an increase in the observed frequency.
 The words “away from” are associated with a decrease in the observed
frequency.
The Doppler effect is common to all waves.
173

Doppler Effect, Submarine Example

Sub A (source) travels at 8.00 m/s emitting at a frequency of 1400 Hz.
The speed of sound in the water is 1533 m/s.
Sub B (observer) travels at 9.00 m/s.
What is the apparent frequency heard by the observer as the subs approach
each other? Then as they recede from each other?
pproaching each other:

 v  vo   1533 m s   9.00 m s  
ƒ'    ƒ    (1400 Hz )
 v  vs   1533 m s   8.00 m s  
 1416 Hz

Receding from each other:

 v  vo   1533 m s   9.00 m s  
ƒ'    ƒ    (1400 Hz )
 v  vs   1533 m s   8.00 m s  
 1385 Hz
 Shock Waves and Mach Number
The speed of the source can exceed the
speed of the wave.
The envelope of these wave fronts is a
cone whose apex half-angle is given by
sin   v/vS.
 This is called the Mach angle.
The ratio vs / v is referred to as the Mach
number .
The relationship between the Mach
angle and the Mach number is
vt v
sin  
vst v s
The conical wave front produced when vs > v is known as a shock wave.
 This is a supersonic speed.
The shock wave carries a great deal of energy concentrated on the surface of the
cone. There are correspondingly great pressure variations.
 175

What is Ultrasound?
Ultrasound is defined as any sound wave above 20000Hz. Sound waves of this
frequency are above the human audible range and therefore cannot be heard by
humans. All sound waves, including ultrasound are longitudinal waves. Medical
ultrasounds are usually of the order of MEGAHERTZ (1-15MHz). Ultrasound as all
sound waves are caused by vibrations and therefore cause no ionisation and are
safe to use on pregnant women. Ultrasound is also able to distinguish between
muscle and blood and show blood movement.
When an ultrasound wave meets a boundary between two different materials some
of it is refracted and some is reflected. The reflected wave is detected by the
ultrasound scanner and forms the image.
producing a sound wave
Ultrasound waves are produced by a
transducer. A transducer is a device that
takes power from one source and
converts into another form ,i.e electricity
into sound waves. The sound waves
begin with the mechanical movement
(oscillations) of a crystal that has been
excited by electrical pulses.
176

Ultrasound Equipment

Screen/Display

Transducer pulse controls

Computer

Various Transducers

Portable
 General Physics
for Science and Engineering Faculties
Dr. Hasan Maridi
Visiting Professor at Heavy ion Laboratory, University of Warsaw, Poland
Assistant Professor of Theoretical Nuclear Physics at Taiz University, Yemen
https://sites.google.com/site/hasanmaridi

Chapter 8 - Light and Optics

178

Introduction to Light
Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation.
Speed of light = 3 x 108 m/s
Light represents energy transfer from the source to the observer.

Spectrum of light
179

The Nature of Light

Before the beginning of the nineteenth century,
light was considered to be a stream of particles.
During the nineteenth and 20th century, other
In view of other developments in the 20th century,
light must be regarded as having a dual nature.
 Light behaves both as a wave and as a
particle. As a wave it produces interference
and diffraction, which are of minor importance
in medicine. As a particle it can be absorbed
by a single molecule. When a light photon is
absorbed its energy is used in a various
ways. It can cause an electrical change.
Ray optics (sometimes called geometric optics)
involves the study of the propagation of light. It
uses the assumption that light travels in a straight-
line path in a uniform medium and changes its
direction when it meets the surface of a different
medium
 180

Reflection of Light
A ray of light, the incident ray, travels in a medium.
When it encounters a boundary with a second
medium, part of the incident ray is reflected back into
the first medium.
 There are two types of reflection:
Specular reflection is reflection from a smooth
surface.
The reflected rays are parallel to each other.
All reflection in this text is assumed to be specular.

Diffuse reflection is reflection from a rough surface.

The reflected rays travel in a variety of directions.
A surface behaves as a smooth surface as long as the
surface variations are much smaller than the
wavelength of the light.
 Law of Reflection
The normal is a line perpendicular to the surface.
The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.
θ1’= θ1 This relationship is called the Law of Reflection.
 The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal are all
in the same plane.
Multiple Reflections
The incident ray strikes the first mirror. The reflected ray is
directed toward the second mirror. There is a second
reflection from the second mirror.
Retroreflection
Assume the angle between two mirrors is 90o .The reflected
beam returns to the source parallel to its original path.
This phenomenon is called retroreflection. It iis used in
 Measuring the distance to the Moon
 Automobile taillights and Traffic signs
182

Refraction of Light
When a ray of light traveling through a transparent
medium encounters a boundary leading into another
transparent medium, part of the energy is reflected
and part enters the second medium and changes its
direction of propagation at the boundary.
 This bending of the ray is called refraction.
The incident ray, the reflected ray, the refracted ray,
and the normal all lie on the same plane.
The angle of refraction depends upon the material
and the angle of incidence.
sin θ2 v 2

sin θ1 v 1
 v1 is the speed of the light in the first medium and
v2 is its speed in the second.
Light in a Medium
The light enters from the left.
The light may encounter an electron.
The electron may absorb the light, oscillate, and
reradiate the light.
The absorption and radiation cause the average
speed of the light moving through the material to
decrease.
When light is absorbed, its energy generally appears
as heat. This property is the basis for the use in
medicine.
Sometime when a light photon is absorbed ,a lower
energy light photon is emitted. This property is
known a fluorescence.
184

The Index of Refraction

The speed of light in any material is less than its speed in vacuum.
The index of refraction, n, of a medium can be defined as
speed of light in a vacuum c
n 
speed of light in a medium v
For a vacuum, n = 1
 We assume n = 1 for air also
For other media, n > 1
n is a dimensionless number greater than unity and is not necessarily an integer.
Snell’s Law of Refraction
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
 θ1 is the angle of incidence
 θ2 is the angle of refraction
The experimental discovery of this relationship is usually credited to Willebrord
Snell and is therefore known as Snell’s law of refraction.
185

Some Indices of Refraction

186

The Rainbow
A ray of light strikes a drop of water in the atmosphere.
It undergoes both reflection and refraction.
 First refraction at the front of the drop
 Violet light will deviate the most.
 Red light will deviate the least.
At the back surface the light is reflected.
It is refracted again as it returns to the front surface and moves
into the air.
The rays leave the drop at various angles.
 The angle between the white light and the most intense
violet ray is 40°.
 The angle between the white light and the most intense red
ray is 42°
If a raindrop high in the sky is observed, the red ray is seen.
A drop lower in the sky would direct violet light to the observer.
The other colors of the spectra lie in between the red and the
violet..
Fiber Optics
An application of internal reflection. Plastic or glass rods are
used to “pipe” light from one place to another.
Applications include:
 Medical examination of internal organs
 Telecommunications

Construction of an Optical Fiber

The transparent core is surrounded by cladding.
 The cladding has a lower n than the core.
 This allows the light in the core to experience total
internal reflection.
The combination is surrounded by the jacket.
A flexible light pipe is called an optical fiber.
A bundle of parallel fibers (shown) can be used to construct
an optical transmission line.
188

Image of Formation
Images can result when light rays encounter surfaces between two media.
Images can be formed either by reflection or refraction due to these surfaces.
Mirrors and lenses can be designed to form images with desired characteristics.
Notation for Mirrors and Lenses
The object distance is the distance from the object to the mirror or lens.
 Denoted by p
The image distance is the distance from the image to the mirror or lens.
 Denoted by q
The lateral magnification of the mirror or lens is the ratio of the image height to
the object height.
 Denoted by M
When the object is very far away, then p → ∞ and the incoming rays are
essentially parallel, the image point is called the focal point. The distance from
the mirror to the focal point is called the focal length. Denoted by f
 The focal length is ½ the radius of curvature.
189

Ray Diagrams
A ray diagram can be used to determine the position and size of an image.
They are graphical constructions which reveal the nature of the image.
They can also be used to check the parameters calculated from the mirror and
magnification equations.
To draw a ray diagram, you need to know:
 The position of the object
 The locations of the focal point and the center of curvature.
Three rays are drawn. They all start from the same position on the object.
The intersection of any two of the rays at a point locates the image.
The third ray serves as a check of the construction.
Ray 1 is drawn from the top of the object parallel to the principal axis and is
reflected through the focal point, F.
Ray 2 is drawn from the top of the object through the focal point and is reflected
parallel to the principal axis.
Ray 3 is drawn through the center of curvature, C, and is reflected back on itself.
190

Image Formed by a Thin Lens

A thin lens is one whose thickness is small compared to the radii of curvature. It
used in optical instruments: Cameras, Telescopes, Microscopes
Thin Lens Equation
The relationship among the focal length, the object distance and the image
distance is the same as for a mirror.
1 1 1
 
p q ƒ

Diopters
Optometrists and ophthalmologists usually prescribe lenses measured in
diopters. The power P of a lens in diopters equals the inverse of the focal length
in meters.
 P = 1/ƒ
The lateral magnification of the image is
h' q
M 
h p
191

Notes on Focal Length and Focal Point of a Thin Lens

Because light can travel in either direction through a lens, each lens has two
focal points. One focal point is for light passing in one direction through the lens
and one is for light traveling in the opposite direction.
However, there is only one focal length.
Each focal point is located the same distance
from the lens.
Focal Length of a Converging Lens
The parallel rays pass through the lens and
converge at the focal point.
The parallel rays can come from the left or right of
the lens.
Focal Length of a Diverging Lens
The parallel rays diverge after passing through the
diverging lens.
The focal point is the point where the rays appear to
have originated.
 192

Ray Diagrams for Thin Lenses – Converging

Ray diagrams are convenient for locating the images formed by thin lenses or
systems of lenses. For a converging lens, the following three rays are drawn:
 Ray 1 is drawn parallel to the principal axis and then passes through the focal
point on the back side of the lens.
 Ray 2 is drawn through the center of the lens and continues in a straight line.
 Ray 3 is drawn through the focal point on the front of the lens (or as if coming
from the focal point if p < ƒ) and emerges from the lens parallel to the principal
axis.

Ray Diagram for Converging Lens, p > f

The image is real and inverted.
The image is on the back side of the lens.
Ray Diagram for Converging Lens, p < f
The image is virtual and upright.
The image is larger than the object.
The image is on the front side of the lens.
 193

Ray Diagrams for Thin Lenses – Diverging

For a diverging lens, the following three rays are
drawn:
 Ray 1 is drawn parallel to the principal axis
and emerges directed away from the focal
point on the front side of the lens.
 Ray 2 is drawn through the center of the lens
and continues in a straight line.
 Ray 3 is drawn in the direction toward the
focal point on the back side of the lens and
emerges from the lens parallel to the
principal axis.
The image is virtual.
The image is upright.
The image is smaller.
The image is on the front side of the lens.
194

Combinations of Thin Lenses

The image of the first lens is treated as the object of the second lens.
The image formed by the second lens is the final image of the system.
Then a ray diagram is drawn for the second lens.
The same procedure can be extended to a system of three or more lenses.
The overall magnification is the product of the magnification of the separate lenses.
Two Lenses in Contact
Consider a case of two lenses in contact with each other:
 The lenses have focal lengths of ƒ1 and ƒ2.
For the combination of the two lenses 1 1 1
 
ƒ ƒ1 ƒ 2
Two thin lenses in contact with each other are equivalent to a single thin lens
having a focal length given by the above equation.
 Eye and vision, The Human Eye
Light passes through the cornea of the human eye and is focused by the lens on
the retina. The ciliary muscles change the shape of the lens, so it can focus at
different distances. The vitreous and aqueous humors are transparent. Rods and
cones on the retina convert the light into electrical impulses, which travel down
the optic nerve to the brain.

The cornea focuses by bending

(refracting) the light rays. The amount
of bending depends on the curvatures
of its surfaces and the speed of light in
the lens compared with that in the
surrounding material.
 The Human Eye
The eye produces a real, inverted
image on the retina. Why don’t
things look upside down to us? The
brain adjusts the image to appear
properly.

The ciliary muscles

adjust the shape of the
lens to accommodate
near and far vision.
Myopia
Farsightedness
A nearsighted person has a
far point that is a finite
distance away; objects
farther away will appear
blurry. This is due to the
lens focusing too strongly,
so the image is formed in
front of the retina.

To correct this, a diverging

lens is used. Its focal length
is such that a distant object
forms an image at the far
point:
Hyperemia
Nearsightedness
A person who is farsighted can
see distant objects clearly, but
cannot focus on close objects –
the near point is too far away.
The lens of the eye is not strong
enough, and the image focus is
behind the retina.

To correct farsightedness, a
converging lens is used to
augment the converging power
of the eye. The final image is
past the near point:
199

The Camera Components

The photographic camera is a simple optical instrument.
 Light-tight chamber
Proper focusing will result in sharp images.  Converging lens
The camera is focused by varying the distance between  Produces a real
the lens and the CCD. image
 The lens-to-CCD distance will depend on the object  Light sensitive
distance and on the focal length of the lens. component behind
the lens
The shutter is a mechanical device that is opened for  Where the image
selected time intervals. is formed
 The time interval that the shutter is opened is called  Could be a CCD
the exposure time. or film

Light intensity is a measure of the rate at which energy is

received by the CCD per unit area of the image.
 The intensity of the light reaching the CCD is
proportional to the area of the lens.
The brightness of the image formed on the CCD depends
on the light intensity.
200

Simple Magnifier
A simple magnifier consists of a single converging lens.
This device is used to increase the apparent size of an object.
The size of an image formed on the retina depends on the angle subtended by
the eye.

When an object is placed at the near point, the angle subtended is a maximum.
 The near point is about 25 cm.
When the object is placed near the focal point of a converging lens, the lens
forms a virtual, upright, and enlarged image.
Compound Microscope
A compound microscope consists of
two lenses.
 Gives greater magnification than a
single lens
 The objective lens has a short focal
length,
ƒo< 1 cm
 The eyepiece has a focal length, ƒe
of a few cm.
The lenses are separated by a distance L.
 L is much greater than either focal length.
The object is placed just outside the focal point of the objective.
 This forms a real, inverted image
 This image is located at or close to the focal point of the eyepiece.
This image acts as the object for the eyepiece.
 The image seen by the eye, I2, is virtual, inverted and very much enlarged.
202
 General Physics
for Science and Engineering Faculties
Dr. Hasan Maridi
Visiting Professor at Heavy ion Laboratory, University of Warsaw, Poland
Assistant Professor of Theoretical Nuclear Physics at Taiz University, Yemen
https://sites.google.com/site/hasanmaridi

Chapter 9 - Electricity
 Electric Charges
There are two kinds of electric charges
 Called positive and negative
Conductors
Electrical conductors are materials in which some of the electrons are free electrons.
 Examples of good conductors include copper, aluminum and silver.
Insulators
Electrical insulators are materials in which all of the electrons are bound to atoms.
 Examples of good insulators include glass, rubber and wood..

Semiconductors
The electrical properties of semiconductors are somewhere between those of
insulators and conductors.
Examples of semiconductor materials include silicon and germanium.
 Semiconductors made from these materials are commonly used in making
electronic chips.
 205

Point Charge
The term point charge refers to a particle of zero size that carries an electric charge.
 The electrical behavior of electrons and protons is well described by modeling
them as point charges.
The force is attractive if the charges are of opposite sign.
The force is repulsive if the charges are of like sign.
Quantization of Electric Charges
The electric charge, q, is said to be quantized.
The SI unit of charge is the coulomb ©.
 Electric charge exists as discrete packets.
 q = Ne
 N is an integer
 e is the fundamental unit of charge
 |e| = 1.6 x 10-19 C
 Electron: q = -e
 Proton: q = +e
206

The electrical force

Charles Coulomb (1736 – 1806 French physicist) measured the magnitudes of
electric forces between two small charged spheres.
The electrical force between two point charges is given by Coulomb’s Law.
Mathematically, q1 q 2
Fe  k e
r2
the Coulomb constant, ke = 8.9876 x 109 N.m2/C2 = 1/(4πeo)
 eo = 8.8542 x 10-12 C2 / N.m2 is the permittivity of free space.

Electric Field
An electric field is said to exist in the region of space around a charged object
This charged object is the source charge.
When another charged object, the test charge, enters this electric field, an
electric force acts on it.
The electric field vector,E , at a point in space is defined as the electric force
acting on a positive test charge, qo, placed at that point divided by the test charge:
Fe q
The SI units of E are N/C. E  ke 2 rˆ
qo r
 Electric Field Lines
The number of lines per unit area through a surface
perpendicular to the lines is proportional to the
magnitude of the electric field in that region.
For a positive point charge:
The field lines are directed away from the source
charge in all directions.
For a negative point charge:
The field lines are directed toward the source charge
in all directions.
Electric Field Lines – Dipole
The charges are equal and opposite. The number of
field lines leaving the positive charge equals the
number of lines terminating on the negative charge.
Electric Field Lines – Like Charges
The charges are equal and positive.The same number
of lines leave each charge since they are equal in
magnitude.
208

Electrical Potential Energy

When a test charge is placed in an electric field, it experiences a force. Fe  qoE
For a finite displacement of the charge from A to B, the work is done by the field or
the change in potential energy is B
DU  UB  U A  qo  E  ds
A
Electric Potential
The potential energy per unit charge, U/qo, is the electric potential.
U
The electric potential is V 
qo
The potential is a scalar quantity. Because energy is a scalar.
Units of the electric potential is volt. 1 V ≡ 1 J/C. In addition, 1 N/C = 1 V/m
As a charged particle moves in an electric field,
The equations for electric potential between two points A and B can be simplified if
the electric field is uniform: B B
VB  VA  DV    E  ds  E  ds  Ed
A A

q
Then the potential due to a point charge at some point r is: V  k e
r
q
The electric potential due to several point charges is: V  ke  i
i ri
 209

Voltage: Electric potential is also called voltage which is applied to a device or

across a device is the same as the potential difference across the device.
Electron-Volts: Another unit of energy that is commonly used in atomic and
nuclear physics is the electron-volt. One electron-volt is defined as the energy a
charge-field system gains or loses when a charge of magnitude e (an electron or a
proton) is moved through a potential difference of 1 volt. 1 eV = 1.60 x 10-19 J
Example: A battery produces a specified potential difference ∆V between
conductors attached to the battery terminals. A 12-V battery is connected between
two parallel plates, as shown in Figure. The separation between the plates is d =
0.30 cm, and we assume the electric field between the plates to be uniform. Find
the magnitude of the electric field between the plates.
Solution The potential difference between the plates must
equal the potential difference between the battery
terminals, because all points on a conductor in
equilibrium are at the same electric potential. Therefore,
the magnitude of the electric field between the plates is

This configuration of plates is called a parallel-plate capacitor

210

Example: The Electric Potential Due to Two Point Charges

A charge q1 = 2.00 mC is located at the origin, and a charge
q2 = 6.00 mC is located at (0, 3.00) m, as shown in Figure
(A) Find the total electric potential due to these charges at
the point P, whose coordinates are (4.00, 0) m.
Solution

(B) Find the electric force between the two charges

q1 q 2
Fe  k e
r2
 Capacitors
Capacitors are devices that store electric charge.
Examples of where capacitors are used include:
 radio receivers
 filters in power supplies
 to eliminate sparking in automobile ignition systems
 energy-storing devices in electronic flashes
Makeup of a Capacitor
A capacitor consists of two conductors.
 These conductors are called plates.
 When the conductor is charged, the plates carry
charges of equal magnitude and opposite directions.
A potential difference exists between the plates due to the
charge.
212

Definition of Capacitance
The capacitance, C, of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of
the magnitude of the charge on either conductor to the
potential difference between the conductors. Q
C
The capacitance of a given capacitor is constant. DV
The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F).
The farad is a large unit, typically you will see microfarads (mF)
and picofarads (pF).
Q Q Q εo A
For a parallel capacitor: C   
DV Ed Qd / εo A d
 A is the area of each plate, the area of each plate is equal
 Q is the charge on each plate, equal with opposite signs
A dielectric is a nonconducting material that, when placed
between the plates of a capacitor, increases the capacitance
and Increase the maximum operating voltage. Dielectrics
include rubber, glass, and waxed paper.
For a parallel-plate capacitor, C = κ (εoA) / d
κ is the dielectric constant of the material.
213

Capacitance – Parallel Plates

Each plate is connected to a terminal of the battery (source of potential difference).
The charge density on the plates is σ = Q /A.
 A is the area of each plate, the area of each plate is equal
 Q is the charge on each plate, equal with opposite signs
The electric field is uniform between the plates and zero elsewhere.
Q Q Q εA
C    o
DV Ed Qd / εo A d
Example

A parallel-plate capacitor with air between the plates has an area A = 2.00 x 10-4 m2
and a plate separation d = 1.00 mm. Find its capacitance.
Solution
Capacitors in Parallel
The potential difference across the
capacitors is the same.
 And each is equal to the voltage of the
battery DV1 = DV2 = DV
 DV is the battery terminal voltage
The total charge is equal to the sum of the
charges on the capacitors. Qtot = Q1 + Q2

The capacitors can be replaced with one

capacitor with a capacitance of Ceq.
 The equivalent capacitor must have
exactly the same external effect on the
circuit as the original capacitors.

 For more capacitors

Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + …
Capacitors in Series
An equivalent capacitor can be found
that performs the same function as the
series combination.
The charges are all the same.
Q1 = Q2 = Q
The potential differences add up to the
battery voltage.
ΔVtot = DV1 + DV2 + …

The equivalent capacitance is

1 1 1 1
   
C eq C 1 C 2 C 3
The equivalent capacitance of a series
combination is always less than any
individual capacitor in the combination.
Equivalent Capacitance, Example

The 1.0-mF and 3.0-mF capacitors are in parallel as are the 6.0-mF and 2.0-mF
capacitors.
These parallel combinations are in series with the capacitors next to them.
The series combinations are in parallel and the final equivalent capacitance can be
found.
217

Capacitors with Dielectrics

A dielectric is a nonconducting material that, when placed between the plates of
a capacitor, increases the capacitance and Increase the maximum operating
voltage. Dielectrics include rubber, glass, and waxed paper
With a dielectric, the capacitance becomes C = κCo.
 κ is the dielectric constant of the material.
For a parallel-plate capacitor, C = κ (εoA) / d
In theory, d could be made very small to create a very large capacitance.
Example: A parallel-plate capacitor has plates of dimensions 2.0 cm by 3.0 cm
separated by a 1.0-mm thickness of paper, k  3.7 for paper. Find its
capacitance.
218

Some Dielectric Constants and Dielectric Strengths

 Types of Capacitors
Tubular: Metallic foil may be interlaced with thin
sheets of paraffin-impregnated paper or Mylar.
The layers are rolled into a cylinder to form a small
package for the capacitor.
Oil Filled: Common for high-voltage capacitors
A number of interwoven metallic plates are
immersed in silicon oil.
Electrolytic: Used to store large amounts of
charge at relatively low voltages
The electrolyte is a solution that conducts
electricity by virtue of motion of ions contained in
the solution.
When a voltage is applied between the foil and the
electrolyte, a thin layer of metal oxide is formed on
the foil.
This layer serves as a dielectric.
220

Electric Current
Most practical applications of electricity deal with electric
currents.
 The electric charges move through some region of
space.
The resistor is a new element added to circuits.
Electric current is the rate of flow of charge through some
region of space.
Assume charges are moving perpendicular to a surface of
area A. If ΔQ is the amount of charge that passes through
A in time Δt, then the average current is DQ
I avg 
The symbol for electric current is I. Dt
In an ordinary conductor, the direction of current flow is
opposite the direction of the flow of electrons. It is
common to refer to any moving charge as a charge
carrier.
The SI unit of current is the ampere (A). 1 A = 1 C / s
 221
Current Density
J is the current density of a conductor. It is defined as the current per unit area.
 J≡I/A
 J is uniform and A is perpendicular to the direction of the current.
J has SI units of A/m2
Conductivity
A current density and an electric field are established in a conductor whenever a
potential difference is maintained across the conductor.
The constant of proportionality, σ, is called the conductivity of the conductor.

Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law states that for many materials, the ratio of the current density to the
electric field is a constant σ that is independent of the electric field producing the
current.
 Mathematically, J = σ E or V=IR
 Materials that obey Ohm’s law are said to be ohmic. Most metals obey Ohm’s law
 Materials that do not obey Ohm’s law are said to be nonohmic..
 222

Resistance
potential difference ∆V = Vb - Va is maintained across the
wire, creating in the wire an electric field E and a current I.
If the field is assumed to be uniform, the potential
difference is
Therefore, the magnitude of the current density in the wire is

Because J = I/A, we can write the potential difference as

The quantity is called the resistance of the conductor. We can define the
resistance as the ratio of the potential difference across a conductor to the current
in the conductor:
SI units of resistance are ohms (Ω). 1 Ω = 1 V / A
Resistance in a circuit arises due to collisions between the electrons carrying the
current with the fixed atoms inside the conductor.
Most electric circuits use circuit elements called resistors to control the current in the
various parts of the circuit.
223

Resistivity
The inverse of the conductivity is
the resistivity:
 ρ=1/σ
Resistivity has SI units of ohm-
meters (Ω . m)
Resistance is also related to
resistivity:
Rρ
A

Every ohmic material has a

characteristic resistivity that
depends on the properties of the
material and on temperature.
The resistance of a material
depends on its geometry and its
resistivity.
224

Resistance and Temperature

Over a limited temperature range, the resistivity of a conductor varies
approximately linearly with the temperature.

 ρo is the resistivity at some reference temperature To

 To is usually taken to be 20° C
 α is the temperature coefficient of resistivity
 SI units of α are oC-1
The temperature coefficient of resistivity can be expressed as
1 Dr
a
r o DT
Since the resistance of a conductor with uniform cross sectional area is
proportional to the resistivity, you can find the effect of temperature on
resistance.
R = Ro [1 + α(T - To)]
Use of this property enables precise temperature measurements through
careful monitoring of the resistance of a probe made from a particular material.
 Resistors
Most electric circuits use circuit elements called resistors
to control the current in the various parts of the circuit.
 Resistors can be built into integrated circuit chips.
Values of resistors are normally indicated by colored
bands.
 The first two bands give the first two digits in the
resistance value.
 The third band represents the power of ten for the
multiplier band.
 The last band is the tolerance.
Example: Resistor Color Code
Red (=2) and blue (=6) give the first two digits: 26
Green (=5) gives the power of ten in the multiplier: 105
The value of the resistor then is 26 x 105 Ω (or 2.6 MΩ)
The tolerance is 10% (silver = 10%) or 2.6 x 105 Ω
226

Resistor Color Codes

227

Example
Calculate the resistance of an aluminum cylinder that has a length of 10.0 cm
and a cross-sectional area of 2.00 x 10-4m2. Repeat the calculation for a
cylinder of the same dimensions and made of glass having a resistivity of
3.0 x 1010 .m.
Solution : we can calculate the resistance of the aluminum cylinder as follows:

Similarly, for glass we find that

228

Example: The Resistance of Nichrome Wire

(A) Calculate the resistance per unit length of a 22-gauge Nichrome wire, which
has a radius of 0.321 mm. The resistivity of Nichrome is 1.5 x 10-6 .m
Solution: The cross-sectional area of this wire is

The resistance per unit length:

(B) If a potential difference of 10 V is maintained across a 1.0-m length of the

Nichrome wire, what is the current in the wire?
Solution: Because a 1.0-m length of this wire has a resistance of 4.6  then
 Resistors in Series
For a series combination of resistors, the currents are the
same in all the resistors
I = I1 = I2
The potential difference will divide among the resistors
ΔV = V1 + V2 = IR1 + IR2
= I (R1+R2)
 Consequence of Conservation of Energy
The equivalent resistance has the same effect on the circuit
as the original combination of resistors.
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + …

If one device in the series circuit creates an open circuit, all

devices are inoperative.
 230

Resistors in Parallel
The potential difference across each resistor is the same because
each is connected directly across the battery terminals.
ΔV = ΔV1 = ΔV2
A junction is a point where the current can split.
The current, I, that enters junction must be equal to the total
current leaving that junction.
 I = I 1 + I 2 = (ΔV1 / R1) + (ΔV2 / R2)
 The currents are generally not the same.
 Consequence of conservation of electric charge
Equivalent Resistance

1 1 1 1
   
R eq R 1 R 2 R 3
 The equivalent is always less than the smallest resistor in the
group.
231

Electric Power
The power is the rate at which the energy is delivered to the resistor.
The power is given by the equation P = I ΔV.
Applying Ohm’s Law, alternative expressions can be found:
 DV 
2

P  I D V  I2 R 
R

Units: I is in A, R is in Ω, ΔV is in V, and P is in W (Watt)

 It may take hours for an electron to move completely around a circuit.
The current is the same everywhere in the circuit.
The charges flow in the same rotational sense at all points in the circuit.
Real power lines have resistance.
Power companies transmit electricity at high voltages and low currents to
minimize power losses.
232

Example Power in an Electric Heater

An electric heater is constructed by applying a potential difference of 120 V to a
Nichrome wire that has a total resistance of 8.00 . Find the current carried
by the wire and the power rating of the heater.
Solution Because ∆V = IR, we have

We can find the power rating as

233

Example Three Resistors in Parallel

Three resistors are connected in parallel as shown in Figure. A potential
difference of 18.0 V is maintained between points a and b.
(A) Find the current in each resistor.

(B) Calculate the power delivered to each resistor and the total power delivered
to the combination of resistors.

(C) Calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit.

234

Direct Current
When the current in a circuit has a constant direction, the current is called direct
current.
 Most of the circuits analyzed will be assumed to be in steady state, with
constant magnitude and direction.
Because the potential difference between the terminals of a battery is constant,
the battery produces direct current.
The battery is known as a source of emf.

Electromotive Force
The electromotive force (emf), e, of a battery is the maximum possible voltage that
the battery can provide between its terminals.
 The emf supplies energy, it does not apply a force.
The battery will normally be the source of energy in the circuit.
The positive terminal of the battery is at a higher potential than the negative
terminal.
We consider the wires to have no resistance.
Internal Battery Resistance
If the internal resistance is zero, the terminal voltage
equals the emf.
In a real battery, there is internal resistance, r.
The terminal voltage, DV = e – Ir
The emf is equivalent to the open-circuit voltage.
 This is the terminal voltage when no current is in the
circuit.
 This is the voltage labeled on the battery.
The actual potential difference between the terminals of
the battery depends on the current in the circuit.
The terminal voltage also equals the voltage across the
external resistance.
 This external resistor is called the load resistance.
 In general, the load resistance could be any electrical
device.
236

Power
The total power output of the battery is
P = I ΔV = I ε
This power is delivered to the external resistor (I 2 R) and to the internal resistor
(I2 r).
P = I2 R + I2 r
The battery is a supply of constant emf.
 The battery does not supply a constant current since the current in the circuit
depends on the resistance connected to the battery.
 The battery does not supply a constant terminal voltage.
237

Example: Terminal Voltage of a Battery

A battery has an emf of 12.0 V and an internal resistance of 0.05 . Its terminals
are connected to a load resistance of 3.0 
(A) Find the current in the circuit and the terminal voltage of the battery.

To check this result, we can calculate the voltage across the load resistance R:

(B) Calculate the power delivered to the load resistor, the power delivered to the
internal resistance of the battery, and the power delivered by the battery.
Solution The power delivered to the load resistor is

The power delivered to the internal resistance is

238

Gustav Kirchhoff (1824 – 1887)

German physicist
The procedure for analyzing more complex
circuits is greatly simplified if we use two
principles called, called Kirchhoff’s rules,.
Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule
The sum of the currents at any junction must equal zero.
 Currents directed into the junction are entered into
the equation as +I and those leaving as - I.
 Mathematically,
 I 0
I1 - I2 - I3 = 0 junction

Required by Conservation of Charge

 In general, the number of times the junction rule can
be used is one fewer than the number of junction
points in the circuit.
 239

Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule

 The sum of the potential differences across all
elements around any closed circuit loop must be zero.
 A statement of Conservation of Energy
Mathematically,
 DV  0
closed
loop

Traveling around the loop from a to b

In (a), the resistor is traversed in the direction of the
current, the potential across the resistor is – IR.
In (b), the resistor is traversed in the direction opposite of
the current, the potential across the resistor is is + IR.
In (c), the source of emf is traversed in the direction of the
emf (from – to +), and the change in the potential difference
is +ε.
In (d), the source of emf is traversed in the direction
opposite of the emf (from + to -), and the change in the
potential difference is -ε.
240

Example A Single-Loop Circuit

A single-loop circuit contains two resistors and two batteries, as shown in Figure.
(Neglect the internal resistances of the batteries.)
(A) Find the current in the circuit.
Solution:

(B) What power is delivered to each resistor? What power is delivered by the 12-
V battery?

Hence, the total power delivered to the resistors is 2.0 W.

241

Example Applying Kirchhoff’s Rules

Find the currents I1, I2, and I3 in the circuit shown in Figure
242

RC Circuit
In direct current circuits containing capacitors, the current may vary with time.
 The current is still in the same direction.
An RC circuit will contain a series combination of a resistor and a capacitor.

Electrical Safety
Electric shock can result in fatal burns.
Electric shock can cause the muscles of vital organs (such as the heart) to
malfunction.
The degree of damage depends on:
 The magnitude of the current
 The length of time it acts
 The part of the body touched by the live wire
 The part of the body in which the current exists
243

Effects of Various Currents

5 mA or less
 Can cause a sensation of shock
 Generally little or no damage
10 mA
 Muscles contract
 May be unable to let go of a live wire
100 mA
 If passing through the body for a few seconds, can be fatal
 Paralyzes the respiratory muscles and prevents breathing
In some cases, currents of 1 A can produce serious burns.
 Sometimes these can be fatal burns
No contact with live wires is considered safe if the voltage is greater than 24 V.
 Ground Wire
Electrical equipment manufacturers use electrical cords
that have a third wire, called a ground.
This safety ground normally carries no current and is
both grounded and connected to the appliance.
If the live wire is accidentally shorted to the casing,
most of the current takes the low-resistance path
through the appliance to the ground.
If it was not properly grounded, anyone in contact with
the appliance could be shocked because the body
produces a low-resistance path to ground.
Ground-Fault Interrupters (GFI)
Special power outlets
Used in hazardous areas
Designed to protect people from electrical shock
Senses currents (< 5 mA) leaking to ground
Quickly shuts off the current when above this level
 General Physics
for Science and Engineering Faculties
Dr. Hasan Maridi
Visiting Professor at Heavy ion Laboratory, University of Warsaw, Poland
Assistant Professor of Theoretical Nuclear Physics at Taiz University, Yemen
https://sites.google.com/site/hasanmaridi

Chapter 10 - Magnetism
 246

Magnetic Poles
Every magnet, regardless of its shape, has two poles.
 The two poles called north and south poles and exert forces on one another
similar to the way electric charges exert forces on each other
 Like poles repel each other: N-N or S-S. Unlike poles attract each other: N-S.
The poles received their names due to the way a magnet behaves in the Earth’s
magnetic field.
If a bar magnet is suspended so that it can move freely, it will rotate.
 The magnetic north pole points toward the Earth’s north geographic pole.
 This means the Earth’s north geographic pole is a magnetic south pole.
 Similarly, the Earth’s south geographic pole is a magnetic north pole.
The force between two poles varies as the inverse square of the distance between
them.
A single magnetic pole has never been isolated. They are always found in pairs.
 All attempts so far to detect an isolated magnetic pole has been unsuccessful.
 No matter how many times a permanent magnetic is cut in two, each piece always
has a north and south pole.
247

Magnetic Fields
Reminder: an electric field surrounds any electric charge
The region of space surrounding any moving electric charge also contains a
magnetic field.
A magnetic field also surrounds a magnetic substance making up a permanent
magnet.
The magnetic field is a vector quantity and symbolized by B
Direction is given by the direction a north pole of a compass needle points in that
location
Magnetic field lines can be used to show how the field lines,
as traced out by a compass, would look.
The compass can be used to trace the field lines.
The lines outside the magnet point from the North pole to
the South pole.
 Magnetic Field Lines
Bar Magnet: Iron filings are
used to show the pattern of the
electric field lines.
The direction of the field is the
direction a north pole would
point.
Opposite Poles: Iron filings are
used to show the pattern of the
electric field lines.
The direction of the field is the
direction a north pole would
point.
Like Poles: Iron filings are used to show the pattern of the electric field
lines.
The direction of the field is the direction a north pole would point.
 Compare to the electric field produced by like charges
249

Earth’s Magnetic Poles

More proper terminology would be that a magnet has “north-seeking” and “south-
seeking” poles.
The north-seeking pole points to the north geographic pole.
 This would correspond to the Earth’s south magnetic pole.
The south-seeking pole points to the south geographic pole.
 This would correspond to the Earth’s north magnetic pole.
The configuration of the Earth’s magnetic field is very much like the one that
would be achieved by burying a gigantic bar magnet deep in the Earth’s interior.
The source of the Earth’s magnetic field is
likely convection currents in the Earth’s core.
There is strong evidence that the magnitude
of a planet’s magnetic field is related to its
rate of rotation.
The direction of the Earth’s magnetic field
reverses periodically.
250

Definition of Magnetic Field

The magnetic field at some point in space can be defined in terms of the magnetic
force, F .
B
The magnetic force will be exerted on a charged particle moving with a velocity, v.
The magnitude FB of the magnetic force exerted on the particle is proportional to
the charge, q, and to the speed, v, of the particle.
When a charged particle moves parallel to the magnetic field vector, the magnetic
force acting on the particle is zero.
When the particle’s velocity vector makes any angle   0 with the field, the force
acts in a direction perpendicular to the plane formed by the velocity and the field.
The magnetic force exerted on a positive charge is in the direction opposite the
direction of the magnetic force exerted on a negative charge moving in the same
direction.
The magnitude of the magnetic force is proportional to sin , where  is the angle
the particle’s velocity makes with the direction of the magnetic field.
251

Force on a Charge Moving in a Magnetic Field, Formula

The properties can be summarized in a vector equation:
FB  qv  B
 F is the magnetic force
B

 q is the charge. v is the velocity of the moving charge. B is the magnetic field
The magnitude of the magnetic force on a charged particle is FB = |q| v B sin 
  is the smaller angle between v and B
Direction: Right-Hand Rule
Rule 1: This rule is based on the right-hand
rule for the cross product.
Your thumb is in the direction of the force if q
is positive.
The force is in the opposite direction of your
thumb if q is negative.

Rule 2: The force on a positive charge

extends outward from the palm.
The advantage of this rule is that the force on
the charge is in the direction you would push
on something with your hand.
The force on a negative charge is in the
opposite direction.
 253

Differences Between Electric and Magnetic Fields

Direction of force
 The electric force acts along the direction of the electric field.
 The magnetic force acts perpendicular to the magnetic field.
Motion
 The electric force acts on a charged particle regardless of whether the particle is
moving.
 The magnetic force acts on a charged particle only when the particle is in motion.
Work
 The electric force does work in displacing a charged particle.
 The magnetic force associated with a steady magnetic field does no work when a
particle is displaced.
 The kinetic energy of a charged particle moving through a magnetic field cannot
be altered by the magnetic field alone.
 When a charged particle moves with a given velocity through a magnetic field, the
field can alter the direction of the velocity, but not the speed or the kinetic energy.
Units of Magnetic Field
The SI unit of magnetic field is the tesla (T).

Wb N N
T   
m2 C ( m / s ) A  m
 Wb is a weber
A non-SI commonly used unit is a gauss (G).
 1 T = 104 G
Notation Notes
When vectors are perpendicular to the page, dots and
crosses are used.
 The dots represent the arrows coming out of the
page.
 The crosses represent the arrows going into the
page.
The same notation applies to other vectors.
 255

Example: An Electron Moving in a Magnetic Field

An electron in a television picture tube moves toward the front of the tube with a
speed of 8.0 x 106 m/s along the x axis . Surrounding the neck of the tube are
coils of wire that create a magnetic field of magnitude 0.025 T, directed at an
angle of 60° to the x axis and lying in the xy plane.
(A) Calculate the magnetic force on the electron

(B) Find a vector expression for the magnetic force on the electron
 Charged Particle move in a Magnetic Field
Consider a particle moving in an external magnetic field
with its velocity perpendicular to the field.
The force is always directed toward the center of the
circular path.
The magnetic force causes a centripetal acceleration,
changing the direction of the velocity of the particle.
Use the particle under a net force and a particle in uniform
circular motion models.
mv 2 mv
FB  qvB  Solving for r: r 
qB
r
r is proportional to the linear momentum of the particle
and inversely proportional to the magnetic field.
The angular speed of the particle, , is referred to as the cyclotron frequency, is
v qB
ω 
r m
2πr 2π 2πm
The period of the motion is T  
v ω qB
 257

A Proton Moving Perpendicular to a Uniform Magnetic Field

Example: A proton is moving in a circular orbit of radius 14 cm in a uniform 0.35-
T magnetic field perpendicular to the velocity of the proton. Find the linear
speed of the proton.

Solution:
 258

Charged Particles Moving in Electric and Magnetic Fields

In many applications, charged particles will move in the presence of both
magnetic and electric fields.
In that case, the total force is the sum of the forces due to the individual fields.
 The total force is called the Lorentz force.
In general: F  qE  qv  B
Velocity Selector
Used when all the particles need to move with the same velocity.
A uniform electric field is perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field.
When the force due to the electric field is equal but opposite to the
force due to the magnetic field, the particle moves in a straight line.
This occurs for velocities of value.
v=E/B
Only those particles with the given speed will pass through the two
fields undeflected.
Mass Spectrometer
A mass spectrometer separates ions according to their
mass-to-charge ratio.
In one design, a beam of ions passes through a velocity
selector and enters a second magnetic field.
After entering the second magnetic field, the ions move
in a semicircle of radius r before striking a detector at P.
If the ions are positively charged, they deflect to the left.
If the ions are negatively charged, they deflect to the
right.
The mass to charge (m/q) ratio can be determined by measuring the radius of
curvature and knowing the magnetic and electric field magnitudes.
m rBo rBoB
 
q v E
In practice, you can measure the masses of various isotopes of a given atom,
with all the ions carrying the same charge.
 The mass ratios can be determined even if the charge is unknown.
Cyclotron
A cyclotron is a device that can accelerate
charged particles to very high speeds.
The energetic particles produced are used to
bombard a
tomic nuclei and thereby produce reactions.
These reactions can be analyzed by researchers
D1 and D2 are called dees because of their shape.
A high frequency alternating potential is applied to
the dees.
A uniform magnetic field is perpendicular to them.
A positive ion is released near the center and
moves in a semicircular path.
The potential difference is adjusted so that the 1 q 2B2R 2
polarity of the dees is reversed in the same time K  mv 
2

interval as the particle travels around one dee. 2 2m

This ensures the kinetic energy of the particle
increases each trip.
 261

Biot-Savart Law, Total Magnetic Field

Biot and Savart conducted experiments on the force exerted by an electric current
on a nearby magnet. They arrived at a mathematical expression that gives the
magnetic field at some point in space due a given current carrying conductor.
The observations are summarized in the mathematical equation called the Biot-
Savart law: ˆ
μo I ds  r
dB 
4π r 2
The constant mo is called the permeability of free space. mo = 4 x 10-7 T. m / A

dB is the field created by the current in the length segment ds.

To find the total field, sum up the contributions from all the current elements I ds
μ I ds  ˆr
B o
4π  r2
 The integral is over the entire current distribution.
The law is also valid for a current consisting of charges
flowing through space. For example, this could apply to the beam in an
accelerator.
262

Magnetic Field Compared to Electric Field

Distance
 The magnitude of the magnetic field varies as the inverse square of the
distance from the source.
 The electric field due to a point charge also varies as the inverse square of
the distance from the charge.
Direction
 The electric field created by a point charge is radial in direction.
 The magnetic field created by a current element is perpendicular to both the
length element ds and the unit vector. r̂
Source
 An electric field is established by an isolated electric charge.
 The current element that produces a magnetic field must be part of an
extended current distribution.
 Therefore you must integrate over the entire current distribution.
Example: Magnetic Field for a Long, Straight Conductor
Find the field contribution from a small element of
current and then integrate over the current distribution.
The thin, straight wire is carrying a constant current
ds ˆr   dx sin θ  k̂
Integrating over all the current elements gives
μo I θ2
B 
4πa 1θ
cos θ dθ

μ I
 o  sin θ1  sin θ2 
4πa

If the conductor is an infinitely long, straight wire, 1 =

/2 and 2 = -/2. The field becomes

μo I
B
2πa
Magnetic Field for a Circular Current Loop
The loop has a radius of R and carries
a steady current of I.
Find the field at point P:
μo I a 2
Bx 
 
3
2 a x 2 2 2

Consider the field at the center of the

current loop.
At this special point, x = 0
Then,
μo I a2 μo I
Bx  
 
3
2 a x 2 2 2 2a

 This is exactly the same result as

from the curved wire.
265

Definition of the Ampere

The force between two parallel wires can be used to define the ampere.
When the magnitude of the force per unit length between two long, parallel wires
that carry identical currents and are separated by 1 m is 2 x 10-7 N/m, the current
in each wire is defined to be 1 A.

Definition of the Coulomb

The SI unit of charge, the coulomb, is defined in terms of the ampere.

When a conductor carries a steady current of 1 A, the quantity of charge that
flows through a cross section of the conductor in 1 s is 1 C.
266

Ferromagnetism

Some substances exhibit strong magnetic effects called ferromagnetism.

Some examples of ferromagnetic materials are:
 iron
 cobalt
 nickel
 gadolinium
 dysprosium
They contain permanent atomic magnetic moments that tend to align parallel to
each other even in a weak external magnetic field.
 267

Paramagnetism
Paramagnetic substances have small but positive magnetism.
It results from the presence of atoms that have permanent
magnetic moments.
When placed in an external magnetic field, its atomic moments
tend to line up with the field.
 The alignment process competes with thermal motion
which randomizes the moment orientations.

Diamagnetism
When an external magnetic field is applied to a diamagnetic
substance, a weak magnetic moment is induced in the direction
opposite the applied field.
Diamagnetic substances are weakly repelled by a magnet.
Certain types of superconductors also exhibit perfect
diamagnetism in the superconducting state. This is called the
Meissner effect. If a permanent magnet is brought near a
superconductor, the two objects repel each other.
268
 General Physics
for Science and Engineering Faculties
Dr. Hasan Maridi
Visiting Professor at Heavy ion Laboratory, University of Warsaw, Poland
Assistant Professor of Theoretical Nuclear Physics at Taiz University, Yemen
https://sites.google.com/site/hasanmaridi

Chapter 11 - Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity

270

Some Properties of Nuclei

All nuclei are composed of protons and neutrons except hydrogen with a single
proton
The atomic number Z equals the number of protons in the nucleus.
 Sometimes called the charge number
The neutron number N is the number of neutrons in the nucleus.
The mass number A is the number of nucleons in the nucleus.
 A=Z+N
 Nucleon is a generic term used to refer to either a proton or a neutron
 The mass number is not the same as the mass.
A nuclide is a specific combination of atomic number and mass number that
represents a nucleus. A X
Z
 X is the chemical symbol of the element.
Example:
 Mass number is 27
27
13 Al  Atomic number is 13
 Contains 13 protons. Contains 14 (27 – 13) neutrons
271

More Properties
The nuclei of all atoms of a particular element must contain the same number of
protons.
They may contain varying numbers of neutrons.
 Isotopes of an element have the same Z but differing N and A values.
 The natural abundance of isotopes can vary.
 Isotope example:
11
6 C , 1 62 C , 1 63 C , 1 64 C

Charge
The proton has a single positive charge, e.
The electron has a single negative charge, - e.
 e = 1.6 x 10-19 C
The neutron has no charge.
272

Mass
It is convenient to use atomic mass units, u, to express masses.
 1 u = 1.660 539 x 10-27 kg
 Based on definition that the mass of one atom of 12C is exactly 12 u
Mass can also be expressed in MeV/c2.
 From ER = mc2
 1 u = 931.494 MeV/c2
 Includes conversion 1 eV = 1.602 176 x 10-19 J
273

Size of Nucleus
Rutherford concluded that the positive charge of the atom was concentrated in a
sphere whose radius was no larger than about 10-14 m.
 He called this sphere the nucleus.
These small lengths are often expressed in femtometers (fm) where 1 fm = 10-15
m. Also called a fermi
Since the time of Rutherford, many other experiments have concluded the
following:
 Most nuclei are approximately spherical.
 Average radius is r  a A1 3
 a = 1.2 x 10-15 m
 A is the mass number
There are very large repulsive electrostatic forces between protons.
 These forces should cause the nucleus to fly apart.
The nuclei are stable because of the presence of another, short-range force,
called the nuclear force.
 274

Nuclear Stability
There are very large repulsive electrostatic forces
between protons.
 These forces should cause the nucleus to fly apart.
The nuclei are stable because of the presence of
another, short-range force, called the nuclear force.
 This is an attractive force that acts between all
nuclear particles.
 The nuclear attractive force is stronger than the
Coulomb repulsive force at the short ranges within
the nucleus.

Features of the Nuclear Force

Attractive force that acts between all nuclear particles
Very short range. Independent of charge
 The nuclear force on p-p, p-n, n-n are all the same
 Does not affect electrons
275

Binding Energy
The total energy of the bound system (the
nucleus) is less than the combined energy of
the separated nucleons.
 This difference in energy is called the
binding energy of the nucleus.
 It can be thought of as the amount of
energy you need to add to the nucleus to
break it apart into its components.
The binding energy can be calculated from
conservation of energy and the Einstein
mass-energy equivalence principle:
Eb = [Zmp + NMn – M (AZX)] x 931.494 MeV/u
 Mp is the mass of the proton
 M (AZX) represents the atomic mass of an
atom of the isotope (AZX)
 Mn is the mass of the neutron
 The masses are expressed in atomic
mass units and Eb will be in MeV.
276

Radioactivity
Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of radiation.
 Discovered by Becquerel in 1896
Experiments suggested that radioactivity was the result
of the decay, or disintegration, of unstable nuclei.
Three types of radiation can be emitted.
 Alpha particles
 The particles are 4He nuclei.
 Barely penetrate a piece of paper

 Beta particles
 The particles are either electrons or positrons.
 A positron is the antiparticle of the electron.
 It is similar to the electron except its charge is +e.
 Can penetrate a few mm of aluminum

 Gamma rays
 The “rays” are high energy photons.
 Can penetrate several cm of lead
277

The Decay Constant

The number of particles that decay in a given time is proportional to the total
number of particles in a radioactive sample.
dN
  λN gives N  Noe  λt
dt
 λ is called the decay constant and determines the probability of decay per nucleus
per second.
 N is the number of undecayed radioactive nuclei present.
 No is the number of undecayed nuclei at time t = 0.
The decay rate R of a sample is defined as the number of decays per second.

dN
R  λN  Roe  λt
dt
 Ro = Noλ is the decay rate at t = 0.
 The decay rate is often referred to as the activity of the sample.
 Decay Curve and Half-Life
The decay curve follows the equation N = Noe-λt
The half-life is also a useful parameter.
 The half-life is defined as the time interval
during which half of a given number of
radioactive nuclei decay.
ln 2 0 .6 9 3
T1 2  
λ λ
During the first half-life, ½ of the original
material will decay.
During the second half-life, ½ of the remaining
material will decay, leaving ¼ of the original
material remaining.
Summarizing, the number of undecayed
radioactive nuclei remaining after n half-lives is
N = No (½)n
 n can be an integer or a noninteger.
279

Units
The unit of activity, R, is the curie (Ci)
 1 Ci ≡ 3.7 x 1010 decays/s
The SI unit of activity is the becquerel (Bq)
 1 Bq ≡ 1 decay/s
 Therefore, 1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 Bq
The most commonly used units of activity are the millicurie and the microcurie.
Marie Curie [1867 – 1934] Polish scientist
Shared Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903 for studies in radioactive substances
 Shared with Pierre Curie and Becquerel
Won Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911 for discovery of radium and polonium
 Natural Radioactivity
Unstable nuclei found in nature. They give rise to natural
radioactivity. Three series of natural radioactivity exist.
 Uranium, Actinium, Thorium
Nuclei produced in the laboratory through nuclear
reactions. They exhibit artificial radioactivity
Some radioactive isotopes are not part of any decay series.
Decay Series of 232Th:
Processes through a series of alpha and beta decays
Series starts with 232Th, branches at 212Bi, Ends with a
stable isotope of lead, 208Pb
281
Example: The Activity of Carbon
At time t =0, a radioactive sample contains 3.50 mg of pure 116C, which has a
half-life of 20.4 min.
(A) Determine the number N0 of nuclei in the sample at t =0.
The molar mass of 116C is approximately 11.0 g/mol.

(B) What is the activity of the sample initially and after 8.00 h?
282
Example: Radioactive Dating
A piece of charcoal containing 25.0 g of carbon is found in some ruins of an
ancient city. The sample shows a 14C activity R of 250 decays/min. How long
has the tree from which this charcoal came been dead? the ratio of 14C to 12C
in the live sample was 1.3x1012
1- Calculate the number of moles
in 25.0 g of carbon:
2- Find the number of 12C nuclei and
find the number of 14C nuclei before decay

3-Find the initial activity of the sample:

4- Evaluate t
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
A nucleus has spin angular momentum.
Shown is a vector model giving possible orientations
of the spin and its projection on the z axis.
The magnitude of the spin angular momentum is
I ( I  1)
I is the nuclear spin quantum number.
For a nucleus with spin ½, there are only two allowed
states Emax and Emin
It is possible to observe transitions between two spin
states using NMR.
MRI
An MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) is based on
NMR.
Because of variations in an external field, hydrogen
atoms in different parts of the body have different
energy splittings between spin states. The resonance
signal can provide information about the positions of
the protons.
284
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
MRI scanning uses magnetism, radio
waves, and a computer to produce
images of body structures.
MRI scanning is painless and does not
involve x-ray radiation.
Patients with heart pacemakers, metal
implants, or metal chips or clips in or
around the eyes cannot be scanned with
MRI because of the effect of the magnet.
Claustrophobic sensation can occur with
MRI scanning.
Example: As in figure, pictures of an MRI of
the spine. This patient had a herniated
disc between vertebrae L4 and L5. The
resulting surgery was a discectomy.
285

Nuclear Reactions
The structure of nuclei can be changed by bombarding them with energetic
particles. The changes are called nuclear reactions.
The following must be conserved in any nuclear reaction or decay:
 Energy, Momentum, Total charge, Total number of nucleons (also the atomic
numbers and mass numbers)
A target nucleus, X, is bombarded by a particle a, resulting in a daughter nucleus
Y and an outgoing particle b.
 a+XY+b
The reaction energy Q is defined as the total change in mass-energy resulting
from the reaction.
 Q = (Ma + MX – MY – Mb)c2
If a and b are identical, so that X and Y are also necessarily identical, the
reaction is called a scattering event.
 If the kinetic energy before the event is the same as after, it is classified as
elastic scattering.
 If the kinetic energies before and after are not the same, it is an inelastic
scattering.
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
A nucleus has spin angular momentum.
Shown is a vector model giving possible orientations
of the spin and its projection on the z axis.
The magnitude of the spin angular momentum is
I ( I  1)
I is the nuclear spin quantum number.
For a nucleus with spin ½, there are only two allowed
states Emax and Emin
It is possible to observe transitions between two spin
states using NMR.
MRI
An MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) is based on
NMR.
Because of variations in an external field, hydrogen
atoms in different parts of the body have different
energy splittings between spin states. The resonance
signal can provide information about the positions of
the protons.
287

Nuclear Fission
A heavy nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei.
Fission is initiated when a heavy nucleus captures a thermal neutron.
The total mass of the daughter nuclei is less than the original mass of the parent
nucleus. This difference in mass is called the mass defect.
 Multiplying the mass defect by c2 gives the numerical value of the released
energy.
First observed in 1938 by Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman following basic studies by
Fermi. Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch soon explained what had happened.
 After absorbing a neutron, the uranium nucleus had split into two nearly equal
fragments. About 200 MeV of energy was released.
288

Fission Equation: 235U

Fission of 235U by a thermal neutron
1
0 n  2 39 52 U  2 39 62 U *  X  Y  ne utro ns
 236U*is an intermediate, excited state that exists for
about 10-12 s before splitting.
 X and Y are called fission fragments.
 Many combinations of X and Y satisfy the requirements of
conservation of energy and charge.
A typical fission reaction for uranium is
92 U  56 Ba  36 Kr  3  0 n 
n  235
1 141 92 1
0

Neutrons are emitted when 235U undergoes fission. An

average of 2.5 neutrons. These neutrons are then available
to trigger fission in other nuclei.
This process is called a chain reaction.
 If uncontrolled, a violent explosion can occur.
 When controlled, the energy can be put to constructive
use.
 289

Nuclear Reactor
A nuclear reactor is a system designed to maintain a self-
sustained chain reaction.
The reproduction constant K is defined as the average
number of neutrons from each fission event that will cause
another fission event.
 The average value of K from uranium fission is 2.5.
 In practice, K is less than this
Moderator
The moderator slows the neutrons. Enrico Fermi [1901 – 1954]
The slower neutrons are more likely to react Italian physicist
with 235U than 238U.
The probability of neutron capture by 238U is Nobel Prize in 1938 for
high when the neutrons have high kinetic producing transuranic
energies. elements by neutron
The slowing of the neutrons by the moderator irradiation and for his
makes them available for reactions with 235U discovery of nuclear reactions
while decreasing their chances of being brought about by thermal
captured by 238U neutrons.
He develops of world’s first
fission reactor (1942)
290

Pressurized Water Reactor – Diagram

Reactor Fuel
Most reactors today
use uranium as fuel.
 Naturally occurring
uranium is 99.3%
238U and 0.7% 235U

 238U almost never

fissions
 It tends to absorb
neutrons
producing
neptunium and
plutonium.

 Fuels are generally

enriched to at least
a few percent 235U.
291

Pressurized Water Reactor – Notes

This type of reactor is the most common in use in electric power plants in the US.
Fission events in the uranium In the fuel rods raise the temperature of the water
contained in the primary loop. The primary system is a closed system.
This water is maintained at a high pressure to keep it from boiling.
This water is also used as the moderator to slow down the neutrons.
The hot water is pumped through a heat exchanger.
The heat is transferred by conduction to the water contained in a secondary
system. This water is converted into steam.
The steam is used to drive a turbine-generator to create electric power.
The water in the secondary system is isolated from the water in the primary
system. This prevents contamination of the secondary water and steam by the
radioactive nuclei in the core.
 Basic Design of a Reactor Core
Fuel elements consist of enriched uranium.
The moderator material helps to slow down the
neutrons.
The control rods absorb neutrons.
All of these are surrounded by a radiation shield.
Control Rods
To control the power level, control rods are
inserted into the reactor core.
These rods are made of materials that are very
efficient in absorbing neutrons as Cadmium.
By adjusting the number and position of the
control rods in the reactor core, the K value can be
varied and any power level can be achieved.
 The power level must be within the design of
the reactor.
293

Reactor Safety
Radiation exposure, and its potential health risks, are controlled by three levels of
containment:
Reactor vessel: Contains the fuel and radioactive fission products
Reactor building:
 Acts as a second containment structure should the reactor vessel rupture
 Prevents radioactive material from contaminating the environment
Location: Reactor facilities are in remote locations
Disposal and transportation of waste material
 Waste material contains long-lived, highly radioactive isotopes.
 Must be stored over long periods in ways that protect the environment
 At present, the most promising solution seems to be sealing the waste in
waterproof containers and burying them in deep geological repositories.
 Accidents during transportation could expose the public to harmful levels of
radiation.
294

Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear fusion occurs when two light nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus.
The mass of the final nucleus is less than the masses of the original nuclei.
 This loss of mass is accompanied by a release of energy.

The proton-proton cycle is a series

of three nuclear reactions believed to
operate in the Sun. Energy liberated
is primarily in the form of gamma
rays, positrons and neutrinos.
Fusion Reactor Design.
One scheme is to use molten lithium
to capture the neutrons.
The lithium goes to a heat-exchange
loop and eventually produces steam
to drive turbines.
295

Radiation Damage
Radiation absorbed by matter can cause damage.
The degree and type of damage depend on many factors.
 Type and energy of the radiation
 Properties of the matter
Radiation damage in the metals used in the reactors comes from neutron
bombardment.
 They can be weakened by high fluxes of energetic neutrons producing metal
fatigue.
 The damage is in the form of atomic displacements, often resulting in major
changes in the properties of the material.
Radiation damage in biological organisms is primarily due to ionization effects in
cells.
 Ionization disrupts the normal functioning of the cell.
296

Types of Damage in Cells

Somatic damage is radiation damage to any cells except reproductive ones.
 Can lead to cancer at high radiation levels
 Can seriously alter the characteristics of specific organisms
Genetic damage affects only reproductive cells.
 Can lead to defective offspring

Damage Dependence on Penetration

Damage caused by radiation also depends on the radiation’s penetrating power.
 Alpha particles cause extensive damage, but penetrate only to a shallow
depth.
 Due to their charge, they will have a strong interaction with other charged particles.
 Neutrons do not interact with material and so penetrate deeper, causing
significant damage.
 Gamma rays can cause severe damage, but often pass through the material
without interaction.
297

Units of Radiation Exposure

The roentgen (R) is defined as
 That amount of ionizing radiation that produces an electric charge of 3.33 x
10-10 C in 1 cm3 of air under standard conditions.
 Equivalently, that amount of radiation that increases the energy of 1 kg of air
by 8.76 x 10-3 J .
One rad (radiation absorbed dose)
 That amount of radiation that increases the energy of 1 kg of absorbing
material by 1 x 10-2 J.
The RBE (relative biological effectiveness)
 The number of rads of x-radiation or gamma radiation that produces the
same biological damage as 1 rad of the radiation being used.
 Accounts for type of particle which the rad itself does not
The rem (radiation equivalent in man)
 Defined as the product of the dose in rad and the RBE factor
 Dose in rem = dose in rad x RBE
298

Radiation Levels
Natural sources – rocks and soil, cosmic rays
 Called background radiation. It is about 0.13 rem/yr
Upper limit suggested by US government is 0.50 rem/yr
Occupational:
 5 rem/yr for whole-body radiation
 Certain body parts can withstand higher levels
 Ingestion or inhalation is most dangerous
 About 50% of the people exposed to a dose of 400 to 500 rem will die.
New SI units of radiation dosages: the gray (Gy) and the sievert (Sv).
 299

Applications of Radiation
Tracing
 Radioactive particles can be used to
trace chemicals participating in
various reactions.
 Example, 131I to test thyroid action
 Also to analyze circulatory system
 Also useful in agriculture and
other applications
Materials analysis
 Neutron activation analysis uses the
fact that when a material is irradiated
with neutrons, nuclei in the material
absorb the neutrons and are
changed to different isotopes.
300

Applications of Radiation

Radiation therapy
 Radiation causes the most
damage to rapidly dividing cells.
 Therefore, it is useful in cancer
treatments.

Food preservation
 High levels of radiation can
destroy or incapacitate bacteria or
mold spores.
302

References
1-Physics for Scientists and Engineers (with PhysicsNOW and InfoTrac),
Raymond A. Serway - Emeritus, James Madison University , Thomson
Brooks/Cole © 2004, 6th Edition, 1296 pages.
2- Power point slides of Serway book (Physics for Scientists and Engineers)
from Cengage Learning Company (http://www.cengage.com).

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