Antagonist Concepts of Polypyrrole Actuators: Bending Hybrid Actuator and Mirrored Trilayer Linear Actuator
Antagonist Concepts of Polypyrrole Actuators: Bending Hybrid Actuator and Mirrored Trilayer Linear Actuator
Article
Antagonist Concepts of Polypyrrole Actuators: Bending Hybrid
Actuator and Mirrored Trilayer Linear Actuator
Rudolf Kiefer 1,*, Ngoc Tuan Nguyen 2, Quoc Bao Le 1, Gholamreza Anbarjafari 3 and Tarmo Tamm 4
1 Conducting Polymers in Composites and Applications Research Group, Faculty of Applied Sciences,
Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam; [email protected]
2 Faculty of Applied Sciences, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam;
[email protected]
3 iCV Research Lab, Institute of Technology, University of Tartu, 50411 Tartu, Estonia; [email protected]
4 Intelligent Materials and Systems Lab, Institute of Technology, University of Tartu, Nooruse 1,
50411 Tartu, Estonia; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]
Abstract: Following the natural muscle antagonist actuation principle, different adaptations for “ar‐
tificial muscles” are introduced in this work. Polypyrrole (PPy) films of different polymerization
techniques (potentiostatic and galvanostatic) were analyzed and their established responses were
combined in several ways, resulting in beneficial actuation modes. A consecutive “one‐pot” electro‐
synthesis of two layers with the different deposition regimes resulted in an all‐PPy bending hybrid
actuator. While in most cases the mixed‐ion activity of conductive polymers has been considered a
problem or a drawback, here for the first time, the nearly equal expansions upon oxidation and
reduction of carefully selected conditions further allowed to fabricate a “mirrored” trilayer lami‐
Citation: Kiefer, R.; Nguyen, N.T.; nate, which behaved as a linear actuator.
Le, Q.B.; Anbarjafari, G.; Tamm, T.
Antagonist Concepts of Polypyrrole
Keywords: polypyrrole; polymerization conditions; linear actuators; bending hybrid actuator;
Actuators: Bending Hybrid Actuator
mirror linear trilayer
and Mirrored Trilayer Linear
Actuator. Polymers 2021, 13, 861.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
polym13060861
1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Ho‐Hsiu Chou The basic idea behind conductive polymer actuators has been the mimicking of nat‐
ural muscles with the so called “artificial muscles” [1]. A lot of progress has been made in
Received: 3 February 2021 recent years in the field, aiming for potential applications in micro‐actuators and robotics
Accepted: 9 March 2021 [2,3], by achieving high strains up to 34% [4] and stresses in range of 22 MPa [5]. There
Published: 11 March 2021 have been a number of different applications proposed [6] such as smart textiles [7], sen‐
sors [8], soft robotics [9], biomedical applications [10], and mechanically stimulated
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neu‐
growth [11], and many more. The actuation principle of conductive polymers can be ex‐
tral with regard to jurisdictional
plained in a simplified manner by the formation of delocalized charges upon oxidation
claims in published maps and insti‐
along the polymer chains, while ions (with solvent) move in to ensure charge neutrality.
tutional affiliations.
As a result, the conductive polymer as a free‐standing film or a film deposited on flexible
non‐conductive substrate expands, creating linear or bending strain. The outcome de‐
pends on a variety of factors, including the polymerization procedure [12], temperature
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Li‐
[13], electrolyte [14], solvent [15], osmotic pressure [16]. Having just a single ionic species
censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. controlling the actuation in one direction (oxidation or reduction) has been an important
This article is an open access article consideration as it would allow higher strains and consistent controllability, but in real
distributed under the terms and con‐ world, mixed ion‐activity is often observed instead, both in case of bending [17] or linear
ditions of the Creative Commons At‐ actuation [18].
tribution (CC BY) license (http://crea‐ As the motion of a natural arm is based on the alternating contraction of the antago‐
tivecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). nist muscles (biceps and triceps), several attempts have been made to replicate a similar
Polymers 2021, 13, 861. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13060861 www.mdpi.com/journal/polymers
Polymers 2021, 13, 861 2 of 15
principle using artificial muscles, where one side contracts while the other extends in
length [19,20].
Here, our aim was to attempt to apply the fact that deposition conditions radically
influence the actuation properties of PPy films for fabricating a bending actuator by com‐
bining a layer of potentiostatically deposited film (PPy(pot)) with a galvanostatically de‐
posited one (PPy(galv)) into a freestanding bending hybrid PPy actuator (BHA) synthe‐
sized from one pot. In order to tune the individual layers, the films were first studied
separately. A similar concept has been employed by combining different PPy films in
aqueous electrolyte [21] as well as for PEDOT films polymerized at different polymeriza‐
tion potentials [22]. Recently, PEDOT IPN hollow fibers operating in air [23] and other
cases have been considered, where one electrode with high deformation is coupled with
another with minimal deformation [24].
Another completely novel (antagonist) approach introduced here is to take ad‐
vantage of a feature of conductive polymers that is usually considered undesirable–the
mixed ion activity. A trilayer with an inert separator in between two PPy layers can func‐
tion as a linear actuator, as long as equal expansion/contraction upon both oxidation and
reduction, a mirrored (PPy(mirr)) design can be achieved.
Cyclic voltammetry (scan rate 5 mV s−1) and square potential step driven actuation
measurements in frequency range of 4.17 mHz to 0.1 Hz were performed. Characteriza‐
tion of the PPy films was made by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive
X‐Ray (EDX) spectroscopy was carried out to study the mobile ionic species.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Materials
Tetrabutylammonium trifluoromethanesulfonate (TBACF3SO3), ethanol (technical
standard) and propylene carbonate (PC, 98%) were purchased from Sigma‐Aldrich
(Taufkirchen, Germany) and used as received. Pyrrole applied as the monomer in electro‐
polymerization (Py, 98%, Sigma‐Aldrich) was distilled and stored at low temperature un‐
der nitrogen in the dark. Polydimethylsiloxane (SYLGARD® 184, 6500 cSt) two component
system was purchased from Sigma‐Aldrich and applied as the separator layer in the mir‐
rored linear actuator design.
2.2. Electropolymerization
The electropoymerizations were carried out in a three‐electrode cell using a stainless
steel sheet (12 cm2) as the working electrode, a Ag/AgCl wire as the reference electrode
(+0.15 V against Ag/AgCl (3 M KCl)), and a platinum mesh counter electrode at −20 °C.
Figure 1 represents a flowchart of the principle electropolymerizations.
Polymers 2021, 13, 861 3 of 15
Figure‐1. Flowchart of the fabrication of the various types of actuator materials, including pyrrole
electropolymerization regimes.
The monomer solution consisted of 0.1 M Py, 0.1 M TBACF3SO3 dissolved in propyl‐
ene carbonate. Galvanostatic electropolymerization was performed at 0.1 mA cm−2 (5.5 h,
charge density 0.675 C cm−2) leading to 15 ± 1.2 μm PPy(galv) films (Figure 1). The poten‐
tiostatic polymerization (1.05 V vs. Ag/AgCl wire, about 1.2 V against SHE) was carried
out for 10.3 h to consume the same charge density of 0.675 C cm−2 leading to PPy(pot) films
in thickness of 15.2 ± 1.5 μm (Figure 1). The bending hybrid actuators (BHA) (Figure 1)
were obtained by the galvanostatic electropolymerization of PPy on stainless steel (0.1 mA
cm−2, 5.7 h, −20 °C, 15.6 ± 1.3 μm) named as layer 1 followed by potentiostatic polymeriza‐
tion (1.05 V, 11 h, 15.9 ± 1.6 μm) on top of the PPy(galv) (layer 2) resulting in films with
thickness of 31.5 ± 2.2 μm (Figure 1). For mirrored trilayers, free standing PPy films were
obtained in potentiostatic polymerization at 0.75 V (0.9 V against Ag/AgCl (3 M KCl)) in
the same monomer solution at −20 °C for 14 h yielding 14.5 ± 1.1 μm thick films with the
consumed charge density of 0.675 C cm−2. After polymerization, all films were washed
with ethanol to remove PC and monomer, dried in oven at 4 mbar for 12 h at 40 °C.
For trilayers, the two‐component PDMS mix was prepared and coated on glass slides
in thickness of 150 μm, one PPy free standing film (thickness 15 μm) was attached on top
before the silicone dried up. After removing PDMS‐PPy from the glass slide, the other
side was coated with pre‐polymer mix of Sylgard in thickness of 50 μm and before drying,
the other PPy film (15 μm) was attached to it, forming a trilayer (PPy‐PDMS‐PPy,
PPy(mirr), ~230 μm) (Figure 1).
2.3. Actuation Measurements
Figure 2a,b show the measurement set ups applied for different designs of actuators.
Polymers 2021, 13, 861 4 of 15
Figure‐2. (a) Electro‐chemo‐mechanical deformation (ECMD) device with linear actuation stage
(1), beaker with electrolyte (2), electrodes of the potentiostat (3–5), measured samples such as free‐
standing PPy films of PPy(galv), PPy(pot) and PPy(mirr) (6) and force sensor (7) [25]. The bending
hybrid actuator (BHA) was studied in a three electrode cell shown in (b) with counter electrode
CE, reference electrode RE, the displacement was recorded with a CCD.
PPy(galv), PPy(pot) and PPy(mirr) samples were cut in strips of 1 cm length, 2 mm
width and fixed between contacts of the force sensor and the lower clamp (4 mm free
length, constant force of 9.8 mN) in a three‐electrode set up shown in Figure 2a.
For the free‐standing films, the working electrodes were the PPy films and the coun‐
ter electrode a stainless steel sheet, while for PPy(mirr), one side was connected as the
working and the other as the counter electrode. In all cases a Ag/AgCl (3 M KCl) reference
electrode was used in the linear measurement set up. From the ECMD set up (Figure 2a),
the force changes were translated in movement by an in‐house computer program, as de‐
scribed in detail previously [25].
Length change measurements (strain ε = ΔL/L with ΔL = L − L1 (L the initial free
length of film, and L1 the actuated length) were performed under cyclic voltammetry (±1
V, 5 mV s−1) and square wave potential steps (±1 V, frequency from 0.00417 Hz to 0.1 Hz)
controlled by a potentiostat (Biologic PG581, Seyssinet‐Pariset, France), in 0.1 M
TBACF3SO3 PC electrolyte solution. Before the measurements, the samples were stored
overnight in the electrolyte in stretched position of 1% strain for PPy(galv) and PPy(pot)
and at 0.5% strain for PPy(mirr).
The BHA in length of 2.5 cm (of which 2 cm was in the electrolyte), width of 0.4 cm
and thickness in range of 31.5 ± 1.5 μm consisting of the PPy(galv) and PPy(pot) layers
was connected as the working electrode, with a platinum mesh counter electrode and a
Ag/AgCl (3 M KCl) reference electrode in 0.1 M TBACF3SO3 PC electrolyte solution (Fig‐
ure 2b). The BHA films were fixed with a metal clamp hanging in electrolyte solution for
12 h before the measurements. The bending displacement was recorded with a CCD cam‐
era (Cyber‐shot DSC‐F717, Sony, Tokyo, Japan) as movies (Figure 2b), which were con‐
verted to images whereas the bending was determined over angular motion as described
previously [26]. Square wave potential steps were performed with a frequency scan be‐
tween 4.17 mHz to 0.1 Hz in the potential range 1 V to 0 V.
To determine the diffusion coefficients D, Equations (1) and (2) were applied on the
current density time curves of square wave potential step measurements [27]:
𝑄
𝑙𝑛 1 𝑏𝑡 (1)
𝑄
𝑏ℎ
𝐷 (2)
2
Polymers 2021, 13, 861 5 of 15
The approach originated from the Cottrell model, where the determination of diffu‐
sion coefficients was made under the assumption that the polymer has a porous open
structure and no structural or conformation change occur during electrochemical redox
process, which does not hold in case of PPy. The incorporation of the structural changes
during redox processes from the electrochemically stimulated conformational relaxation
(ESCR) model [28] is expressed in equations (1) and (2). The model development from the
chronoamperometric response has been described in details by Suarez et al. [29]. The term
Q/Qt on the left side of the Equation (1) was obtained by the integration of current density
time curves, where Q is the charge density at each timepoint, and is Qt the total charge
density. The term ln [1 − Q/Qt] was plotted against time t, and the slope b. The diffusion
coefficients were calculated from equation 2 by including the thickness h of the samples.
The hypothesis of the equations (1) and (2) is that upon oxidation the polymer expands
and upon reduction it shrinks, with kinetic conformational changes leading to compac‐
tion. Diffusion coefficients for expansion from compact form (reduced state) upon oxida‐
tion can be calculated from equations (1) and (2) under the conditions of steady state
(charging/discharging in balance). The equations (1) and (2) relate to the diffusion coeffi‐
cients of the polymer‐electrolyte interface as well as of ions inside the polymer films.
2.4. Characterization
Surface and cross‐section scanning electron microscopy (SEM, Helios NanoLab 600,
FEI, Hillsboro, OR, USA) images were recorded (at 5 kV) after polymerization from
washed and dried films The ion content in oxidized (5 min, +1 V) and reduced state (5
min, −1 V) were determined in the cross‐sections of PPy(pot) and PPy(galv) samples using
an energy dispersive X‐Ray spectroscopy system (EDX with X‐Max 50 mm2 detector, Ox‐
ford Instruments, High Wycombe, UK). The surface conductivity of the samples was
measured over four‐point‐probe conductivity meter (Jandle 4‐Point Probe Head, Model
RM2, Leighton Buzzard, UK).
3. Results and Discussion
In order to understand the effects of direction of actuation and the dominant mobile
species, the PPy(pot) and PPy(galv) freestanding films were investigated in their linear
actuation properties. The understanding gained allowed to combine these two films to
form pure‐PPy bending actuators as well as linear trilayer actuators. For the first time, the
usually undesirable mixed ion actuation was employed to make use of the virtually equal
strain upon oxidation/reduction in a linear trilayer actuator design. The different actua‐
tion models consisting of these two films are shown in Figure 3.
Figure‐3. PPy(pot) and PPy(galv) in different arrangements: as freestanding films, BHA (bilayer) and linear trilayer actu‐
ator (PPy(mirr)). WE refers to the working electrode, CE to counter electrode. The arrows symbolize expansion or contrac‐
tion under given conditions.
Polymers 2021, 13, 861 6 of 15
From each model (Figure 3) in different arrangements, at least three different samples
were fabricated and tested, the actuation results are presented as mean values with stand‐
ard deviations. It need be noticed that the PPy(pot) and PPy(galv) represents freestanding
films, while BHA is essentially a bilayer of two PPy layers consecutively electropolymer‐
ized with the two techniques. PPy(mirr) is a trilayer with identical potentiostatically de‐
posited PPy layers on either side of a PDMS separator. During oxidation/reduction the
trilayer (PPy(mirr)) expands and contract in cycles at 0 V shown in Figure 3.
3.1. Characterization
The potentiostatic (1.05 V) and galvanostatic electropolymerization curves of PPy are
shown in Figure 4a,b, respectively, with SEM surface images as insets. Figure 4c,d show
the polymerization curves of the galvanostatic layer 1 and the potentiostatic (1.05 V) layer
2 of BHA, respectively. The SEM image of the surfaces of the BHA opposite sides and the
cross section (inset) are shown in Figure 4e.
Figure‐4. Electropolymerization curves and SEM surface images (scale bar 10 μm) in (a): potentiostatic at 1.05 V (vs
Ag/AgCl wire) and (b): galvanostatic at 0.1 mA cm−2. The electropolymerization of the PPy for BHA: (c): layer 1, galvanos‐
tatic (0.1 mA cm−1) on stainless steel (black curve); and in (d): layer 2, potentiostatic (1.05 V) (red curve). The SEM surface
images (scale bar 10 μm) of BHA (e): PPy(galv) layer 1 with insets layer 2 (PPy(pot)) and cross‐section.
To be able to compare differently deposited materials, some parameters need to be
kept constant. To make sure that a similar amount of PPy was deposited with the two
methods, the consumed charge density of 0.675 C cm−2 was kept constant. The current
density decreased during the potentiostatic polymerization from nearly 0.12 mA cm−2 to
0.044 mA cm−2 by the end of the polymerization (11 h), as with increasing film thickness
(and resistance), the relative driving force of the potential dropped. The PPy(pot) film
Polymers 2021, 13, 861 7 of 15
conductivity was in range of 7.8 ± 0.7 S cm−1. In case of the galvanostatic electropolymeri‐
zation (constant current density of 8.3 μA cm−2), the potential remained rather constant in
range of 1.18 V, the conductivity of the obtained PPy(galv) film was 8.5 ± 0.6 S cm−1. On
the SEM surface images, both types of PPy films appear relatively similar, with the typical
cauliflower morphology [30]. The latter is logical, as both current and potential (reaction
rate and driving force) remained virtually constant throughout the synthesis. To obtain
the BHA, the first layer was deposited galvanostatically on stainless steel, with a similar
voltage evolution reaching 1.19 V by the end of polymerization. Layer 2 was then pol‐
ymerized potentiostatically (1.05 V) on top of layer 1. The current density again dropped
from the peak of 0.2 mA cm−2 to nearly 0.042 mA cm−2 by the end. Here, the SEM surface
images look more distinct, as the galvanostatic one was peeled from the stainless steel
sheet and looks much smoother while the potentiostatic one closely resembles the one of
the free‐standing PPy(pot) film. However, the cross section shows no distinctive separa‐
tion or difference between the two layers. The conductivities were also relatively similar,
for the galvanostatic and potentiostatic layers, respectively. It is expected that the different
deposition conditions also reflect on the polymer structure, and hence the ion transport
within. To determine the dominant mobile ionic species in PPy(pot) and PPy(galv) free
standing films, EDX spectroscopy was performed in the oxidized and reduced states (Fig‐
ure 5).
Figure‐5. EDX spectra of the cross‐sections of PPy films in oxidized state (1 V, 5 min polarization, black line) and at reduced
(−1 V, 5 min polarization, red line) (a): PPy(pot) and (b): PPy(galv).
In all spectra, the carbon peak (C) at 0.26 keV, the nitrogen (N) peak at 0.38 keV, the
oxygen peak (O) at 0.52 keV, the fluorine peak (F) at 0.68 keV and the sulfur (S) peak at
2.32 keV can be seen. Upon oxidation, the sulfur, fluorine and oxygen peaks of potenti‐
ostatically polymerized PPy (Figure 5a) increase, which refers to the incorporation of solv‐
ated CF3SO3− anions during oxidation. In the reduced state, a certain amount of CF3SO3−
anions still remain in the film. It has been shown previously [31,32] that some CF3SO3−
anions become immobile in a PPy network due to their non‐spherical form, forcing (solv‐
ated) cation ingress upon reduction to maintain electroneutrality, as indicated here with
a slight increase of the nitrogen peak. Nitrogen peak intensity is the only one changing in
the spectra of the galvanostatically polymerized PPy(galv) (Figure 5b), indicating virtu‐
ally pure cation activity, which has been observed before for similar films [33].
Polymers 2021, 13, 861 8 of 15
3.2. Comparison of PPy(galv) and PPy(pot) Actuation
The actuation behavior of the PPy(pot) and PPy(galv) films in TBACF3SO3 PC solu‐
tion driven by cyclic voltammetry (scan rate 5 mV s−1) was studied (Figure 6). To make
sure that charging/discharging was in balance [34] the potential range of ±1 V was applied.
The strain response of PPy(pot) and PPy(galv) reflected their mobile ionic species, as
established from the EDX spectra. For PPy(pot), a mixed response was observed, with
4.7% strain upon oxidation and 1.8% upon reduction. PPy(galv) was almost purely cation‐
active, with strain upon reduction in range of 4.2%. For the latter case, the chosen potential
range likely plays a role as well [33]. With such differences in the strain response, it is
perhaps surprising that the current density curves look so similar at first glance, especially
on the reduction side. However, upon closer observation it is possible to distinguish an
oxidation peak at 0.5 V in addition to the reduction peak at −0.15 V for PPy(pot), while
PPy(galv) had just the reduction peak.
Figure‐6. Cyclic voltammetry (±1 V, 5 mV s−1) driven linear actuation of PPy(pot) (black) and PPy(galv) (red) in a three‐
electrode cell with TBACF3SO3‐PC solution The working electrode was the samples, counter electrode a platinum sheet
and reference electrode a Ag/AgCl (3 M KCl). (a) strain ε of cycles (1) solid, (2) dotted, (3) dashed line; (b) current density
j; (c) charge density Q against the potential E. The CV and charge density curves correspond to the strain curve (1).
The similarity in the charge density but not in strain reveal clear differences in the
electro‐chemo‐mechanical coupling—the flow of current in PPy(galv) coupled with ion
flux generates a lot more mechanical stress in the polymer matrix, resulting in higher dis‐
placement (Figure 6a,b). The charge density curves revealed for both PPy films a close
loop which shows that charging/discharging was in balance [34] and no irreversible pro‐
cesses took place (Figure 6c). The charge densities for PPy(pot) and PPy(galv) were found
in similar range—101.6 ± 8 C cm−3 and 100.8 ± 7 C cm−3, respectively. While PPy is a typical
Polymers 2021, 13, 861 9 of 15
faradaic actuator material where charge density should determine the actuation extent, it
only forms the basis, and the understanding of the coupling and mobile species is needed
for a more complete picture. In comparison to the gradual potential sweep of the cyclic
voltammetry technique, the abrupt nature of square wave potential step signals creates
responses further away from equilibrium. The response of PPy(pot) and PPy(galv) films
to such measurements (at 4.17 mHz) are shown in Figure 7. The current density time
curves (Figure S1a) correspond to the strain response in Figure 7a.
Figure‐7. Response to square wave potential steps in TBACF3SO3 PC of PPy(pot) (black) and PPy(galv) (red) (a): strain vs.
time (2 subsequent cycles 3rd–4th) at ±1 V (dotted) and 4.17 mHz. (b): strain vs. charge density Qox on oxidation; (c):
diffusion coefficients upon oxidation Dox obtained from Equations (1) and (2) vs. frequency f. The dashed lines in (b,c)
represent linear fits and are shown here only for orientation. Negative values of strain in b represent opposite actuation
direction.
As for cyclic voltammetry, the two PPy materials showed contrasting actuation re‐
sponse. PPy(pot) had main expansion on oxidation in range of 4.5% and a small expansion
on reduction, around 0.73%, from cycle to cycle, the strain increased slightly (Figure 7a).
The current density (Figure S1a) showed a smaller second maximum, which indicates the
start of another process, most likely related to the mixed ion transport. In case of
PPy(galv), the expansion was again found on reduction, in range of 3.3% strain and there
was no second peak in the current density curves either. The strain of both types of films
followed the well‐established inverse frequency dependence (Figure S1b). The charge
density was obtained from each chronopotentiograms by integration at each frequency.
Polymers 2021, 13, 861 10 of 15
As the square wave potential steps approach allows little time for relaxation, there was
nearly linear dependence of strain (negative values for PPy(galv)) on charge density (Fig‐
ure 7b), as expected for a faradaic actuator.
For both types of PPy films, the diffusion coefficients on oxidation (Figure 7c) in‐
creased with increasing frequency, which is the result of the timeframe for the process.
Longer oxidation times allow deeper/more complete shrinking/compaction/relaxa‐
tion/swelling [35]. The diffusion coefficients on oxidation of PPy(galv) were 1.5 to 2 times
higher in comparison to PPy(pot), which is explained by the different ionic species partic‐
ipating in the charge compensation. In PPy(pot) upon oxidation the cations are expelled
while anions also move in, while in PPy(galv) the charge neutrality is obtained primarily
by cation expulsion. As indicated by the results with the free‐standing PPy(pot) and
PPy(galv), the different deposition conditions lead to similar charge density upon oxida‐
tion with opposite strain, and significantly higher diffusion coefficients for PPy(galv). Ta‐
ble 1 sums up the main characteristics of the PPy(pot) and PPy(galv) freestanding films.
Table 1. Strain (negative strain refers to expansion on reduction), charge density on oxidation Qox,
and diffusion coefficient on oxidation Dox at 16.7 mHz with sample dimensions and conductivities
of PPy(galv) and PPy(pot) free‐standing films (mean values).
Longer‐term measurements (100 cycles, not shown here) at 0.1 Hz revealed that both
types of PPy films had nearly equal stability as well, therefore, the materials can be com‐
bined into various beneficial hybrid actuator designs, as demonstrated below.
3.3. Actuation of BHA
Since the PPy(galv) and PPy(pot) showed opposite actuation direction, it should be
possible to fabricate a purely PPy‐based bending actuator from the same synthesis solu‐
tion. The BHA bilayer actuators were fabricated by depositing PPy in two consecutive
steps applying the two methods showing electronic conductivity of the PPy(galv) side of
7.7 ± 0.7 S cm−1 and at the PPy(pot) side in similar range of 7.5 ± 0.5 S cm−1. In order to take
maximum advantage of the bilayer design (length 2 cm, width 0.4 cm and thickness 31.5
± 1.5 μm), a potential range must be chosen where one layer has significant displacement,
while the other has no expansion or contracts at the same potential. The images of bending
with angle determination at 0 V to 1 V at 4.17 mHz are shown in Figures S2a,b, the corre‐
sponding bending angles against time are presented in Figure 8a. The angle differences
Δα against frequency in potential range 1 V to 0 V are shown in Figure S3, and those
against the consumed charge density in Figure 9b. At least three independent samples
from each polymerized BHA were studied, the angles in Figures S3 and 5b are presented
as mean values with standard deviations.
Polymers 2021, 13, 861 11 of 15
Figure‐8. (a): Bending displacement of BHA (repeatability shown by three different samples: black, green and blue) in
TBACF3SO3 PC as angle α at 4.17 mHz, with potential E (dotted) at 0 V to 1 V showing 2 subsequent cycles and in (b):
Displacement of BHA (■) as angle change Δα against charge density upon oxidation Qox in potential range 0 V to 1 V. The
dashed line in (b) represents the linear fit, shown here for orientation only.
The actuation response of BHA in repeated sample 1–3 clearly depended on the cho‐
sen voltage range. At 0 V to 1 V range, mainly triflate anions were exchanged leading to
an expansion of the PPy(pot) layer and the BHA bends to right, towards PPy(galv) (Fig‐
ures S2a,b), thus, the BHA works like a bilayer. If more negative potentials were applied,
irreversible damage to the BHA was observed, destroying the bending response (images
available in Figure S3). The displacement in 0 V to 1 V range was 84 degrees. Upon reduc‐
tion to −1 V, a displacement of 126 degrees was reached, however, no further displacement
response was achieved with following charging/discharging cycles, the BHA stayed im‐
mobile. A similar observation has been reported for PEDOT bilayers [22]. Therefore, to
obtain reversible bending from cycle to cycle, the 0 V to 1 V potential range was chosen.
The dependence of bending angle difference on frequency is shown in Figure S4 and
on the consumed charge density in Figure 8b. As expected, the actuation depended virtu‐
ally linearly on charge density, reaching 84 ± 2 degrees at the highest charge density of 56
± 5 C cm−3 (corresponding to the lowest frequency 4.17 Hz) but still maintaining significant
actuation of 30 ± 2 degrees at the highest frequency (1 Hz) which corresponded to just 1.7
± 0.1 C cm−3 exchanged. Therefore, both charge efficiency and response speed of BHA were
significant. The maximum bending angle naturally depends on several factors, including
sample thickness, driving voltage and regime etc., rendering direct comparisons to other
works difficult. While the respectable response even at higher frequencies suggests this
type of bending actuators could have potential application in smart devices, the durability
and creep issues need to be established first. The latter was noticeable at the highest fre‐
quencies considered. Long term measurements (not shown here) of 1000 cycles at 1 Hz
showed from cycle 5 an angle of 30 ± 2 degree and decreased to 27 ± 2 degree assuring
relatively good stability.
3.4. Mirrored Trilayer
For practical designs, self‐contained linear actuators would be far more desirable
than bending ones. In order to transfer a typical bending trilayer to a linear actuator, the
active sides should have mirrored‐response to voltage—one that expands/elongates upon
oxidation and the other that expands/elongates upon reduction. This should all happen
in the same electrolyte and to a similar extent under similar (opposite sign) polarization.
To our knowledge, the present work is the first attempt to make use of the mixed‐ion
involvement in conductive polymers to achieve such a result. As no membrane is needed
Polymers 2021, 13, 861 12 of 15
for electrolyte storage if the actuator is operated immersed in solution, the two active lay‐
ers—two PPy(pot) free‐standing films polymerized at 0.75 V (polymerization curve and
SEM images shown in Figure S5a,b) were glued together with a two‐component silicone,
forming a trilayer PPy(pot)‐PDMS‐PPy(pot). Figure 9 shows the response of the free‐
standing films as well as the trilayer to both CV and square wave potential steps.
Figure‐9. Linear actuation response to cyclic voltammetry (5 mV s−1) in 0.1 M TBACF3SO3 PC as strain (black) and current
density (red) of (a): PPy(pot, 0.75 V) and (b): PPy(mirr) (repeatability shown by three samples: black, green and blue)
against time t with applied potential E (dashed, red). The PPy(mirr) strain response to square wave potential steps (cycles
3rd ‐4th) at 4.17 mHz against time t (c): potential range from −1 V to 1 V (red) and (c’): potential 0 V to 1 V (red line) with
strain response of three samples (black, green and blue). Strain ε (■) against charge density Qox in potential range 0 V to 1
V is shown in (d). The dashed line in (d) represents the linear fit and is shown for orientation only.
The potentiostatic electropolymerization at 0.75 V resulted in a film that showed
nearly equal peak strain in both oxidation and reduction of 3.6% and 3.63%, respectively
(Figure 9a). The lower polymerization potential resulted in a slightly higher conductivity
of the films, in range of 13.4 ± 1.1 S cm−1. The CV shape showed an oxidation peak at 0.33
V and a reduction peak at −0.25 V. Comparing these ones to the PPy(pot, 1.05 V) films
(Figure 6a), the lower formation potential of PPy(pot, 0.75 V) also resulted in a more com‐
pactly packed film (Figure S5b, inset), clearly limiting the mobility of the triflate anions,
leading to a significant increase of cation participation in maintaining the charge neutral‐
ity.
Polymers 2021, 13, 861 13 of 15
In trilayer configuration (Figure 9b), the freedom of motion is limited by the (rela‐
tively thick) separator layer, resulting in lower strain of just 0.84 ± 0.05% upon polariza‐
tion, but importantly a symmetrical linear strain upon oxidation and reduction is obtained
together with high repeatability, while the contraction takes place at 0 V. The result proves
that by achieving a balanced mixed ion involvement, linear actuation of trilayers with the
exact same materials for electrodes can be obtained. The more abrupt driving by square
potential steps in range of ±1 V at 4.17 m Hz (Figure 9c) pushed the trilayer to an increased
strain of 1.5%, while maintaining the symmetric behavior. While a full range of potentials
expectedly resulted in undesired double actuation, the potential range of 0 V to 1 V (Figure
9c’) was chosen for further analysis with maximum strain of 1.3 ± 0.08%. The strain against
frequency is shown in Figure S6 and strain against charge density in Figure 9d. The nearly
linear dependence of strain on charge density again attests a faradaic process [35]. As a
summary, two PPy films having virtually equal strain response upon oxidation/reduction
by taking advantage of the mixed ion activity can be combined with an inert separator to
form a mirrored linear actuator PPy(mirr)). The mirror‐like actuation of PPy(mirr) tri‐
layers might find applications in micro‐pumps or soft robotic devices. By replacing the
PDMS layer with a porous membrane and choosing appropriate electrolytes, such trilayer
linear actuators could also be designed to be self‐contained and to operate in air/vacuum.
Table 2 shows the comparison of the properties of PPy films in the two different ar‐
rangements of BHA and PPy(mirr).
Table 2. Comparison of the main characteristics of BHA and PPy(mirr): actuation behavior, charge
density upon oxidation during square wave potential steps from 0 V to1 V at 16.7 mHz, conductiv‐
ity and dimensions (length l, width w and thickness d).
Actuators of both designs showed good repeatability. Further research on their
adaptability in different application is envisaged.
4. Conclusions
While it is a well‐known fact that the synthesis conditions affect the properties of
conductive polymers, surprisingly few attempts have been made to tune the conditions
like the electropolymerization regime for making hybrid actuators. Moreover, mixed ion
involvement has been usually considered an adverse effect that has to be minimized or
best avoided. Here we have demonstrated that as the potentiostatically and galvanostati‐
cally polymerized polypyrrole films and have rather different actuation responses, the
former showing mixed ion activity while the latter is primarily cation‐active and various
beneficial antagonist designs can be created. For instance, it is possible to create a bending
actuator by a two‐step PPy deposition from just one polymerization solution, with no ad‐
ditional fabrication or addition of passive layers. In this example, the main work was done
by the potentiostatic PPy layer, which in the voltage range of 0 V to 1 V primarily ex‐
changes anions, while the galvanostatic PPy layer shows limited cation activity, but here
behaves as a virtually passive layer turning the actuation into bending. Moreover, by ex‐
ploiting the response sensitivity towards potentiostatic polymerization potential, it is pos‐
sible to synthesize films with nearly equal cation and anion activity. By combining such
films into a trilayer, a mirrored actuator is obtained with linear actuation response, as both
Polymers 2021, 13, 861 14 of 15
layers are capable of expansion/elongation upon opposite polarizations. For the first time,
equal anion and cation involvement has been put into good use. Both the possibility for
simple fabrication of bending actuators or creating linear trilayer actuators can open up
new applications in soft robotics and smart fabrics.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, R.K., Q.L.B. and T.T.; Data curation, T.T.; Formal analy‐
sis, R.K., N.T.N., T.T. and Q.L.B.; Funding acquisition, R.K. and G.A.; Investigation, Q.L.B.; Meth‐
odology, G.A.; Project administration, T.T.; Resources, N.T.N.; Software, G.A.; Validation, N.T.N.;
Writing—review & editing, R.K. and T.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Estonian Research Council, grants PUT1696, PRG772 and
PRG1084.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the Estonian Research Council grants PUT1696,
PRG772 and PRG1084.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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