CREATION

RESEARCH SOCIETY
1966 ANNUAL

Haec credimus:

For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth,

the sea, and all that in them is and rested on
the seventh. - Exodus 20:11

VOLUME 3 MAY, 1966 NUMBER 1

 CREATION RESEARCH SOCIETY
1966 ANNUAL
Volume 3 MAY, 1966 Number 1

EDITORIAL BOARD
Walter E. Lammerts, Editor
P. O. Box 496
Freedom, California
John N. Moore, Managing Editor
Department of Natural Science, Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan

Henry M. Morris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Va.

John W. Klotz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Concordia Senior College, Fort Wayne, Indiana
William J. Tinkle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Anderson College (retired), Eaton, Indiana
George F. Howe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Westmont College, Santa-Barbara, Calif.
Thomas G. Barnes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Texas Western College,
El Paso, Texas
Donald O. Acrey, Geophysicist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .Amarillo, Texas
John C. Whitcomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grace Theological Seminary,
Winona Lake, Indiana

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Editorial Comment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Textbook Committee Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Constitution of Creation Research Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Analysis of So-called Evidences of Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Wilbert Rusch, Sr.
Prolegomena to a Study of Cataclysmal Sedimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
N. A. Rupke
Microflora of the Grand Canyon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Clifford Burdick
Hydraulics, Sedimentation, and Catastrophism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Henry M. Morris
A Gravity Study of the Kilbourne Hole Area, New Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Harold S. Slusher
Supposed Overthrust in Franklin Mountains, El Paso, Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Harold S. Slusher
Overthrust Faults in Glacier National Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Walter E. Lammerts
The Ice Age Phenomenon and a Possible Explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Donald Wesley Patton
The Galapagos Island Finches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Walter E. Lammerts
 1

EDITORIAL COMMENT
As a group of scientists we are heartily in the Flood has my sincere admiration. As Rupke
accord with the words of St. Paul, so aptly says, “Potest, nam est.” Or to put it
For the invisible things of him from the crea- another way, we may not be able to explain it,
tion of the world are clearly seen, being under- but there it is for all the world to see. And
stood by the things that are made, even h i s furthermore anyone who has taken or studied
eternal power and Godhead; so that they are structural geology realizes that uniformitarian
without excuse: Because that, when they knew concepts certainly leave much to be explained
God, they glorified him not as God, neither also.
were they thankful; but became vain in their Henry M. Morris with his usual clarity pre-
imaginations and their foolish hearts were sents a fine introduction to an analysis of the
darkened. Professing themselves to be wise destructive and sorting effects of water in vari-
they became fools, and changed the glory of ous kinds of motion. This is a subject which
the incorruptible God into an image made like he, as a hydrologist, is eminently qualified to
to corruptible man, and to birds, and four- discuss. We are looking forward to the second
footed beasts, and creeping things. (Romans part of his article which lack of space has de-
1:20-24) layed for publication until one of our later
Our articles have shown a few evidences of quarterlies,
design in nature, of which so many abound.
Both my own paper and that of Harold Slusher
We believe that the marvels of even the most
are merely introductions to the study of thrust
humble plant demand a teleological explanation,
faults and other structures for which there is
But we also believe what St. Peter says, no really adequate explanation in terms of or-
There shall come in the last days scoffers, thodox geological theory. From the Flood geol-
walking after their own lusts, and saying, ogy viewpoint, many of these formations are
Where is the promise of his coming? For not faults at all, but are the result of regular
since the fathers fell asleep all things continue recurrent deposition, accompanied in places by
as they were from the beginning of creation. subsequent movement, when both the overlying
For this they willingly are ignorant of, that and basic formations were relatively soft and
by the word of God the heavens were of old, unconsolidated, Here is a field where much re-
and the earth standing out of the water and search needs to be done since thousands of
in the water: Whereby the world that then these wrong-order formations and related struc-
was, being overflowed with water, perished: tures occur.
But the heavens and the earth which are now,
by the same word are kept in store, reserved Clifford Burdick’s preliminary report is truly
unto fire against the day of judgment and per- revolutionary. Though Leclercq has reported
dition of ungodly men. (2 Peter 3:3-7) spores of vascular plants from the Cambrian,
such a detailed presentation of evidence for not
I feel it therefore timely to dedicate the 1966 only Gymnosperms, but Angiosperms or flower-
Annual mostly to articles dealing with the Flood. ing plants as well has not been published. Cer-
Our treasurer Wilbert Rusch, Sr., points out tainly any concept of plant evolution is relegated
clearly why we do not believe “that all things to theorizing as to what might have happened
continue as they were since the beginning of before the pre-Cambrian!
creation.” His effective review of the work of
Abelson and associates indicating that the or- For several years I have been following closely
ganic matter found in chondrites and meteors is Burdick’s painstaking work, and more than any-
of inorganic origin is very timely. (My own re- one else realize how difficult it has been for him
view of this important work can now await to consent to the publication of these data so
publication in some later quarterly.) There is totally at variance with the usual ideas of plant
much in Rusch’s comprehensive paper which evolution. It is our hope that first priority may
can be effectively used both by our regular and be given to the financing of more of this re-
sustaining members in their speaking engage- search. So far Burdick has done all of it on
ments and teaching. his own time and at his own expense, He cer-
tainly deserves the sincere thanks of all of us
When N. A. Rupke, who recently completed for sharing with us this original and fundamental
his degree in geology at the University of research discovery.
Grönigen in Holland, offered to write an article,
I had temporarily forgotten the detailed way For many years, Donald W. Patten has been
in which European scholars go about their work. assembling data showing the pattern of catas-
Anyone reading his paper who still doubts the trophism which resulted not only in the sedi-
sudden and world-wide destructive effects of mentary rock formations, but mountain ranges,
2

volcanoes and glaciers as well. I was asked to which have been presented, For certainly we
review certain chapters of a book he will soon as scientists look for and write about that which
publish presenting this data. His chapter on the we wish to see. And we must always remember
various features of the polar ice caps and former that much of what is seen in nature exists only
and existing glaciers as well was new to me, and in the mind of the observer.
I am sure it will be new for most of our mem-
bers. Frankly, I never knew there was so much So let us not accept so easily the so called
ice and the explanation of its occurrence poses “objectivity” of science. Let us have a fresh
a real problem, not only to orthodox geologists, look. Let us see more clearly how the remains
but Flood geologists as well. of a once perfect world still shows so clearly
the handiwork of our God, who daily is con-
His satellite capture theory is indeed fascinat- cerned over even the most humble sparrow that
ing and merits careful study. Not being much falls by the wayside, and who each spring causes
interested in astronomy, I had not realized how the flowers (lilies) of the field to burst forth
much evidence there really is for various kinds with such splendor that Solomon in all his glory
of ices in outer space. Planets such as Saturn was not arrayed like one of these.
truly are strangely made. The facts that Patten
presents certainly do not fit into the pattern of Walter E. Lammerts,
uniformitarianism, but indicate a catastrophe of Editor
world wide proportions. He will welcome dis-
cussion of his theory, the details of which he P.S. I wish to add a note to explain recent delays
presents in his forthcoming book. in publication, To make the Quarterlies and
Annual worthwhile, careful checks and cross-
My own study of the Darwin finches is mostly checks have been made on references, illustra-
of interest because it led me to realize how much tions, etc. Also, please note that all publication
we need to critically reevaluate the taxonomy and mailing work must be accomplished in addi-
of vertebrate forms of land breathing animals. tion to full-time employment responsibilities.
It is becoming more and more evident that our
point of view calls for a complete new look at John N. Moore,
many sciences, both as to theory and the facts Managing Editor

REPORT ON THE HIGH SCHOOL BIOLOGY TEXTBOOK

The Textbook Committee of the Creation It is believed that this textbook will be a
Research Society is now working on the manu- creditable book of science, suitable for the best
script of Foundations and Applications of Biol- of high schools. Being released from the dog-
ogy, a high School textbook. Individual members matism of the theory of evolution, these writers
have been assigned various sections for the are able to concentrate more time on the basic
first draft in accordance with their own experi- laws of science.
ence and judgrnent. Most of those first drafts
have come in, except for illustrations. Illustra- The textbook committee consists of the fol-
tions will require a little more time. lowing: Dr. Russell C. Artist, Dr. Thomas G.
Barnes, Dr. Bolton Davidheiser, Dr. Douglas
Those committee members who were not Dean, Dr. Duane T. Gish, Dr. George F. Howe,
given initial writing assignments will assist in Dr. John W. Koltz, Dr. Walter E. Lammerts,
editing the text and checking on its scientific Dr. Frank L. Marsh, Dr. John N. Moore, Dr.
accuracy. This first draft will be worked over R. Clyde McCone, Dr. Jack Wood Sears, Dr.
extensively to achieve continuity and unity of William J. Tinkle, Francis Urton, Rita Rhodes
the subiect, consistency of style, adjustrnent to Ward, and Dr. Paul A. Zimmerman.
the high school level, and to include more
Dr. Thomas G. Barnes,
exercises and other teaching aids.
Committee Chairman
Then the second draft will be prepared in
large enough quantities for pilot “runs,” as sup- (Editor’s note: Dr. Barnes is doing a superb job
plementary material, in a few high schools. Two
in getting the cooperation of these men, and
high schools, one public and one private, are
already scheduled to begin pilots forms in Sep- also in arranging for trial “runs” of text material
tember, 1966. in two schools this Fall.)
 3

CONSTITUTION OF CREATION RESEARCH SOCIETY

(All members should be informed that Articles Article III. Membership
of Incorporation of the Creation Research Soci- Section 1. There shall be two classes of mem-
ety were duly filed with the Department of Com- bership in the Society. All members of both
merce of the State of Michigan on 27 February, of these classes shall subscribe to the Statement
1966. Action is still pending with the United of Belief when becoming members.
States Internal Revenue Service on approval for
(a) Voting Members shall hold an earned de-
tax-exempt basis for receipt of contributions to
gree in science of Ph.D., M.D., M.A., M.S., or
a non-profit corporation.)
the equivalent in education or experience, as
determined by the officers of the Society.
Article I. Name and Purpose
(b) Sustaining Members do not necessarily
Section 1. The name of this organization shall hold degrees but are interested in the program
be the Creation Research Society. of the Society. They shall receive the literature
Section 2. The purpose of this organization of the Society and have all the rights and privi-
shall be to publish research evidence support- leges of members except voting and holding
ing the thesis that the material universe, includ- office.
ing plants, animals, and man, are the results of (c) Sustaining Members who are students shall
direct creative acts by a personal God. receive their memberships at a reduced fee.

Section 3. In order to correlate this truth Section 2. If a Member should change his
with facts learned in science, thus removing belief, so that he no longer can accept Article
obstacles to faith, the Society shall publish re- II, he shall resign.
search and interpretation of scientific data.
Article IV. Organization
Section 4. The Society shall be a non-profit
organization within the meaning of the law. Section 1. The officers of the Society shall
consist of President, Vice-president, Secretary,
Corresponding Secretary, and Treasurer, and
Article II. Statement of Belief they shall constitute the Executive Board.
Section 1. The Bible is the written Word of The Board of Directors shall consist of 18
God, and because it is inspired throughout, all members representing the various scientific dis-
its assertions are historically and scientifically ciplines. The Board of Directors shall be elected
true in all the original autographs. To the stu- by mail ballot of the Voting Members every
dent of nature this means that the account of three years beginning in February 1966.
origins in Genesis is a factual presentation of The Board of Directors shall elect an Execu-
simple historical truths. tive Board from their own membership.
Section 2. All basic types of living things, in- Section 2. The President, advised by the Secr-
cluding man, were made by direct creative acts etary, shall appoint such boards and commit-
of God during the Creation Week described tees as shall be found necessary.
in Genesis. Whatever biological changes have
ocurred since Creation Week have accomplished Section 3. It shall be the policy of the Soci-
only changes within the original created kinds. ety to keep the organization as simple as is con-
sistent with efficient functioning.
Section 3. The great Flood described in Gen-
esis, commonly referred to as the Noachian
Article V. Meetings
Flood, was a historical event, worldwide in its
extent and effect. Meetings may be called by a majority of the
Executive Board or by a majority of the Board
Section 4. We are an organization of Chris- of Directors.
tian men of science who accept Jesus Christ as
our Lord and Savior. The account of the special
Article VI. Amendments
creation of Adam and Eve as one man and
woman and their subsequent fall into sin is the This Constitution, except as regards the state-
basis for our belief in the necessity of a Savior ment of belief, may be amended at any regular
for all mankind. Therefore, salvation can come meeting if the Voting Members have been in-
only through accepting Jesus Christ as our formed of the proposed change at least two
Savior. months previously.
4

ANALYSIS OF SO-CALLED EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION

W ILBERT R U S C H, SR ., M.S.
Concordia Junior College, Ann Arbor, Michigan

Introductory Observations another, are all grist for the mill of the thorough-
Before one begins to write in this semantic going sceptic.” 2
age of ours, it has become necessary to define We find ourselves in a dilemma because those
terms, for instance, the term creation. S O I who subscribe to evolution take a body of facts
submit that in my opinion the theory of creation and interpret them one way, while those who
asserts that: subscribe to creation take the same body of facts
a) organisms now living have descended from and interpret them another way. It is my conten-
organisms of the same created kind, as referred tion that actually neither can be proven, b o t h
must be taken on faith.
to in Genesis;
b) within such created kinds, processes of And let me underline this last clause, b o t h
must be taken on faith. Evolution is not a fact,
change may have occurred and do occur to such
it is a theory. Recently the French biologist,
an extent as to produce individuals differing in
various degrees from their parents, yet never Prof. Louis Bounoure, quoted Yves Delage, a
late Sorbonne professor of zoology as saying:
sufficiently different to constitute a new “kind”;
(for example, the various breeds of dogs, and I readily admit that no species has ever been
the several races of men); known to engender another, and that there is
no absolutely definite evidence that such a
c) such physical changes which are demon- thing has ever taken place. Nonetheless, I
strated to have appeared in organisms since
believe evolution to be just as certain as if it
their creation, have arisen through degeneration had been objectively proved. 3
due to the Fall of Man or through natural causes
which now continue to be in operation and Incidentally, Bounoure comments: “In short
which therefore can be studied experimentally. what science asks of us here is an act of faith,
and it is in fact under the guise of a sort of
I also should define the term evolution. I a m revealed truth that the idea of evolution is gen-
well aware of the fact that there are in both erally put forward.”
Standen and Kerkut references to two theories
Dr. Bounoure, formerly president of the Bio-
of evolution. However, in the majority of our
logical Society of Strasburg, as well as Director
present day science books, certainly those in
of the Zoological Museum and still director of
the elementary, secondary and undergraduate
research at the National Center of Scientific Re-
levels, the word evolution usually means what
search in France also wrote—"Evolutionism is
Kerkut and Standen both call the “general theory
a fairy tale for grown-ups. This theory has
of evolution,” that is, the theory that all the
helped nothing in the progress of science. It
living forms in the world have arisen from a
is useless.” In a later article on the same sub-
single source which itself came from an inor-
ject, Bounoure quoted from a present day Sor-
ganic form. This is ‘amoeba to man’ evolution
bonne professor of paleontology, Jean Pivateau,
and is the meaning of the word evolution as I
the admission that the science of facts as regards
am using the term in this presentation.
evolution “cannot accept any of the different
Now if it happens that more persons hold to theories which seek to explain evolution. It
one particular philosophy than another, that even finds itself in opposition with each one of
does not make the first philosophy true. It could these theories. There is something here which
actually be that the minority view may express is both disappointing and disquieting.” 4 M o r e
the truth, with the majority view being false. on this aspect will appear later.
So it is with evolution; the number who believe At this point I must digress on the subject of
in it is no guarantee of its truth. quotes. The plaintive cry is often raised that a
An honest person will accept items which have creationist may not use an evolutionist’s state-
actual existence as facts. On this there should ment as a support for a creationist’s point of
be no disagreement. But the hypotheses that are view, I submit that this complaint is invalid.
built on such facts, as well as the reconstruction For one thing, no reputable creationist attempts
of past events are all legitimate grist for dif- to portray an evolutionist as supporting the case
ferences. As Dr. George once wrote, 1 “Facts re- of creation. This is not the intent of the quote.
main but theories crumble.” I might also point But if the evolutionist mentions a point in his
cut that Dr. James Conant has said, “Statements writing that the creationist can use to his ad-
about the past, predictions about the future, vantage, then by all the rules of evidence, he is
generalizations about what event will follow free to do so.
 5

Certainly any piece of favorable evidence an State University; Dr. John Moore, professor of
attorney can pry out of a hostile witness, is science education, Michigan State University;
choice evidence indeed, and the attorney would Dr. Louis Wolfanger, professor of soil science,
be a fool not to make the most of it. Further, Michigan State University; Dr. Duane Gish,
the dilemmas of evolution are often best pre- biochemist of the Upjohn Laboratories, Kalama-
sented by its proponents. They certainly can zoo, Michigan; Dr. George Howe, professor of
be trusted to minimize their difficulties, so I biology, Westmont College, California; and Dr.
can scarcely be charged with exaggerating them. C.E.A. Turner, professor of chemistry, Surrey,
So, for the record, assume I quote from those England.
of evolutionist persuasion, unless I identify the
man’s position as being otherwise. In this con- I am personally acquainted with all of these
nection I would like to draw your attention to men and have been in correspondence with them
some words that W. R. Thompson wrote in many times. In each case I am positive that each
1956: one in turn could name an equally larger and
possibly more impressive circle of men with
As we know, there is a great divergence of whom they are acquainted and who also do not
opinion among biologists, not only about the accept evolution as a fact. For example, Dr.
causes of evolution but even about the actual Lammerts has told me that there are five friends
process. This divergence exists because the of his who are all Ph.D.'s in nuclear physics on
evidence is unsatisfactory and does not per- the staff of the Lawrence Radiation Laboratories,
mit any certain conclusions. It is therefore who are involved in the government operation
right and proper to draw the attention of the “plowshare.” All five of these men are creation-
non-scientific public to the disagreements ists, although they are nuclear physicists.
about evolution. But some recent remarks of
evolutionists show that they think this un- To mention an additional few, I could add to
reasonable. The situation where scientific men this list the late Dr. L. Merson-Davies, gold
rally to the defense of a doctrine they are medalist in geology, of England; the late Dr.
unable to define scientifically, much less Paul Lemoine, curator of the Natural History
demonstrate with scientific rigor, attempting Museum, Paris, France; as well as Dr. Martin
to maintain its credit with the public by the Lings, currently of the British Museum; and
suppression of criticism and the elimination Professor Louis Bounoure of the National Cen-
of difficulties, is abnormal and undesirable in ter of Scientific Research, France.
science. 5 Finally, I am in the unique position to know,
May I say that for my part, I intend to continue as treasurer of the organization, that the Crea-
to draw the attention of the non-scientific public tion Research Society has over 150 members
to the weaknesses and disagreements about evol- who have earned Ph.D. or M.D. degrees in sci-
ution as long as the Lord gives me strength ence and have signed a statement of belief in
SO to do. creation as opposed to evolution as voting mem-
bers. Now I am willing to grant that this num-
The statement that “everyone working in sci- ber may be in the minority, but that there is
ence accepts evolution as a fact” is often used nobody working in the field of science of repu-
as an argument for compelling the acceptance tation who does not accept evolution as a fact is
of evolution over against creation. I submit that a statement I simply will not accept.
this statement is not true, and I think that can
be indicated by the known position of the fol- I think another valid question to be raised
lowing individuals: is, Could books and articles on creation be
Dr. Frank L. Marsh, professor of biology at scarce because the creationist view cannot get
Andrews University; Dr. Henry Morris, Pro- a fair hearing? I ask the reader to judge from
fessor of hydrolic engineering and head of the the following three examples. I feel that the
civil engineering department, Virginia Poly- situation is a little less biased in England, since
technic Institute; Dr. Walter E. Lammerts, in I know that the ]ournals of the Transactions of
the past on the faculty of the University of Cali- the Victoria Institute are open to both creation-
fornia and for many years research director of ists’ as well as evolutionists’ viewpoints. Some
Germain’s, in addition to being the leading rose recent studying I have been doing indicates that
authority on the west coast; Dr. Thomas Barnes,
on the continent, particularly in France and
director of the Schellenger Research Laboratory,
also on the faculty of Texas Western University; Germany, the question of evolution is even more
Dr. W. R. Thompson, former director of the open. Actually, the only two possibilities re-
Ccmmonwealth Institute of Biological Control, garding the origin of the living world are de-
Ottawa, Canada; Dr. J. J. Duyvenné de Wit, late velopment by transformisms (evolution) or crea-
head of the zoology department, Orange Free tion by God.
6

The position of the science of today over the descriptive writings on these matters. To
against creation may best be demonstrated as avoid misunderstanding, I should mention that
follows: Velikovsky is not a creationist, although con-
sidered a scientific heretic of the first magnitude.
(a) Dr. S. Zucherman once wrote:
Either evolutionary change or miraculous In this country, almost all books dealing with
divine intervention lies at the back of human creation that I know of have been published by
intelligence. The second of these possibilities religious book houses.
does not lend itself to scientific examination.
Evolution and Classification
It may be the correct explanation, but, from
a scientific point of view, it cannot be legiti- The theory of evolution is based on a number
mately resorted to in answer to the problem of fundamental considerations. The first one I
of man’s dominantly successful behavior until would like to briefly consider is classification or
all possibilities of more objective explanation taxonomy. This argument runs along these lines:
thru morphological, physiological and psy- Since it is possible to classify organisms, it is
chological observation and experiment are ex- held that all true classification should be gene-
hausted. 6 alogical. And so we have taxonomists reshuffling
classifications of plants and animals in an effort
(b) Dr. W. R. Thompson recently wrote me to find new natural systems of classification.
that the chapter on evolution in his recently Then any current system of classification is held
reissued work, Science and Common Sense, to be natural, and thus a proof of evolution.
(Magi Books, Inc., Albany, N.Y. 12208) would
be much stronger against evolution were he to Frankly, the fact that we can group living and
write it today. As he put it, at the time he wrote fossil forms of life into some thirty animal phyla
it, the book had to be passed by a reader, who and some twenty-five plant divisions would be
had strong evolutionistic views, and therefore the last thing one should expect from an evolu-
Thompson was forced to compromise to get tionary development. While these major phyla
the book published. and divisions aren’t as clear cut as we might
like them to be, nevertheless they are stable
(c) The noted columnist, George Sokolsky, and recognizable entities. But a random evolu-
touched on another example when he wrote, tionary development should call for an enormous
So it appears from what can be learned about hodge-podge, rather than such a small number
it that certain scientists, including leading of recognizable entities compared to total species
astronomers, threatened Macmillan with a number.
boycott of their textbooks if they did not rid Furthermore, that we can arrange animals
themselves of Professor Velikovsky’s book. Of and plants into groups on the basis of re-
course, what the learned and liberal professors semblances should be no more significant for
wanted really was a total suppression of a developmental history than that we can arrange
book which opposes their dogma. 7 the elements into families. I have yet to hear
Macmillan yielded to the threats since they were a chemist propose that the halogen series evolved
an extensive publisher of textbooks, and trans- from fluorine to iodine, because it is possible to
ferred the publishing operations to Doubleday arrange them in this series.
and Company, which does not publish science We may also ask the question, Why should
texts and therefore was immune to such a threat. the type form insect or cephalopod continue to
Actually Doubleday published all five of Veli- be inherited in the face of random variations, if
kovsky’s works. transformism be true? Even in a lower hierarchi-
cal level, despite all repeated mutations, the ma-
As a continuation of this story, I also refer
jority of species and all genera are real entities.
the reader to John Larrabee’s article in the
This was recognized by C. E. Davenport who
August 1963 issue of Harper’s Magazine, entitled
wrote,
“Was Velikovsky Right?” I think this article
ought to be required reading for all who main- When I study thrips and wish to secure a
tain that scientists are completely objective, species described fifty or more years ago as
never biased, and thus not like the average hu- living in a certain composite plant in eastern
man being. In this article Larrabee points out Russia, then if I go to the designated locality
that as early as 1950, Velikovsky predicted the and look in the designated species of flower,
high temperature of Venus, the radio emissions I will find the species with all the characters
from Jupiter, as well as the phenomenon we described fifty or 100 thrip generations ago.
know as the Van Allen radiation belts. For How is such an experience to be harmonized
none of this has Velikovsky been given any with universal mutations? 8
credit on the basis of priority, nor have his Davenport says this is the heart of the problem
predictions even been acknowledged in any of of evolution.
 7

The evolutionist says that, when we find ani- Particularly in the case of the fossils are these
mals and nature grading in complexity of struc- two cautions necessary. Animal fossils are classi-
ture from a protozoan to a mammal at the other fied on the basis of skeletal parts solely, ignoring,
extreme, this proves that evolution from a one of necessity, since they are absent, such cha-
cell to a multicellular form has taken place. racteristics as warmbloodedness, the number of
The creationist says that a multiplicity of forms heart chambers, red blood cell structure, pres-
was part of the design of the creator. Both these ence or absence of a diaphragm and the like.
statements are logical. Which one is correct?
Evolution and Vestigial Organs
Since this is subjective evidence ( animals and
plants don’t carry classification labels ) an argu- A third proposed proof of evolution is vesti-
ment could be endless on this subject with no gial organs. These are structures that are found
progress possible. I might quote the late Dr. in some animal or human organism, that are
Austin H. Clark, once curator of the U. S. Na- considered to have no use in the present form,
tional Museum, who wrote, but have had a use in previous forms and there-
fore represent a sort of “memory” of an evolu-
It is almost invariably assumed that animals tionary ancestor. Truly the fate of vestigial or-
with bodies composcd of a single cell repre- gans has been rather sad.
sent the primitive animals from which all
others are derived. They are commonly sup- In the human being, there was once a long
posed to have preceded all other animal types list of such organs that were considered as use-
in their appearance, There is not the slightest less remnants of man’s evolutionary past. Al-
basis for this assumption beyond the circum- though this list once ran to well over a hundred,
stance that in arithmetic-which is not zoology today most of this list has gone the way of all
—the number one precedes the other num- flesh. It seems odd to us today to find that such
bers. 9 structures as tonsils, the parathyroids, the thy-
mus, the pineal gland, the appendix, and the
Evolution and Comparative Anatomy coccyx were all on this list. I might mention
Much has been made of comparative anatomy incidentally that certainly anyone who has suf-
as an argument for evolution. And again we fered a broken coccyx is painfully aware of the
reach an impasse. If a creationist and an evolu- fact that it serves as an anchorage for rectal
tionist strolled through a museum, the latter muscles. Obviously if it is serving a useful func-
would look at the specimens displayed and hold tion in the body it cannot be a vestigial remnant.
that structural similarity in mammals, for ex- The appendix has now been admitted to play
ample, suggests that all forms have evolved a part in the control of the intestinal flora, and
from a common ancestor. Of course the former, again, since it has proven to have use, particu-
seeing the same displays, would believe that larly in the light of recent observations made
the structural similarities suggest a common gen- in connection with the growth of germ free or-
eral design to meet a common environment ganisms, the appendix must be taken off the
created by God. Again there is no correct con- vestigial list. True we can get along without our
clusion possible since the evidence is subjective, tonsils and we can get along without our ap-
to be bent depending on the belief of the indi- pendix, but we can also get along without one
vidual using it. arm and one leg, and certainly nobody in his
right mind would thereby class them as being
However, a word of caution has to be in-
vestigial.
jected here. To think of animals in terms of
bones and dead bodies alone is not enough, In other animals, the claws on either side of
Certainly, for example, the difference between the vent in certain boas and pythons as well as
cat and dog transcend the anatomical and physi- some other snakes have often been pointed to as
ological, the temperaments of the two animals useless relics of the hind legs of snake ancestors.
are different and this also represents part of the But Dewar refers to A. K. Martin who wrote
innate difference between these two animals. “The Ways of Man and Beast in India” and who
therein reports observing that these protuber-
I would also like to point out the following
ances are of assistance in the movement of these
fallacy. A scientist looks at an animal, names
snakes. Others have also referred to the fact
a certain bone, then looks at another animal and
that the spurs projecting from the python serve
uses the same name for a corresponding part.
as a means of helping the animal anchor itself
He then postulates the bone is the same. There-
in movement through trees.
fore the similarity is supposed to have phylo-
genetic significance, and he now uses this as Two more examples should be mentioned.
evidence for evolution. Obviously the postulate namely whales with transitory teeth and the
of homology is a subjective one created by his semilunarfold in man. In man, the latter’s main
own mind which may or may not be correct. use is to collect foreign material that gets into
8

the eyeball and collect this material into a sticky With respect to Sinnott and Wilson’s position
mass in the corner of the eye, where it can easily that some leaves would seem to recapitulate an
be removed and does no damage. This has been ancestral trait, De Beer and Swinton say that the
reported by E. P. Stibbe. 10 Biogenetic Law cannot be true in view of the
frequency with which young foliage leaves are
With respect to the whales that have em-
found to be more specialized than those formed
bryological teeth which never grow into teeth,
Vialleton says, at later stages. The embryologist Huettner gave
a fairly accurate picture of the light in which
certain of these supposed vestigial organs it is viewed today when he said, “as a law, this
deserve special examination, because they play principle has been questioned, it has been sub-
a part that was unknown to Darwin. When jected to careful scrutiny and has been found
he cited as truly vestigial organs the germs wanting. There are too many exceptions to it.
of teeth in the fetuses of whales devoid of However, there is no doubt that it contains
teeth in the adult state, and those of the upper some truth and that it is of value to the student
incisors in certain ruminants, the gums of of embryology.” 14
which they never pierce, he forgot that these
germs in mammals, where they are very large Huettner proceeds further to point out some
relative to the parts enclosing them, play a other difficulties. It became necessary to divide
very important part in the formation of the the characteristics developed in an embryo into
bones of the jaws, to which they furnish a primitive (palingenetic) and specialized (ceno-
point on which these mold themselves. Thus genetic) characteristics. Then it developed that
these germs do have a function.” there was a problem in differentiating between
the two. It is complained that the palingenetic
Furthermore, Dr. John Cameron reports that he traits are obscured and sometimes eliminated at
studied a microcephalic idiot of whom the jaws the expense of the cenogenetic.
receded due to poor teeth development. He For example, there is never a true blastula or
says, “In many of these individuals the teeth gastrula in the mammals. Also organs do not
never develop at all. The cause of poorly de- develop in the proper order. In the earliest
veloped jaws are due to a deficiency or actual fishes found, there are teeth, but no tongue. But
failure of development of the dental germs.” 12 in the mammalian embryos, the tongue develops
In his Transformist Illusion, Dewar insistently before the teeth. Huettner says that there are
raises a rather pertinent question-namely, where numerous cases of this type. It is known that
are the nascent organs, those that are about to environmental conditions will change the orderly
evolve into useful organs? No one other than sequence of differentiation in the embryo, which
Darwin has ever broached this subject. Logic- drives one to the conclusion that recapitulation
ally, if new organs are in the process of being is subject to change. All this leads Huettner to
developed, then in some animal form we should refuse to accept the recapitulation theory as a
find some incompletely developed organs which ‘law,’ It is also of interest to note that most
are on the way to develop into fully useful crabs hatch out of a larval form known as Zoeas,
structures later, but at present have no function. which differ greatly from the adult form. Yet
Yet I have read absolutely nothing on this sub- other crabs hatch out as miniature crabs. Where
ject. is the operation of the Biogenetic Law?
Along these same lines, embryologists who
Evolution and Embryology make phylogenies sometimes work at embar-
A fourth point is the evidence from embry- rassing cross purposes with paleontologists. In
ology. Haeckel enunciated the Law of Recapitu- human development, it is noted that we find that
lation or Biogenetic Law in 1866. This is stated most of the bones develop from embryonic car-
succinctly, “Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny,” tilaginous foundations; for instance, those that
or the development of the individual repeats develop into the ethmoid, sphenoid, occipitals,
the development of his race. Probably one of as well as the vertebra and the long bones of the
the main reasons for the lack of effectiveness of fore limbs. This would seem to imply that
this law is that it does not apply to the plant cartilage is primitive and bone is more advanced.
world. This would then mean that since plants As one grows older, more and more cartilage is
and animals are postulated as evolving from a replaced by bone. Applied to phylogenies, this
common ancestor, this common ancestor gave would mean that sharks, as cartilaginous fish,
rise to two lines of descendants—one following would be the precursors of the bony fish. Un-
the Law of Recapitulation, the other not! De fortunately, if you take the paleontological rec-
Beer and Swinton refer to the Law of Recapitula- ord on its face value, we find there to our sur-
tion as “a theory that in spite of its exposure, its prise, that the cartilaginous fish have developed
effects continue to linger in the nooks and apparently from the bony fish, since they occur
cranies of zoology. ” 13 later in the geological record.
 9

In embryological development, simpler parts spark was passed through the mixture, pro-
must be formed before more complicated ones. duced a soup of simple amino acids. More re-
In small embryos, shape will be determined by cently an electron beam has been passed through
physical forces, which play less and less a part such a mixture and produced the simple ringed
in determining shape as size increases. Many base adenine. This base, classed as a purine,
apparent recapitulations may only be expressions occurs in RNA along with another purine,
of the fact that all animals are built out of the guanine, as well as pyrimidines such as cytosine,
same kind of materials such as carbohydrates, and uracil. Chemists then have also irradiated
fats, proteins, etc. Often recapitulation is ab- with ultra-violet light a mixture of H 20, NH 3,
surdly irrelevant. For instance, the respiratory and CH 4 to form HCHO which has then been
surface develops late in an embryo, yet how polymerized by further radiation to form ribose
could earlier forms have survived without it? and deoxyribose. These sugars occur in a typi-
The head size in the mammalian embryos is cal nucleotide molecule.
relatively enormous but very small in their an-
cestors. An inorganic phosphate has been heated with
a mixture of uracil and ribose to link these two
Long ago, when I worked in embryology, it compounds together to form diuridilic acid,
was pointed out at the time that the embryo which is a double linked nucleotide molecule.
has two types of organs: a) Those that do not However, doing this sort of thing in the labora-
function until after the child is born, of which tory under carefully controlled conditions, and
the lungs are a good example. Hence we de- having the same thing occur by chance in an
velop only one lung system. b) Organs which open environment are two different things.
have a function during embryonic life as well Furthermore, these results are still a far cry
as later, and hence change form, sometimes from creating something living. These com-
several times, to meet changing needs. I would pounds are still organic chemicals, complex, yes;
consider the heart and the kidneys in this cate- and this has been a beautiful job of synthesis, but
gory. It might be said also that the embryo not yet creating life.
would seem to follow Maupertuis’ postulate of
least action. Dr. Sol Spiegelman of the University of Illi-
nois recently received a bacteriophage from
Origin of Life Discussed Japan and isolated an RNA molecule from it.
The question is often raised, What about the Then from another bacteriophage he also iso-
ability of scientists to create life? In these days lated a specific enzyme, replicase. When the
we so often find a headline proclaiming “Sci- two were placed in a nutrient material, other
entists Create Life,” only to discover that the RNA’s were produced. In this case the enzyme
progress towards this goal has been a crawl can generate identical copies of added viral
rather than an achievement. What is the true RNA. This new RNA can infect, by serving as
picture? the template for more virus. Each enzyme rec-
ognizes the genome for its own RNA and re-
A theory that deals with the origin of life, quires it as template for synthesis. However, the
should start with the inorganic and wind up presence of more than one nuclease will break
with at least a functioning cell. Intermediate
the whole procedure down, So this process is
steps of necessity would be proteins and
simply duplicating some cell chemistry. When
deoxyribo nucleic acids (DNA), as well as the
Dr. Spiegelman was asked if he had created
ribo nucleic acids (RNA). These are all mole-
life in a test tube, he replied, “Only God can
cules of tremendous size, but still organic mole- create life.” 15 Another biochemist at the same
cules. They are not living, although associated
time commented “if we knew the chemical com-
with the growth and reproduction of living position of each different molecule in the living
things.
cell and if we knew how they reacted, it would
Viruses are debatable organisms. F. Bawdin take us about 10 years to do what the living
of England, noted virologist, holds that they are cell can do in 10 minutes.”
degenerate forms of life. Viruses are essentially
But let’s go back to the beginning of this dis-
a protein membrane enclosing a core of DNA.
They multiply by invading the cells of an or- course on the origin of life. Since the Urey-
Miller experiment, it is practically stated as fact
ganism and using its cell constituents to produce
additional viral units. One virus form that is that the earth had a beginning atmosphere of
H 2 0, CH 4 a n d N H3 . But an interesting article
useful to man invades bacteria and destroys
in Science 16 would seem to negate this primori-
them. These are known as bacteriophages or
simply phages. dal atmosphere. Three investigators, Studier,
Hayatsu and Anders, examined meteorites that
Stanley Miller first performed the experiment showed hydrocarbon traces. These meteorites
w h e r e H2 0 , N H3 a n d C H4 , when an electric were assumed to have come from either comets
10

or asteroids, and so they set about examining evidence? I think that at the beginning of this
the trapped gases within the bodies of these phase of my analysis I would submit that the
meteorites, on the assumption that these trapped question of the age of the earth is independent
gases might indicate the gases present when the of the question of creation versus evolution, and
hydrocarbons were formed. The results were I will so consider it. I know a number of indi-
not at all comforting to devotees of the Urey- viduals who will take the geological calendar as
Miller conditions. Examination indicated that commonly presented today, but who neverthe-
rather than the presence of the required N H3 , less do not accept any part of the theory of evolu-
which was totally lacking, N 2 was present. tion. One of the best examples was Douglas
Dewar, recognized as one of the most effective
Another surprising discovery was the over-
proponents of creation.
whelming preponderance of aromatic rather than
aliphatic hydrocarbons present. The carbohy- In his Transformist Illusion he takes the geo-
drates and amino acids that were referred to be- logical calendar as read, but throughout the
fore as being theoretical intermediates in the book he will obviously have no part of evolu-
process of creating life, are all basically aliphatic tion. What is remarkable is that Dewar orig-
compounds, or derived from them. None of these inally in his college years and for a while there-
can be derived from aromatic compounds, so after, was an evolutionist, but as he became
the presence of these latter would also seem to more knowledgeable in the morphology and physi-
mitigate against a Urey-Miller atmosphere. ology of birds in India, he more and more was
There also was an absence of the heavier mem- convinced of the fallacy of the theory of evolu-
bers of the methane series. To the authors, tion. So by the time he returned to England he
this evidence seemed to exclude a process such became a prominent voice of the protest against
as the Urey-Miller, as representing a solution to evolution.
the origin of life in the past by natural processes.
Fossils are facts of life. The shells and bony
I might add another piece of evidence against structures that have been uncovered are real,
the Urey-Miller scheme, and that is the total as are such things as tracks, imprints, casts and
absence of any evidence in the stratigraphic rec- molds. So they must be dealt with as actualities
ord of conditions other than those now pertain- and not as figments of the imagination. How-
ing. No matter how old the rocks are supposed ever, the reader will bear in mind, that how
to be, the pre-Cambrian sedimentaries and they got to their resting place, under what cir-
metamorphic are composed of fragments of cumstances they lived, as well as when they
older rocks which seem to be the same as those lived, are all subject to interpretation and dif-
now present. ference of opinion.
W. W. Rubey17 in a discussion of Stanley Mil-
ler’s paper on “Formation of Organic Compounds A beautiful and complete series of fossil shells,
on Primitive Earth” was quoted as concluding may by some be considered to provide an ex-
that the ocean and the air were formed as prod- cellent evolutionary series in which one form
ucts of degassing of the interior of the earth. grades into another. However, such a change
Evidence for volcanic activity is found in the in shell structure may be simply an indication
earliest rocks. Gases associated with present- of a change in environment, a more or less acid
day eruptions are H 2 O, CO 2 , N2 , CO, H 2 a n d condition of the water. Dr. C. Emiliani, has
S. Condensation of such a mixture would lead observed that temperature changes in the ocean,
t o a n a t m o s p h e r e o f C O , N 2 , H2 a n d s m a l l will affect the coiling of a shell from right to
amount of H0 2 and C0 2. Where is Miller’s NH 3 left. I was present in a group in which Dr.
which is vital to his scheme? Fagerstrom, of the University of Nebraska, re-
ported that certain foraminiferan forms altered
So all this speculation becomes good clean their shells in response to pH changes in the
honest fun, and the chemistry becomes examples water they were living in.
of beautiful, clever synthesis of organic com-
pounds with no life or near life yet having been So the very real question can be raised, Are
created. Even if a system, classifiable as living, these really evolutionary changes, or are they
ever is synthesized, man will not have proved simply responses to environmental changes?
that this is the way that the first synthesis was What I wish to emphasize here is that the evi-
executed. He will only be mimicing the processes dence from paleontology is not absolutely con-
of nature, that is, he will be walking in the foot- clusive, and can never be so in itself, because
steps of the Creator. it must always be incomplete, not only because
it may be geologically imperfect at any given
Evolution and Paleontology time, but because the picture it gives us of
The question in many minds at the moment the organisms concerned is necessarily only a
is probably. What about geology and the fossil partial one.
 11

Among the plants, the order of appearance forms and their environment apply with equal
of the fossils is anything but an order of progres- justice to the animal fauna. He points out the
sion from simplicity to complexity. In fact, in possibility that there were all sorts of land plants
recent years due to the development of palynol- that were in existence that are not known as fos-
ogy, the study of microfossils in the form of sils due to the fact that the sedimentary ter-
spores in the rocks, this picture has become even restrial deposits are not available.
more complex. According to the evolutionary
This then would imply that any missing ter-
theory, we would expect to find liverworts and restrial deposits, which might contain the struc-
mosses following the algae as among the most tural fossils of plants, may also contain the fos-
primitive of plant forms, since they are the
sils of land animals that once lived at the same
simplest of all plants that are considered to be time as such plant environments. Yet, said ani-
archegoniate.
mals, according to all current paleontological
But unfortunately it has been observed that theories, would not have been evolved at that
there is no geological evidence whatsoever that time. The only problem is that animals do not
can make the delineation of the origin of bryo- leave pollen grains, whereas plants do. (Readers
phytes anything other than a hopeless one. will be interested in the article by Clifford Bur-
This is probably the reason why in the various dick, “Microflora of the Grand Canyon,” which
botany courses I have taken, the subject of evolu- appears elsewhere in this Annual-Editors.)
tion usually hasn’t even been mentioned.
It should be pointed out that nowhere do we
A new field of study in paleontology is called find a complete record of deposition through all
palynology. This involves the study of fossil the geological ages. The complete geological
pollen grains or spores of plants. Often this is record is made up by plugging in various seg-
the only part of the plant remaining as a fossil. ments of the record from various parts of the
Spores are sculptured uniquely, so that they can world so as to make up a whole geological
be compared and identified as to genus in many column. But there is no locality where you can
cases. dig down and uncover a complete geological
Recent findings in this new field have thor- column from end to beginning. Actually there is
oughly confused the evolutionary picture with no locality where you can even dig down and
respect to the plant world, in my opinion. Pol- uncover a complete series such as the horse
len grains have been found in Lower Devonian, from Equus at the top to Eohippus cr Hyracoth-
Silurian and Cambrian rocks which would in- erium at the bottom. Such a series must be made
dicate the presence of vascular plants at the by drawing together fossils from different states,
time of deposition of these rocks. yes, even from other continents.
In addition to the presence of pollen grains, While one committed to the theory of evolu-
other difficulties have arisen. S. Leclercq of the tion might refuse to question a phylogenetic tree
University of Liege, Belgium, reports, “a marked developed in this way, I submit it still is open
discrepancy observed between two floras so close to debate. May not many of these forms have
in geological time as the Middle and Lower lived contemporaneously at different localities,
Devonian is difficult to reconcile. The absence or must the only acceptable explanation be that
in Lower Devonian of plant impressions posi- they succeeded one another? The answer is not
tively related to any of the very differentiated carried on labels engraved on the fossils.
plants of the Middle Devonian is astonishing.”
Fossil Record Very Incomplete
("Evidence of Vascular Plants in the Cambrian,”
Evolution, Vol. 10, June, 1956, pp. 109-113.) If you look at the complete picture of life in
the rocks, you find some rather peculiar things.
Daniel I. Axelrod also reports that the oldest Probably one of the most important is the sharp
land plants now known are from the early Cam- break that occurs between the oldest rocks
brian of the Baltic region, (“Evolution of the known as the pre-Cambrian and the Cambrian
Psilophy tales.” Evolution, Vol. 13, June, 1959, rocks. Incidentally, all these fossils are aquatic.
p. 264.) Pointing out that the bulk of the The first plants were algae on the basis of the
unmetamorphosed Paleozoic and pre-Cambrian remains. All the animals were invertebrates
rocks are not continental but marine, Axelrod spread over all of the most important phyla, such
holds that few records of land plants would be as sponges, jellyfish, sea cucumbers, starfish,
expected in that period, at least as far as brachiopods, mollusks, and crustaceans, as well
structures other than pollen grains would be as some worms.
concerned.
Thus, of the great divisions of the animal
However, I would like to draw attention to kingdom, we find that all have been formed by
the fact that the statements made by Axelrod the Cambrian period except the vertebrates,
relative to the distribution of the fossil plant and these appeared in the next or Ordovician
12

period. One very noticeable and important fact Davis also said, the facts of paleontology con-
bearing on the theory of evolution is made evi- form equally well with other interpretations that
dent. Amongst these earliest fossils, we find that have been discredited by neobiological work,
all the phyla appear in the rocks fully formed: for example, divine creation, innate develop-
i.e., possessing the complete bodily plan of con- mental processes, Lamarckism, etc., and paleon-
struction typical of their phyla. For example, tology by itself can neither prove nor refute such
the earliest crustacea are undoubtedly crustacea, i d e a s . 20 I agree, but let it be said that Davis
the earliest mollusks are undoubtedly mollusks, still has faith in evolution.
etc. As has been noted by any number of pale-
ontologists, the phyla appeared separately, as it Further, Oswald Spengler noted the follow-
were, in most cases, giving among their fossils ing regarding the fossil record:
no indications of their origins from other phyla. There is no more conclusive refutation of
Darwinism than that furnished by paleontol-
If evolution were true, then these phyla should ogy. Simple probability indicates that fossil
have evolved one from the other in an increasing hoards can only be test samples. Each sample,
scheme of complexity and diversity. We should then, should represent a different stage of evo-
find them grading into one another, at least to lution, and there ought to be merely ‘transi-
a much greater degree than they do at present. tional’ types, no definition and no species.
We should find fossils which connect the phyla Instead of this, we find perfectly stable and
unmistakably, but to date none have been found unaltered forms persevering thru long ages,
in the early rocks. Even when we deal with the forms that have not developed themselves on
vertebrates which supposedly appeared last the fitness principle, but appear suddenly
among the animals, we can find no true con- and at once in their definitive shape; that do
necting link with previous phyla. As a result not thereafter evolve towards better adapta-
there is no agreement regarding their origin. tion, but become rarer and finally disappear,
A search of the literature in the last fifty years while different forms crop up again. What un-
will show that the vertebrates have been derived folds itself in ever-increasing richness of
from nearly every one of the invertebrate groups, form is the great classes and kinds of living
except possibly the protozoa. I think this sudden beings which exist aboriginally and exist still,
appearance of all the phyla without any transi- without transition types, in the grouping of
tional forms is a most powerful reason negating today. 21
a theory of evolution from amoeba or unicellular Another difficulty of the fossil record is what
form to all the various representative present might be termed ‘skipping,’ It was Dana who
forms, Arnold Lunn once wrote, “Faith is the mentioned land snails of the Carboniferous
substance of fossils hoped for, the evidence of period, which disappeared from the record, not
links unseen” 18 to reappear till the Cretaceus period, after
Simpson has said, which they persisted into present times. Dana
the paleontological evidence for discontinuity also mentioned scorpions of the Upper Silurian,
consists of the frequent sudden appearance of which then disappeared until the Carboniferous.
new groups in the fossil record, a suddenness At this time they return in the fossil record, along
common to all taxonomic levels and nearly uni- with spiders, which both disappear after the
versal at high levels. Since the record is, and Cretaceus, not to reappear until the Tertiary
must always remain, incomplete, such evidence period.
can never prove the discontinuity to be origi- In 1911, Smith mentioned the shrimp, A n a -
n a l .1 9
spides, which has not been found as a fossil in
But this is certainly strongly suggested, if we are any rocks since the Carboniferous, but appeared
limiting ourselves to facts and not one theory. in his day in mountain streams in remote Tas-
Actually, I would think that if the type of origin mania.
of new forms suggested by the known fossil rec- Finally, you may recall the coelacanth or lobe-
ord were to be named, it would of necessity be finned fish, Latimeria, which belongs to a group
called origin by creation. that was thought to have become extinct in the
D. D. Davis, in 1949, commented on the gaps Devonian period. From the Devonian to the
in the geological record. He held that the sudden present day, not a single fossil of this form
emergence of new types, for example, families in has been found in any rock. But by the end of
order, has given real trouble of late. Davis men- 1958, nine had been found in the ocean off the
tions that many German morphologists question island of Madagascar. Incidentally, its present
the validity of evolution, and both he and Simp- apparent deep-water habitat ought to cause
son have mentioned such paleontologists as some rethinking of the formation of rocks that
Schindewolf and Kuhn who have felt this way. contain lobe-finned fossils.
 13

Of the early Paleozoic, 90 per cent of the rocks I am disturbed when paleomagnetism is re-
are depositions in shallow seas, with the re- ferred to airily, and complete reversals of the
maining 5 per cent those of coastal plains and earth’s magnetic field are postulated, which
deltas. We might well ask where is the record seem to be supported by sound evidence. But
of the land? What plants and what animals lived I ask myself what kind of circumstances brought
on the land at that time? In view of the findings this about, and above all what kind of associated
of palynology regarding spores of vascular plants phenomena have been completely left out of
in the Cambrian, these become even more legiti- consideration? What force could have conceiv-
mate questions. But all the paleontological re- ably reversed the whole magnetic field of the
constructions seem to be confined to marine en- earth? Now that we know that the radiation
vironments. Through the late Paleozoic, the belts are involved in such a field, what kind of
percentage distribution isn’t much different. storms would have accompanied such a reversal?
In the Mesozoic we find plenty of reptiles; and Questions such as these and the failure to
in these rocks we find a greater percentage of find reasonable answers drive me to suspend
terrestrial deposits, which represent the environ- judgment on the picture that is painted in texts
ment of the reptiles. But does this necessarily dealing with past conditions. I have no quarrel
mean that there were no reptile forms living with the various rock layers as they are dia-
through much of the Paleozoic on the same gramed in texts. If there has been drilling of
land that was supporting the growth of the wells along a line, then the cores would present
plants that produced the spores? I am fully factual evidence as to how this part of the earth’s
aware that this is paleontological heresy. upper crust is composed. But I may be par-
doned, if I express considerable skepticism when
Specific Points of Concern a set of quiet unnoticed activities is postulated
I am bothered by the insistence on the prin- as the means whereby these various layers were
ciple “the present is the key to the past,” and formed and laid down.
the principle of either uniformity or uniformitar-
ianism. When I look at deposits such as the bone What About Human Evolution?
beds in western Nebraska which consist of a A final question in the minds of many is prob-
remarkable number of various mammals whose ably, What about human evolution? From the
bones have become completely disjointed and evolutionist’s point of view, man has evolved
are one big jumbled up mess that reaches a layer from an ape form known as Ramapithecus. This
five to six feet thick, I ask myself, How could has been found in India in the Siwalik Hills.
this have come about? I could add the islands Current opinion would seem to hold that this
of almost sheer bones that are described as ex- form is dated as Miocene. All the material that
isting in the sea north of Siberia. Include also is available currently seems to be jaw and tooth
the quick and sudden burial of lions and mam- material. From this point on to that rock level
moths in Alaska, that are now being uncovered known as the Pleistocene, there is absolutely
by gold mining operations. nothing to go on as far as fossil evidence is con-
I am bothered by densely packed layers of cerned.
shells alternating with almost completely fossil In explanation, it is held that the habits of
free layers that are found in the Greenhorn lime- anthropoids do not favor fossilization. In this
stone in Kansas and Nebraska. Above all I connection Ernest Mayr 22 has some interesting
am disturbed by the cyclothen explanations that things to say. For one, “Logically it is possible
I read in all the geology books to explain the to conceive of a situation in which we would
coal beds, and then I find innumerable cases be certain that man has evolved (from the pri-
of tree trunks fossilized or coalified, which pierce mates ) but (we) would know nothing about the
through successive layers in terms of tens of actual history of this evolution” (p 163).
feet. And I could give many more instances.
Despite the fact that catastrophism is ignored From a standpoint of faith in evolution, Mayr
by most geologists, I am afraid that for me says, “Our not very remote ancestors were ani-
these instances and others that I could add spell mals, not men” (p 287). On the other hand,
catastrophe rather than slow even deposition. speaking from the scientific standpoint, Mayr
also says, “Man’s recent history is shot through
I am bothered when I read glib descriptions
with uncertainties” (p 168). And on another
of equable paleo-climates over the whole world
page “there is not merely one missing link” but a
in terms of our present day solar relationships.
“whole series of grades of missing links in
I know that when you have a spherical body in-
hominid history” (p 637).
terposed in the path of parallel energy rays,
you can’t escape a climatic zonation due to the Be that as it may, there has been a profound
sphericity. There is some factor here that is not change in outlook on the subject of sequence
taken into account. of human fossils. All human fossils today are
14

put into one genus, namely the genus H o m o . in excess of this, generally having a larger brain
This is correcting a rather unfortunate habit than modern man. His range, however, was
in the past that resulted in far more name forms from 1300-1425 cubic centimeters. Homo erec-
than were justified. D o b z h a n s k y 23 says on this tus pekinensis specimens range in brain capacity
matter, from 900-1200 cubic centimeters, and H o m o
erectus runs from 770 - 1000 cubic centimeters.
A minor but rather annoying difficulty for a
biologist, is the habit human paleontologists The brain case is considered to be a very
have of flattering their egos by naming each human looking feature of the Australopithecus
find a new species, if not a new genus. This forms, The brow ridges are heavy, but no more
causes not only a needless cluttering of the so than in some human fossils and even a few
nomenclature but it is seriously misleading modern skulls. The mastoid process is present,
because treating as a species what is not a and it is conical as in man. This is considered to
species beclouds some important issues. assist in anchoring the muscles that hold the skull
The result of the compression is that a com- erect and therefore it is assumed that the Aus-
mon current classification groups all hominid tralopithecines had a human rather than an ape-
fossils into the following three categories: (1) like neck. However, the brain size seems to have
The first is Homo transvaalensis. This group is run about 450 to a speculative 600 cubic centi-
also sometimes referred to as Australopithecus meters. If you take the 550 maximum which is
species, either africanus or robustus. ( 2 ) T h e the average estimate of most anthropologists,
second form is known as Homo erectus. T h i s then you have what Vallois, the noted French
form has two varieties, one being erectus a n d anthropologist, calls a Rubicon. This 200 cubic
the other pekinensis. ( 3 ) The final form is Homo centimeter gap has not been crossed by any
sapiens. This form also has two varieties, one fossils to date.
being neanderthalensis and the other sapiens. Not too long ago it was rather firmly held
that there was a direct line of human evolution
Today these forms are all placed in the same running from some unknown anthropoid pre-
genus-Homo and referred to as hominids be- cursor to the Australopithecines to Java and
cause they all show upright carriage, bi-pedal Peking man to Neanderthal to Cro-Magnon to
locomotion, and essentially human tooth and modern man. This beautiful phylogenetic line
jaw structure. This question of what is a human has fallen by the wayside. Several factors have
being, particularly when you are just dealing contributed to its demise. It has recently been
with the skeletal parts, is somewhat of a prob- admitted by Robinson, Leakey, and others, that
lem. It should never be forgotten that paleontolo- the Australopithecines can no longer be viewed
gists are dealing with a very incomplete organ- as the oldest known relatives of Homo sapiens
ism. because more human (less brutalized) forms
Arbitrarily it is generally assumed that if there have been discovered who lived simultaneously
is evidence of controlled use of fire and the use with them. It was in 1963 that Dr. Leakey re-
of tools accompanying the remains, then such ported the find of a human pre-Zinjanthropus
remains ought to be classed as human. There form which he named Homo habilis. At that
are always the interesting questions, Were these time he suggested that all works on anthropology
tools and fire used by the fossil forms present, would have to be rewritten, including his own,
or Were these used by another form which since Homo habilis for practical purposes was
existed with the fossil form, but of whom there very similar to modern man.
are no fossils as yet found? Behavior cannot Brown and Robinson discovered in 1949 some
be discerned in man’s ancestry, for behavior human remains in Swartkraus. These consisted
leaves no bones. of two mandibles. Dr. J. T. Robinson, of the
Also, I think anthropologists are wary today Transvaal Museum at Pretoria, South Africa,
of equating size of brain and quality. The brain has written an opinion of this discovery of
size varies among all mammals. It certainly varies Telanthropus, which claims them as a superior
in human beings. The average capacity of the race, definitely human, which, after invading the
modern American man is held to be about 1400 sites where the more inferior South African
cubic centimeters. And yet Anatole France had Australopithecines lived, led to their extinction
by more intelligent manufacture and use of
a brain capacity of 1,000-1,200 cubic centimeters
weapons. Dr. R. J. Mason, 24 who is a research
depending on whom you are reading, while
officer of the Archaeological Survey of the Re-
Jonathan Swith had a brain capacity twice as
public of South Africa, is of a similar opinion.
great. It is generally agreed today that the varia-
Carleton Coon also refers to them as human.
tion of Homo sapiens will run from somewhere
close to 1200 to about 1500 cubic centimeters One of the most fascinating developments also
whereas Neanderthal man ran as an average has been the finds of Neanderthals in the caves
 15

of Skhul and Tabun at Mt. Carmel. In Tabun References

you find more modern forms apparently pre- 1
William H. George, The Scientist in Action. Random
dating the classical Neanderthal type. While Scientific Book Club, 1938.
the Tabun population was being specialized in 2
James B. Conant, Science and Common Sense. New
a Neanderthal direction, the Skhul population Haven: Yale University Press, 1951, p. 37.
was becoming less specialized. This has led the 3
Le Monde et la Vie, October, 1963.
French paleontologist John Piveteau 25 to state, 4
Le Monde et la Vie, March, 1964.
“being torn from the same layer as Homo sapiens,
he (Neanderthal man) suffered, in his body, 5
Charles Darwin. Origin of Species, Everyman’s Library
a veritable regression; but one recovers in the Edition. New York: E. P. Dutton and Co., 1956, p.
psychism of this physically degraded man the xxii.
6
mark of his human origin.” ( Italics added. ) S. Zucherman, Functional Activities of Man, Monkeys
and Apes. 1933, p. 155.
In this same work, Piveteau makes a state- 7
News Sentinel, Editorial Page, Tuesday, July 11, 1950.
ment on page 50 which is being held by a num- Fort Wayne, Indiana.
ber of other individuals, and has previously been 8
Smithsonian Treasury of Science, Vol. II, p. 517.
referred to, namely that the dimensions of the
brain cannot furnish any indication whatsoever 9
Austin H. Clark, Zoogenesis. Baltimore: Williams and
as to its functioning. It should also be men- Wilkins, 1930, pp. 235-236.
10
tioned that the possibility exists that deleterious E. P. Stibbe. ]ournal of Anatomy, Vol. 72, 1927-28,
gene mutations and recombination could bring pp. 159-172.
about a decrease in brain size, even tending 11
Vialleton , Le Origine des etres vivants, p. 164.
towards microcephaly. These would also bring 12
John Cameron. Transactions of the Royal Society of
about facial feature changes. Certainly these Canada, Vol. 12, 1918, p. 179.
possibilities ought to be considered. 13
G. R. De Beer and W. E. Swinton in chapter in Studies
What are we then to do with this material on in Fossil Vertebrates, edited by T. S. Wastall, Univer-
human evolution, of which I have given just the sity of London, The Athlone Press, 1958.
bare sketch? To deny the existence of the fossils, 14
A. F. Huettner, Fundamentals of Comparative Embry-
is wrong. They do exist. However, we can look ology of the Vertebrates, p. 48.
at these now, in the light of the evidence from 15
The Toledo Blade, September 30, 1965, reported by
the Neanderthal situation, at Skhul and Tabun, Ray Bruner, Science Editor.
and ask ourselves are these animals on the way 16
"Organic Compound in Carbonaceous Chondrites,” Sci-
to being men? Or are these men who have been ence, September 24, 1965, p. 1455 ff.
excessively brutalized and degenerated, actually 17
W. W. Rubey, Annals of N. Y. Academy of Science,
a sort of a devolution, that resulted finally in Vol. 69, September 30, 1957, pp. 255-376.
extinction? This is the considered opinion of 18
Arnold Lunn, The Flight From Reason. London: Ere
the late Dr. de Wit, formerly head of the de- and Spottisewood, 1931.
partment of zoology at the University of the 19
Orange Free State in the Republic of South G. L. Jepson, E. Mayr, G. G. Simpson, editor, Genetics,
Paleontology and Evolution. Princeton: Princeton Uni-
Africa. ( See J. J. Duyvené de Wit, “Reflections versity Press, 1949.
on the Architecture of the Organic World and 20

the Origin of Man–A Critical Evaluation of the Ibid., p. 64 ff.

21
Transformist Principle,” Philosophic Reformata, Oswald Spengler, The Decline of the West. New York:
29e Jaargang, 1964. This may be obtained from Knopf, 1932, Vol. II, p. 32 (Abridged edition, 1962,
p. 231 ff. ) .
J. H. Kok N. V., Kampen, The Netherlands.) 22
E. Mayr, Animal Species and Evolution. Cambridge,
It is true that this overall application of the Mass.: Belknap Press, 1963.
Neanderthal proposition is not subscribed to by 23
Theodosius Dobzhansky, Mankind Evolving. New Ha-
the vast majority of the paleontologists. How- ven: Yale University Press, 1962, p. 171.
ever, it might be pointed out that prior to the 24

discoveries of Skhul and Tabun, any supposition R. J. Mason, “The Sterkfontein Stone Artifacts and
Their Makers,” South African Archeological Bulletin
that Neanderthal was a degenerate form of #17, 1962, p. 109. Also J. T. Robinson, “Sterkfontein
more modern human types would have been Stratigraphy and the Significance of the Extension Site,”
laughed out of existence. So we are faced again South African Archeological Bulletin #17, 1962, p. 87.
with the situation—here is the evidence. Which 25
J. Piveteau, Origine de L’homme. Librarie Hachette,
way shall it be interpreted? 1962, p. 99.
16

PROLEGOMENA TO A STUDY OF CATACLYSMAL SEDIMENTATION

N. A. RUPKE
State University of Groningen, The Netherlands

“when we see the thing done, it is vain to dispute

against it from the unlikelihood of the doing it.”
John Ray
(Letter to Tancred Robinson/22 Okt./l684)

Sedimentation as it takes place today is a Steno (Figure 1). His “Prodrome” on a disserta-
calm and slow process acting on a small scale— tion entitled De Solido intra Solidum naturaliter
Holocene sediment is accumulating little by little Contento (1669) marked the birth of geology
in various sedimentary environments. If the as a science, and especially of stratigraphy.
greater part of the earth’s sedimentary rock was In this “Prodrome,” to which the proper dis-
deposited at this modern rate it would have re- sertation was never added, Steno expressed the
quired vast periods of time. then uncommon view that the strata of the earth
However, an abundance of phenomena which are due to the deposits of a fluid2. Furthermore
appear in most pre-Quaternary rock testify to he conceived the principle of superposition in
a complete uncommon mode of sedimentation writing: “At the time when any given stratum
which might be called “cataclysmal”; i.e. se- was being formed, all the matter resting upon
quences of considerable thicknesses were rapidly it was fluid, and, therefore, at the time when the
formed during a large-scale deposition. Likely, lowest stratum was being formed, none of the
this cataclysmal event, as evidenced by the Work upper strata existed” 3
of God (Nature), fell together with the Noachian
deluge, as narrated by the Word of God (Scrip-
ture).
In the present article the historical develop-
ment of the concept of cataclysmal deposition
is traced ever since the birth of geology as a
science. Further, the lines of evidence in regard
to this concept are partly viewed. Finally, some
results of field-work are presented.
Referential procedures are changed according
to the nature of subject-matters. In regard to
terminology the Geological Nomenclature (Eng-
lish, Dutch, French, German) of the Royal Geo-
logical and Mining Society of the Netherlands is
followed.
Ph.H. Kuenen, Professor and Head of the
Geological Institute at the State University of
Groningen, is not responsible for any view ex-
pressed in the present article.
I: Short History of Relevant Ideas
1) Nicolaus Steno (1631 -1687)
In the 17th century the true method of inter-
preting nature was proposed by Francis Bacon
(1561-1626) in his Novum Organum Scientiarum
(1620). He defended the value of methodically
executed experiments against Aristotle (384-322
B.C.) and his mediaevel votaries. Generally Figure 1. Nicolaus Steno. (After a portrait in the Pitti
speaking Bacon raised up the shield of em- Palace).
piricism as the means by which the physical Steno also grasped some causes of stratifica-
world could be disclosed1 tion. Strata lacking heterogeneous bodies, he
The first investigator who applied the empiri- argued, were of primeval origin, whereas fos-
cal method to geological questions was Nicolaus siliferous strata were formed during the ante-
 17

diluvian period and during or since the Noachian tance; e.g. his observations on the hydrological
deluge by inundations caused by violent winds cycle. 9 However, as regards stratigraphy his
or downpours. Among other things he wrote: “Discourses” did not represent an improvement
“Different kinds of layers in the same place can upon Steno’s “Prodrome,” because Ray also
be caused either by a difference of the particles attributed the earth’s layers to local though tem-
which withdraw from the fluid one after the pestuous inundations, mainly occurring during
other, as this same fluid is gradually disinte- antediluvian times.
grated more and more, or from different fluids He held the view that at first the earth was
carried thither at different times.” 4 covered with water; that the land was raised up
Besides, Steno made a stand against Aristotle by subterranean fires; and that as a result the
and his disciples, who upheld the view that waters were driven back. He continued in writ-
fossil remains of buried organism were produced ing: “Afterwards when the greatest part of the
in situ by a certain “Vis Formativa,” “Vis Plas- earth was thus raised, the skirts were alternated
tica,” or “Quid Vis.” He maintained the real or- by the sediments of rivers and floods, whence
ganic character of fossils, and gave it as his and from the several inundations of the sea came
view “that the formation of many mollusks which the several beds or layers of earth.”10
we find to-day must be referred to times coinci- Yet Ray did not go beyond the framework of
dent with the universal deluge”5. biblical history and in consequence he in fact
The main effect of this universal and recent was a deluge geologist. The outcome of the
catastrophe Steno confined to the earth’s geo- Noachian flood he mainly restricted to tectoni-
morphogenical characteristics. In this context cal catastrophes. Amidst these he supposed the
it is noteworthy that he concluded his “Pro- tearing apart of the continents where he guessed
drome” by showing that the biblical data of pri- that the Old and the New World formerly were
meval creation and subsequent devastation con- linked together.11 This primitive pangea con-
stitute a framework wherein all results of geo- cept, also conceived by Adriaan Buurt (1711-
logical observations could successfully be con- 1781) and other 18th century scientists, fore-
tained, arranged, and distinctly conceived.6 Con- shadowed Alfred Wegener’s continental drift
sequently the “Prodrome” was not only a land- theory.
mark in the development of geology in general; Further, Ray adopted Steno’s idea of fossils as
it also made its author the founding father of organic remains, and disputed the opposite view
deluge geology. Curiously this historical truth of many of his contemporaries. He himself
has not been stressed up till now as far as I viewed the scattered fossil remains as a result
know. of the universal deluge waters. To Edward
By reason of his scientific ability, uniformi- Lhwyd (1660-1709) he expressed relating to his
tarian geologists have tried to claim Steno-mak- “Discourses”: “I have inserted something con-
ing him, in subscribing to the Noachian flood, cerning formed stones as an effect of the deluge,
a victim of church dogma and theological au- I mean their dispersion all over the earth. There-
thority. 7 But on the contrary, a careful reading fore you will find all I have to say in opposition
of Steno’s “Prodrome” leads to the inference that to their opinion who hold them to be primitive
his knowledge of biblical history stimulated his productions of nature in imitation of shells.”12
discovery that the earth’s crust contains the rec- In the presence of these data it is somewhat
ord of a sequence of historical events, and made surprising to read in Byron C. Nelson’s T h e
it a matter of course that fossils were the re- Deluge Story in Stone (1931): “Of those in
mains of mainly marine creatures thrown out England who opposed the Flood theory because
on the continents by the running flood waters. 8 they did not believe that fossils were the re-
2) John Ray (1627-1705) mains of former living things, the most prom-
inent was John Ray’’;13 by mischance this in-
Though Steno’s “Prodrome” became widely correct information entered into the otherwise
known among his contemporaries, John Ray took excellent The Genesis Flood (1961) of John C.
the lead up to a point in geology. The latter’s Whitcomb and Henry M. Morris.14 As Nelson
ideas in this case were couched in the celebrated does cite the “Discourses,” he seems to have read
Three Physico-Theological Discourses, Concern- them; but unfortunately he did not read them
ing 1) The Primitive Chaos and Creation of the well, ascribing to Ray opinions which, indeed,
World, 2) The General Deluge, its Causes and he expounded, but only in order to argue against
Effects, 3) The Dissolution of the World and these.
Future Conflagration (1629).
The “Discourses” went through several edi- 3) John Woodward (1667-1727)
tions until well into the 18th century. In those Up to now a clear notion of the formation of
Ray brought up much of novelty and impor- stratified rock of considerable thickness was not
18

presented. The first to take the right road in till afterwards, and so falling among the
this case was John Woodward of Gresham Col- lighter Matter, such as Chalk, and the like,
lege. This keen-witted scientist, being intimately in all such parts of the Mass where there hap-
acquainted with most of England’s stratified pened to be any considerable quantity of
formations, wrote in elucidation of these A n Chalk, or other Matter lighter than Stone;
Essay towards a Natural History of the Earth, but where there was none, the said Shells
and Terrestrial Bodies, especially Minerals; as fell upon, or near unto, the Surface.l5
also of the Sea, Rivers and Springs. With an
account of the Universal Deluge, and of the It stands beyond all argument that Wood-
Effects it had upon the Earth (1695). In it he ward’s theory of a Universal Solvent was an in-
proposed his theory of a Universal Solvent. adequate theory. Nevertheless it contained some
constructive notions; e.g. that of gravity sorting
Woodward launched into speculations con- which foreshadowed Henry M. Morris’ concept
cerning the Noachian flood, assuming that the of hydrodynamical selectivity.16 Such, in some
upper part of the earth’s crust was wholly dis- measure modern ideas, went beyond the grasp of
solved in the all covering waters, constituting a several of Woodward’s contemporaries who cried
muddled mass. From this the solid constituents down his “Essay.” Even Ray turned against him,
would have settled down according to specific though they basically took the same position, as
gravities, thus bringing about stratum super Karl A. von Zittel rightly stated.l7
stratum, in which the organic bodies and parts Aside from stratigraphy, Woodward’s writings
thereof would have sealed up after gravity sort- were of lasting value for paleontology. He took
ing. pains to demonstrate that the fossils were or-
It is noteworthy that the main argument for ganic remains laid down in the deluge. Con-
the rapid formation of subsequent strata con- sequently he scorned the ideas of Edward Lhwyd
sisted in the phenomenon of stratification itself. on the one hand and Martin Lister (1638-1712)
The same phenomenon is taken up by modern and Robert Plot (1640-1696) on the other that
catastrophists to make out a good case for their fossils were but “Lapides sui generis” or re-
convictions, Specifically, Woodward stated in sulted from an “Aura seminalis.” Woodward
his “Essay” with regard to the mentioned wrote in this case:
muddle: “that they are so far from being formed in the
Earth, or in the Places where they are now
That at length all the Mass that was thus born found, that even the Belemnites, Selenites,
up in the Water, was again precipitated, and Marchasits, Flints, and other natural Minerals,
subsided towards the bottom. That this Sub- which are lodged in the Earth, together with
sidence happened generally, and as near as these Shells were not formed there, but had
possibly could be expected in so great a Con- Being before ever they came thither: and
fusion, according to the Laws of Gravity; that were fully formed and finished before they
Matter, Body or Bodies, which had the great- were reposed in that manner.l8
est quantity or degree of Gravity, subsiding
first in order, and falling lowest: that which Thus Woodward swept away forever the wrong
had the next, or a still lesser degree of Grav- opinion concerning fossils; and he showed to-
ity, subsiding next after, and settling upon the gether with his adherent Johann Jacob Scheuch-
precedent: and so on in their several courses; zer (1672-1733), [who translated the “Essay”
that which had the least Gravity sinking not into Latin (1704) and also wrote the Herbarium
down till last of all, settling at the Surface of Diluvianum (1709) and other excellent writ-
the Sediment, and covering all the rest. That ings], the way for a better understanding of the
the Matter, subsiding thus, formed the Strata fossiliferous strata.l9
of Stone, of Marble, of Cole, of Earth, and In this context it is worth noting that Johann
the rest; of which Strata, lying one upon Jacob’s brother Johann Scheuchzer (1684-1738)
another, the terrestrial Globe, or at least as used a half water filled bowl in showing that the
much of it as is ever displayed to view, cloth Noachian flood could have been caused by a
mainly consist. sudden stopping of the earth’s rotation and a
consequent gushing forth of violent tidal waves.
Woodward continued with treating of gravity
An account of this experiment was given in a
sorting and he went on to say:
dissertation on Lapides Figurati read in the year
That for this reason the Shells of those Cockles, 1710 before l’Academie Royale des Sciences.
Escalops, Perewinckles, and the rest, which Irrespective of the adequacy of this elucidation
have a greater degree of Gravity, were en- to the historical events two conclusions are at
closed and lodged in the Strata of Stone, hand; viz. that, to my knowledge, it was Johann
Marble, and the heavier kinds of Terrestrial Scheuchzer who was the first to execute a geo-
Matter; the lighter Shells not sinking down logical experiment and not Horace-Benedict de
 19

Saussure (1740-1799), as claimed by Ph. H. After all, it is easy to convince oneself that
Kuenen; 20 and that with this experiment the it is neither in one and the same time, nor by
cataclysmic character of the Genesis Flood was the effect of the deluge, that the sea left un-
distinctly conceived.21 covered the continents which we inhabit; be-
cause it is certain, by the testimony of the
4) George-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon sacred books, that the earthly paradise was in
(1707-1788) Asia, and that Asia was a continent inhabited
During the second half of the 18th century, before the deluge; in consequence, it is not in
geology was retarded in its auspicious develop- that time that the seas covered that consider-
ment by the impact of the writings of George- able part of the globe. So the earth was, be-
Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon; viz. by his fore the deluge, broadly the same as she is
Theorie de la Terre (1749) and Des Epoques today; and that enormous quantity of water,
de la Nature (1778), constituting the initial which the divine justice brought down on the
parts of his voluminous Histoire Naturelle (1749- earth to punish the culpable men, caused in
1782) . fact the death to all creatures; but it produced
not a single alteration on the surface of the
In this matter Buffon was preceded actually earth; it destroyed not even the plants, be-
by his compatriot Benoit de Maillet (1656- cause the pigeon brought back an olive-branch
1738), who drew up a cosmic system after Car- (Translated from the French). 26
tesian fashion, published posthumously in 1748
under the title of Telliamed, ou Entretiens d’un So Buffon introduced the concept of an earth
philosopher indien avec un missionaire francois history passed off quietly in the course of periods
sur la diminution de la mer, la formation de la of long duration; and although Buffon took a
terre, l’origine de l’homme, etc., in which “Tel- lot of geological data from Woodward’s “Essay,”
liamed” represented the anagram of “de Maillet.” he frequently made a stand against him and thus
Woodward’s influence was eclipsed by Buffon
De Maillet maintained that the strata of the on account of the latter’s eloquent diction.27
earth and even the mountains were built up
beneath the level of the sea by the ocean cur- 5) Jean-Andre Deluc (1727-1817)
rents and by the flux and reflux of the tides. Still a new champion of biblical catastrophism
Consequently the earth’s stratified rock could not appeared on the scene in the person of Jean-
have been deposited in a short space of time Andre Deluc (de Luc) who became an ad-
but only gradually during several millennia. De versary of the Buffonian cosmogony. This Swiss
Maillet wrote about certain strata: “Undoubtedly naturalist made himself a name by his mete-
they were formed in that place by a current orological observations and experiments and by
coming from north-west, and from the sea-side, his travels through many parts of the European
which manufactured them there successively one continent. His name was attended by authority
after another in a period of many thousands of for most of his contemporaries and he wielded
years” (Translated from the French).22 great influence in his day.
In one of his early writings, viz. L e t t r e s
In an article, “Sur la Production des Couches Physiques et Morales, sur l’Histoire de la Terre
ou Lits de Terre,” Buffon lined up with de et de l’Homme. Adressees a la Reine de la
Maillet’s assertions in this case.23 Moreover, on Grande Bretagne (1778-1780), Deluc introduced
the subject of time he did not mere guess-work the term “geology” instead of the until then
but introduced a time-dimension, based on an usual designation “cosmology.”28 Next to these
alleged refrigeration of the globe which he had “Lettres” are to be named his Lettres sur l’His-
brought into being as a glowing mass torn from toire Physiques de la Terre, adressees au Profes-
the sun by a striking comet.24 seur Blumenbach (1798) and his Abrege de Prin-
Thus a dating method was introduced within cipes et de Faits concernant la Cosmologie et la
the framework of evolutionary cosmogony. Yet Geologie (1802).
Buffon’s maximum estimate of the earth’s age In these Deluc set himself to bear out Moses’
remained in the order of 75,000 years.25 None account of cosmogony by natural history. Un-
the less it was plain that his system was con- fortunately he took his stratigraphical data from
tradicted by the biblical cosmogony. As a Horace-Benedict de Saussure, being the contem-
result Buffon tried to explain away all physi- porary leading mineralogist, who held the view
cal implications of the Noachian deluge, sub- that granitic rock took shape as a layered de-
stituting the cataclysm concept by his tranquil posit, being precipitated by a process of crystal-
theory, in which any geological effect of the lisation in a primordial fluid.29 In consequence
deluge was denied. The passage in question this chemical process must have been a gradual
in Buffon’s Preuves de la Theorie de la Terre one and would have taken up much space of
ran as follows: time.
20

In order to fall in with Saussure’s view in vogue by the writings of James Hutton and his
this case, Deluc conceived of the days of crea- countryman Sir Charles Lyell ( 1797-1875). Hut-
tion as of periods of indeterminate length. 30 In ton made his doctrine public before the Royal
elucidation of the Noachian flood he conjectured Society of Edinburgh in a paper entitled “Theory
that the mainland of before, hanging over huge of the Earth; or an Investigation of the Laws
cavities, collapsed by which an enormous basin observable in the Composition, Dissolution, and
came into being, taking in all ocean waters. As Restoration of Land upon the Globe” (read
a result the ocean-floor of old became the main- 1785), which paper was afterwards developed
land which we inhabit today. 3l Thus he ren- into his renowned Theory of the Earth, with
dered an account of fossils and of a lot of other Proofs and Illustrations (1795).
geological data. In these works Hutton upheld the view that
Deluc’s idea’s were enunciated by one of his the laws of nature had acted uniformly through-
intimates, namely the Dutch poet Willem Bilder- out history. Thus the phenomena of the earth’s
dijk ( 1756-1831), in a treatise on Geologie, of crust were to be made clear by means of changes
Verhandeling over de Vorming en Vervorming still in progress today. In consequence these
der Aarde ( 1813), which constituted the first changes would have taken up vast periods of
original Dutch dissertation on geology. Bilder- time in order to account for the earth’s character-
dijk turned against the Buffonian doctrine of a istics. As a result Hutton scorned the idea of
geomorphogenical history of long duration. He catastrophism, and he wrote in his paper of
wrote: 1785:
It was, since Buffon, a cherished idea, that But though, in generalizing the operations of
awe-inspiring space of time in which he led nature, we have arrived at those great events,
us about. The hugeness thereof startled and which, at first sight, may fill the mind with
interested. But, actually, he who accounts wonder and with doubt, we are not to sup-
for an effect by a force which must have acted pose, that there is any violent exertion of
infinitely to produce the effect to be accounted power, such as is required in order to produce
for does not make clear anything. Everything a great event in little time; in nature, we find
in the corporeal world takes place in a time- no deficiency in respect of time, nor any
dimension (Translated from the Dutch). 32 limitation with regard to power.37
Bilderdijk referred to the physical chronology, In persuance to this time-philosophy Hutton
drawn up by Deluc, for the period since the uni- maintained that the strata now exposed on our
versal flood. continents were deposited little by little in the
In doing this Deluc had made use of some course of geological time; treating of limestone
dating methods based on natural processes; e.g. he stated:
the formation of vegetable mould; the reduction We are led, in this manner, to conclude, that
of tongues by marine abrasion; or stream ero- all the strata of the earth, not only those con-
sion. 33 He proved to be aware of the fact that sisting of such calcareous masses, but others
the last mentioned process could not have superincumbent upon these, have had their
worked uniformly. He wrote: “at first the rivers origin at the bottom of the sea, by the collec-
carried away to the ocean a quantity of materials tion of sand and gravel, of shells, of corralling
incomparably larger than that which they carry and crustaceous bodies, and of earths and
away today” ( Translated from the French) . 34 clays, variously mixed, or separated and ac-
From these Deluc inferred “that our continents cumulated. 38
are not old; and that not any other phenomenon These assertions led to a vigorous controversy in
contradicts that inference” (Translated from the which Deluc took action as an adversary of
French ).35 stature against the uniformitarian doctrine.
Unfortunately Deluc’s influence was largely
eclipsed by the “Discours sur les Revolutions de Nevertheless the Huttonian modernism gained
la Surface du Globe” (introductory part of the grounds–mainly because John Playfair ( 1748-
Recherches sur les Ossemens fossiles (1812) and 1819) interfered in the controversy in support of
published separately in 1826) of George Cuvier Hutton’s “Theory of the Earth,” of which that
(1769-1832) who got the theory accepted that English mathematician prepared an exposition,
the present-day condition of the earth’s crust easy of access, under the title of Illustrations of
resulted from a sequence of cataclysms in the the Huttonian Theory of the Earth ( 1802). How
course of lengthened periods.36 important a place was awarded to time in uni-
formitarianism was put into words by Playfair
6) James Hutton (1726-1797). . as follows; alluding at a vast progression of daily
The philosophy of uniformitarianism in the operations, he wrote: “TIME performs the office
earth’s science, advanced in the “Telliamed” of integrating the infinitesimal parts of which
and advocated by Buffon, was brought into this progression is made up; it collects them into
 21

one sum, and produces from them an amount (1870-1963) published his epoch-making The
greater than any that can be assigned.” 39 New Geology (1923). The main merit of Price
has been his having taken hold of the crystallized
Yet the Huttonian “Theory” did not win a
time-table of geological ages, Price’s arguments
wide acceptance among geologists until it was
in this case are for the most part couched in
championed by Sir Charles Lyell. He brought
his Evolutionary Geology and the New Catas-
the matter up in his Principles of Geology: Be- trophism (1926). Unfortunately, in dealing with
ing an Attempt to Explain the Former Changes
of the Earth’s Surface, by Reference to Causes the order of the earth’s strata little attention was
now in Operation (first vol. 1830 and completed given to the rate of formation of stratified rock.
in 1834) —the title constituted the summary of Now then, even after one got well posted as
Lyell’s work. In this he stated that his method to the earth’s crust, Huttonian geology was not
“endeavors to estimate the aggregate result of scorned—primarily in consequence of its being
ordinary operations multiplied by time”; and connected with a non-biblical philosophy of life.
further on he wrote: “For this reason all theories Francis C. Haber observes: “Hutton’s thought
are rejected which involve the assumption of was a development of natural theology and the
sudden and violent catastrophes and revolutions timeless world-machine view.”44 Today this
of the whole earth, and its inhabitants.”40 Lyell philosophical heritage is playing a trick with the
frequently challenged the catastrophic school of greater number of the world’s geologists.
geologists, primarily in the person of Woodward, Though it is attempted to justify uniformitar-
and as a result he completely expelled all deluge ianism on account of the great number of adher-
geology from the professorial chair.41 ents of this philosophy it should be born in mind
that the “majority” cannot be an argument in
7) George Fairholme (dates unknown) science and its problems; for as noted by German
Up to now hardly any examination of the poet and scientist Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
earth’s strata was carried out in order to decide (1749-1832): “Nothing is more repulsive than
in the time-energy dilemma. In his Geologie the majority: for it consists of not many forceful
Bilderdijk wrote in view of the uniformitarian leaders, of scapegraces who accommodate them-
systems: “Fortuitous observations, suggested by selves, of weaklings who assimilate themselves,
mining, and partly ill-noticed or -imagined, be- and the crowd who trundles behind, without any
ing always insufficient, defective, and only local, acquaintance of its own mind” (Translated from
produced false and rash conclusions, upon which the German ).45
the imaginations, which passed for demonstra- Next following I have dealt with some con-
tions or real inferences, were built” (Translated clusive data on the rapid formation of much of
from the Dutch ).42 Even Lyell in his celebrated the earth’s stratified rock.
Principles of Geology did nothing but lining
out the probability of slow deposition of sedi- II: Main Arguments to Rapid Deposition
mentary rock and by no means did he establish 1) Polystrate Fossils
the actuality of it. In spite of the prevailing hypotheses of grad-
uality and, along with this extreme length of the
The search for the testimony of stratified rock earth’s history, the conditions in which most
itself with regard to the rate of its formation was fossils all over the world are unearthed bear
initiated by some 19th century deluge geologists. testimony to an extraordinary, rapid and often
Among these the sharp-witted George Fairholme cataclysmal process of sedimentation. One of
took the lead in writing the New and Conclusive those conditions is displayed by a group of fos-
Physical Demonstrations, Both of the Fact and
sils in what I propose to call a “polystrate posi-
Period of the Mozaic Deluge, and of its having tion.” By this concept is meant the fossil remains
been the only Event of the Kind that has ever of huge animals and petrified tree-trunks, ex-
occurred upon the Earth (1837 and 2nd edit. tending through a thick bed or, properly speak-
1840). These “Demonstrations” constituted a ing, through two or more strata of sedimentary
landmark in the development of deluge geology. rock.
In it Fairholme exposed sedimentary structures,
bespeaking a rapid deposition of successive Such–so to be termed–’’polystrate fossils” are
strata to a very great thickness, and he con- found in many parts of the world; their height
jectured that the earth’s stratified rock was built may be tens of meters and, despite this, their
up by an abnormal tidal action–afterwards topmost parts are as well preserved as the basal
called the tidal theory.43 ones. These facts indicate that the petrified re-
mains were sealed up before decay and, in con-
Fairholme’s work was elaborated by some sequence, were buried in their polystrate posi-
19th century votaries. Yet a deluge geologist of tion by rapidly deposited layers of sediment
stature did not appear on the scene until the shortly after or even when they died or were
20th century when George McCready Price torn up by the roots.
22

It is not as common to come across polystrate

animal remains as those of upright tree-trunks;
yet they are found. Van der Vlerk and Kuenen
(1962) report: “In the United States a thick,
apparently uninterrupted deposition of sands
and clays is found, in which the entire bodies
with the skin-impression of huge pre-historic
reptiles are met with” (p. 63) ( Translated from
the Dutch ). In case the sedimentation had been
uniform the giant carrions would not be covered
within 5000 years; therefore, van der Vlerk and
Kuenen conclude: “The only possibility is that
immediately after the death the dead body was
covered and as it were ensiled by a thick bed
of sediment” (p. 64) (Translated from the
Dutch ) .
Other polystrate fossils are mainly restricted
to truncated tree-trunks. These are found chiefly
in the Carboniferous series; though they are
found as well in exposures of Mesozoic and
Cenozoic formations (Fairholme, 1837, p. 392;
Shrock, 1948, p. 293; Nilsson, 1953, p. 718).
Geikie (1903) writes: “It is not uncommon in
certain Carboniferous sandstones to find huge
sigillarioid and coniferous trunks imbedded in
up-right or inclined positions” (p. 654).
Further he states: “It occasionally happens that
an erect trunk has kept its position even during
the accumulation of a series of strata around it”
(p. 654). Geikie concludes: “We can hardly be-
lieve that in such cases any considerable number
of years could have elapsed between the death
of the tree and its final entombment” (p. 654).
This inference is the more conclusive when the
tree-trunks are 6 to 9 meters high. It is note-
worthy that such dimensions are not exceptional.
About a decenniad ago in the neighbourhood
of Essen-Kupferdreh in Germany over the seam
Angelika, a series of Lepidophyta was unearthed
at interspaces of 3 to 5 meters. Klusemann and
Teichmuller (1954) report: “The stumps are
7.5 m. in height and must have been still higher
before they were cut down by the Rurh in the
Riss glacial epoch” (pp. 374-375) (Translated
from the German) (Figure 2).
Afterwards, when in the same area the de-
posits over the seam Sonnenschein were exposed,
again upright tree-trunks standing over 7 meters
came to light, which likewise must have been Figure 2. Polystrate tree-trunk near Essen-Kupferdreh
still higher before the glacial age. The men- (Germany). (Photo by Klusemann).
tioned authors remark: “Because the Sigillaria “Perhaps it were some months, perhaps some
properly speaking constituted only bark-tubes years, but certainly not much longer” (p. 379)
when their insignificant wood-body had become (Translated from the German); and this esti-
putrefied they may have been more transitory mate is even the maximum one.
than for instance the solid oak or Sequoia trunks
of today” (p. 379) ( Translated from the Ger- These polystrate trunks were found over a
man ). As a result the enclosure of the truncated wide area. It also occurs that such fossils dis-
tree-trunks cannot have taken up much space of play a remarkable vertical dispersion; e.g. at
time. Klusemann and Teichmuller conclude: The Joggins on Nova Scotia. Dunbar (1960)
 23

writes: “Here erect trunks are recorded at 20

horizons distributed at intervals through about
2,500 feet of beds” (p. 227). Only a wholly un-
common process of sedimentation can account
for conditions like these.
The fossilized tree-stems are not only found
erect, They also occur in positions, forming an
angle with the lie of the strata, varying from
nothing up to 90°. A striking example of this
was reported by Tayler (1857; and Nelson, 1931,
p. 111) who made reference to a lofty trunk,
exposed in a sandstone quarry near Edinburgh,
which measured no less than over 25 meters and,
intersecting 10 or 12 different strata, leaned at
an angle of about 40° ( Compare with Figure 3).
Similar examples are mentioned by Geikie
(1903, p. 655), In addition he states that the
internal microscopic structure of the relevant
trees was well preserved. Further Geikie con-
jectures: “In such examples, the drifted trees
seem to have sunk with their heavier or root end
touching the bottom, and their upper end point-
ing upward in the direction of the current” Figure 3. Polystrate tree-trunk near Edinburgh (Eng-
land). (After Witham).
(p. 655). Moreover, as stated by Arber (1912,
p. 114), in some districts the prone stems far not they are devoid of both branches and roots;
exceed those still upright. and, as a result, they cannot have grown where
they now stand. They also are found at various
Now then, as already noted by Fairholme
(1837, pp. 393-394), an inclined stem constitutes heights. Whereas, had they grown in situ, their
basal parts must be rooted in one particular
a stronger testimony to rapidity in deposition
than even an upright one; stratum.
for while the latter might be supposed to have In view of these facts Arber (1912) writes:
been capable of retaining an upright position, “It is not certain that these trunks, despite
in a semi-fluid mass, for a long time, by the their upright position, are in situ. They are much
mere laws of gravity, the other must, by the more probably drifted material, like the sand-
very same laws, have fallen, from its inclined stones which enclose them” (p. 101). And,
to a horizontal position, had it not been re- what’s more, examples are found which appeared
tained in its inclined position, by the rapid to be upside down, or, in other words, which
accumulation of its present stony matrix (p. have their root end uppermost. On account of
394) (Emphasis added). these facts, there is no question but that the
relevant stems were of an allochthonous origin
A special class of polystrate stems is con- (Compare with Figure 4).
stituted by stumps which extend up through a
Besides, it must be remembered that a drifted
coal seam, together with some layers of sand-
stone and sandy slate, or even through two or tree-stem will often float upright, for its centre
more of these coal seams and all interbedded of gravity is situated at the lower end of that
strata. Curiously few references are made to stem, which constitutes the heavier one. In this
this and, if any, for the most part by earlier au- context Fairholme (1837) wrote: “the stem of a
thors (Bolsche, 1918, p. 34; Price, 1923, p. 462). heavy tree, especially if it be long, and have
Even so examples are unusually abundant; con- consequently a great disproportion between the
sequently, the coal beds were rapidly deposited weight of its two extremities, would naturally
just as well as the above mentioned inorganic sink in a fluid, and perhaps still more, in a semi-
fluid, with its root end downwards” (p. 393).
sequences. This actually is observed along the banks of
Sometimes the upright position of the erect the great rivers; Arber (1912) writes: “in the
stumps is claimed to prove their having grown deltas of large rivers to-day, the bases of trees
where they now stand – in situ (Brongniart, 1828, of large size, sometimes with fragments of roots
pp. 183-184; Schuchert, 1924, p. 401; Dunbar, still attached, may be deposited in a more or
1960, p. 227). However, there are several facts less upright position, though they have been
which invalidate the hypothesis that they were transported for a considerable distance” (p.
of an autochthonous origin. More often than 106 ).
24

Figure 4. Polystrate tree-trunks near Saint-Etienne (France). (After Brongniart).

Moreover, as pointed out by Grand’Eury On the contrary a comparison between the

(1890, p. 244, compare with pl. XIII, fig. 7) mentioned features and recent analogs brings to
the petrified tree-stems more often than not dis- light an unequivocal discrepancy. An examina-
play a thickened trunk-base. Now Horbiger tion of Stump Lake in North Dakota by Aronow
(Fauth, 1913, p. 443) conjectured that the rele- (1957) showed considerable level fluctuations
vant trunks functioned like the spindle of a within a few centennia: “The lake levels seem
natural hydrometer (Senkwaage) by which the to respond in a very sensitive manner to slight
massive rhizome constituted the bulb (Senkge- climatic changes” (p. 410). Among the many
wicht); as a result they tended to float upright stumps once rooting in situ only one specimen
and were deposited in that position as soon as was left. It was found in an advanced state of
the current quieted. Accordingly Nilsson (1953) decomposition and all similarity with fossil ex-
states: “The anatomical structure of a plant- amples was lacking.
part determines its position in a measure” (p. In addition, something else excludes that a
716) (Translated from the German ). water level came into play here; viz. that there
Curiously the upright stems usually are cut are fossil tree-stems which are sheared off at
off according to a shear plane which coincides various heights (compare with Grand’Eury, 1890,
with a bedding plane. They are not fractured pl. XIII, fig. 7). In order to elucidate this
obliquely, as often occurs today when a tree enigma, Horbiger (Fauth, 1913, p. 445) con-
has broken off above the roots. It is asserted jectured that the relevant trunks were em-
by Potonie (1910, p. 120) that the shear planes bedded by a huge tidal wave, bringing about
were brought about by a water level of old. stratum super stratum, during a furious cold.
However, this contention cannot be supported As a result the upper parts of the soaked trunks,
by any modern analogy whatsoever. standing above the frozen level of the last bed,
 25

became as hard as nails and were sheared off those located on surfaces. When the depositional
on a level with the bedding plane by the next interface moves upwards as sedimentation con-
tidal wave; to this Nilsson (1953, p. 718) adds tinues they easily are obliterated.
that on account of certain causes some tree- Sedimentary structures, characterized by pro-
stems were not snapped off until a fresh bed nounced transiency, I propose to classify as
was deposited and their parts, still standing out, “ephemeral markings.” As a rule they are not
were struck by a next impetus. preserved in the sedimentary complexes of the
Personally, I am of the opinion that the poly- Quaternary–in which system also bedding is
strate fossils constitute a crucial phenomenon scarce. On the other hand the ephemeral mark-
both to the actuality and the mechanism of ings are frequently recorded in all earlier sys-
cataclysmal deposition. Curiously a paper on tems. Their preservation more often than not
polystrate fossils appears to be a “black swan” requires quite a rapid deposition of covering
in geological literature. Antecedent to this sediment; and their astounding abundance sug-
synopsis a systematic discussion of the relevant gests that the sedimentation was cataclysmal
phenomena was never published. However, both to rapidity and extent. Dozens or even–
geologists must have been informed about these when subdivided— hundreds of types of ephem-
fossils. In view of this it seems unintelligible eral markings are known at present and their
that uniformitarianism has kept its dominant number is still swelling. In this paper only cer-
position. tain types can be treated; e.g. ripple marks, rain
In order to make this clear, as best I can, I prints, trails and tracks,
present a historical analogue: in his Tabulae Ripple Marks
Anatomicae Sex (1538), the anatomist Vesalius As early as the middle of the previous century
(1514-1564) pictured the human liver with five two basic types of ripple marks were clearly dis-
lobes; three of these he never could have ob- cerned; viz. the symmetrical or oscillation ripple
served. Nevertheless, Vesalius pictured them— marks, and the asymmetrical or water-current
apparently in imitation of Galenus (131-200) ones. The former are produced by wave action
whose conceptions were true dogmas until well in stagnant water, the latter by water currents
into the 16th century. Nowadays most geolo-
not exceeding certain critical current velocities.
gists uphold a uniform process of sedimentation Gradually an amplified division was proposed;
during the earth’s history; but their views are e.g. by Bucher (1919, p. 208), by Kindle and
contradicted by plain facts. Nevertheless uni- Bucher (1932, p. 654), and by van Straaten
formitarianists insist on their point–obviously (1953, pp. 1-2). However, it only applies to
they line up with Huttonian philosophy. A case recent ripple marks. Concerning fossilized struc-
like this is no more a matter of geological argu- tures obviously identical with ripple marks the
ment; I can but present it as a curious example binary division may be still useful.
to those who intend to trace the psychology of
scientific dogmas. The conditions producing the structures at
issue have been thoroughly studied for a long
2) Ephemeral Markings time; int. al. by Darwin (1883, pp. 18-43) or
A classification of sedimentary structures may recently by Kirchmayer (1960, pp. 446-452) and
be executed on the basis of several criteria; e.g. Tanner (1963, pp. 307-311), Curiously the fac-
according to the time and site of formation tors which favour or prevent the preservation of
(Nagtegaal, 1965, p. 347-352). In that manner ripple marks are barely given attention. An at-
the structures are divided into non-organic and tempted systematic discussion is contained in
organic types; the latter being produced by all Bucher’s paper of 1919. In this context it is
sorts of organisms. The former are divided into worthy of mention that ripple marks are ex-
“syndepositional structures” ( produced by the tremely transitory. As a rule they are wiped out
mode and site of deposition of the settling ma- soon after they are produced. Geikie (1903)
terial ) and “non-syndepositional structures” states: “On an ordinary beach, each tide usually
(produced by the disturbance of the deposited effaces the ripple-marks made by its predecessor,
particles ). and leaves a new series to be obliterated by the
If the disturbance of the boundary plane be- next tide” (p. 643).
tween sediment and water, i.e. of the deposi- However, ripple marks–chiefly mud ripples–
tional interface, is produced from above then become preserved in recent deposits–as re-
the structures are called “metadepositional,” and ported by Trusheim (1929, p. 76, Abb. 6) or by
if from below “postdepositional.” The meta- van Straaten (1951, p. 54). Nevertheless ex-
and postdepositional structures are not distin- amples are extremely exceptional–especially with
guished in regard to time. Among the non- regard to sand ripples. Accordingly Kemper
organic, as well as the organic structures, a pro- (1965, p. 79) remarks that only endogenous
fusion of specimens are very transient–primarily structures stand a good chance of becoming pre-
26

served. As a rule surface markings are destroyed Bucher (1932) write: “Such ripple marks would
by the currents and the sustained reworking of survive the passage of sand-bearing currents,
the sea-bottom material (“standige Material- and speedy burial might result without damage
umlagerung am Meeresboden”). to their form” (p. 653). Perhaps the sediment
For all that, Kemper came across well pre- conveyors were inter- or overflows in a large
served current ripples in the Bentheimer Sand- body of water and did not scrape along the bot-
stein. He writes: “The more startling is a slab tom. Perhaps the ripple marks were frozen
with current ripple marks . . .“ (p. 79) (Trans- during deposition intervals–as supposed by Nils-
lated from the German). The preserved ripple son (1953, p. 689). As a matter of fact fossil
marks constitute a serious problem-especially ice crystal marks are found on sandstone sur-
in regard to the symmetrical type. Kindle and faces (Twenhofel, 1932, p. 677).
Bucher (1932) write: Rain Prints
The preservation of typical oscillation ripples From the metadepositional structures the rain-
under a thick layer of coarse sand, as is fre- prints are found. A rain-drop falling on a surface
quently seen in many sandstone formations, of soft sand or wet mud produces a pit margined
offers a more difficult problem than the preser- by a ragged rim. When the wind drives aslant
vation of current ripples, as the very existence the rain-drop, the imprint is ridged up to one
of oscillation ripples excludes the possibility side. The raised margin indicates the direction
of any current erosion in the vicinity of the toward which the wind blew.
sedimentary surface (pp. 652-653).
Obviously these structures are extremely
However, fossilized ripple marks constitute ephemeral. As a rule they are washed out within
one of the most common sedimentary structures a few hours. Despite this rain-prints are often
in pre-Quaternary sequences. They are found found in the fossil record. Geikie (1903) writes:
in most exposures of any group all over the “The familiar effects of a heavy shower upon a
world; and, as a rule, they are markedly well surface of moist sand or mud may be witnessed
preserved. Relating to sand ripples, Inman among rocks even as old as the Cambrian period”
(1958) states: “they are one of the sedimentary (p. 644). However, as remarked by Twenhofel
structures frequently preserved in the geologic (1932, pp. 677-680), it is doubtful if they really
record” (p. 522). For obvious reasons the ripple have so frequent an occurrence as suggested in
marks must have been rapidly covered with the literature.
sediment shortly after they were formed. Buch-
er’s (1919) words are: “They must all, soon after Perhaps the supposed rain-prints were pro-
their formation, be sufficiently covered with sedi- duced by agents similar to rain-drops though not
ment settling on them from above” (p. 242). identical with them. The imprints may be hail-,
drip-, or spray, and splash-prints. The tendency
As a rule the ripple marks occur only at the for these imprints is to have a greater width and
bedding planes of the layers–curiously not with- depth than the rain-prints. Nevertheless there
in these. This absence of ripples within the cannot have been a difference in regard to
layers itself suggests that the latter were formed transiency worth the name. Consequently, all
by an uninterrupted sedimentation. Often the mentioned types require a rapid deposition of
ripple marks are seen from bedding plane to the layers covering them. Add to this the fact
bedding plane in a series of layers of which each that the imprints are often found at successive
more often than not stands several feet. Prac-
bedding planes. As a result a large-scale deposi-
tically invariably the layers succeed each other tion seems to have built up the relevant se-
with an astounding regularity. These conditions
quences in a short space of time.
suggest a periodical deposition, as of ebb and
flow, though it must have been of an uncom- Trace Fossils
mon rapidity and on a large scale i.e. cataclysmal.
The occurrence of some types of trace fossils
Presumably the sediment conveyors were huge leads to identical conclusions. A variety of ani-
tidal waves as assumed in the tidal theory (Nils- mal trails and tracks is produced in unconsoli-
son, 1953, passim)—which waves must have been dated sand and mud. Generally–by reason of
generated abundantly during the Noachian del- the softness of the sediment–the markings are
uge (Whitcomb and Morris, 1961, passim). quickly wiped out by wind- or water-action.
However, it cannot be clear at first sight why the Especially this holds good in regard to sand;
sediment conveyors did not obliterate the ripple for, as stated by Shrock (1948), “the nature of
marks. Some possibilities are proposed here– this material is such that markings made on its
though it does not concern the actuality but only surface have relatively little chance of being
the mechanism of cataclysmal sedimentation. preserved” (p. 174). Lately the same is stressed
Perhaps some ripples were of the firm type by Whitcomb and Morris (1961, pp. 166-168).
not seldom found on sandy beaches. Kindle and For all that, trails and tracks may become fossil
 27

(compare Shrock, ubi sup.). However, this In the conclusion of their report de Raaf et al.
does not alter the fact that examples of pre- remark:
served trails and tracks in recent deposits are It finally remains to consider the extraordinary,
singular to a high degree. and often beautiful, preservation of a truly
amazing abundance of bird-tracks in an area
Now then, despite this, they are found in the of the order indicated. It is hard to see how
fossil record in countless numbers and sometimes tracks abounding in all directions so repeatedly
over vast areas. Moreover, they may be classi- could be preserved at all with such regularity
fied among the phenomena to be observed in without invoking eolian action. Only thus
all systems and even in all series. The types are can we envisage the much-repeated mechan-
diverse. Twenhofel (1932) writes: ism of quick burial and most successful preser-
They consist of worm trails from the rocks vation of the tracks after their imprint in ex-
of all ages since the Proterozoic; tracks of posed wet arenaceous to clayey sediments,
crustaceans, as perhaps Climatichnites from first with wind-blown silt and sand derived
the Cambrian of Wisconsin, which resembles from drying flats and only later by more sedi-
the trail of a small automobile and may be ment transported by water,” p. 147.
an algal impression, and double rows of pits,
as in the Richmond of Anticosti, where they The mechanism of preservation here postulated
have been followed over a 6-inch bed of may have played a part—but the mentioned con-
limestone for 75 miles; tracks of amphibians ditions imply a wholly uncommon process of
from the Kansas Coal Measures; and the sediment-conveying and -settling.
famed reptile tracks of the Newark sandstone More often than not various ephemeral mark-
(p. 675). ings are found on one and the same bedding
plane, i.e., ripple marks, rain prints, mud cracks,
Frequently the interpretation of trails and and trails or tracks occurring together and mutu-
tracks is still doubtful. A relevant structure con- ally strengthening the testimony of each to cata-
sists of parallel, concentric furrows, about 2 mm. clysmal sedimentation. It should be noted that
in width, which is classified as “Helminthoida” together with the mentioned bird-tracks ob-
and, usually, is described as “guided meander” served by de Raaf et al., ripple marks, rain prints
or “spiral track” (Seilacher, 1954, passim; Moore, and mud cracks were also perceived.
1962, p. 200; Schafer, 1962, p. 334), It is known
through thousands of examples from the Cam- The rapidness by which these markings must
brian system till the Tertiary. Schafer ( 1965, have been covered is emphasized by very recent
pp. 83-90) connects it with analogues produced observations on flysch and graded graywackes.
on a recent mud flat. About the recent traces, The term “flysch” refers to sedimentary comp-
he states that they cannot become fossils–even lexes made up of shaly-marly sediments and
with favorable sedimentation circumstances. medium-thick sandstones. The hard, dark rock,
Thus from the outset the preserved specimens denominated as “graywacke,” often occurs in
must have been much more deepened. However, flysch-like sequences and it resembles the flysch
even then their preservation can only be brought sandstones. Whenever cropping out, the lutite
about by the covering with sediment soon after layers easily crumble away, exposing the under-
they were produced. sides or “soles” of the sandstones, Mostly the
soles are sharply defined and show a variety of
Bird Tracks surface markings, which as a rule were desig-
Also bird-tracks are reported; e.g. by de Raaf, nated as “hieroglyphs”-a term applied to any
Beets and Kortenbout van der Sluijs (1965, p. markings found on bedding planes. Today the
146-148) in the Lower Oligocene of Navarra term “sole markings” is generally accepted.
and Zaragoza in Northern Spain. The basal part These markings are the casts of structures in
of the formation is made up by calcareous shales the underlying shales or marls produced there
intercalated with siltstones. Upwards the se- by organisms, currents, or other agents. The
quence grades into a much more arenaceous suc- diverse types are described by Kuenen (1957),
cession with scores of beds with bird-tracks. de Pettijohn and Potter ( 1964), Dzulinsky and Wal-
Raaf et al. write: “Bird-tracks, both on sand- ton ( 1965), et al. There are tracks, burrows, rill
stones or siltstones (occasionally on ripple- marks, flute casts, etc. Now then, the typical
marked surfaces or associated with salt pseudo- features of flysch and graded graywackes are
morphs) and on shales (evidenced as natural interpreted by Kuenen and Migliorini (1950)
casts on the sole of overlying arenaceous beds), in terms of a certain type of density current, viz.
occur in the entire arenaceous succession, al- the “turbidity current” (“troebelingsstroom”).
though more frequently in its lower parts." The relevant deposits are considered according
These numerous and well preserved bird-tracks to the turbidity current hypothesis, as “resedi-
require a rapid deposition of the capping layers. mented rock” or, usually, as “turbidites. ” Kuenen
28

(1957) summarizes the now widely accepted However, if the original material was “first de-
hypothesis: posited near the coast, e.g., on a delta” ( Kuenen,
Briefly, the hypothesis of resedimentation as- 1957, p. 232), accumulating there gradually,
sumes that the detrital sediment is first de- then a succession of turbidity currents, rapidly
posited near the coast, e.g., on a delta. At generated after each other, cannot be accounted
intervals a mass of this material starts to slide for. A succession of turbidity currents can be ac-
down the slope and changes to a turbulent cur- counted for if the sediments of entire coastal
rent, propelled by its excess weight over that regions and marine slopes were loosely packed
of the clear surrounding water. On reaching and easily to disturb; and if agents, generating
a decrease in slope, the current is retarded, the turbidity currents, were abundant and in-
becomes overloaded, and starts to loose sedi- tensive.
ment (p. 232).
Typically, these conditions are existing within
So the pre-existing structures on the superface the framework of deluge geology. As regards
were preserved and casts of these formed upon the period when the deluge waters fell, Whit-
the bases of the capping layers. Concerning the comb and Morris (1961) write:
preservation of these structures it is stated by The newly-deposited sediments were still rela-
Kuenen (1957): “The fact that such delicate tively soft and unconsolidated, and the imposi-
markings as grazing tracks and trails, if that tion of new gradients and currents over them
is what they are, have been imprinted on the when the lands began to rise would have im-
graywackes of resedimented series apparently mediately induced scouring action on a large
demonstrates that some turbidity current caused scale. The mixture of water and mud thus
no erosion but started deposition at once and formed would, in flowing downslope, itself
thus conserved pre-existing bottom markings” cause tremendous submarine erosion and ulti-
(p. 233). This deposition came about “very sud- mate redeposition (p. 269).
denly and swiftly” (Kuenen, 1957, p. 232).
More often than not the material involved During this period, eustatic movements, earth-
quake; and volcanic activity, competent to gen-
must have been really immense and the velocity erate turbidity currents, must have been very
of the currents may have come to some 100 km
numerous.
an hour ( compare Kuenen, 1958, p. 3). Besides,
the amazing rhythmic bedding of flysch deposits, Lack of space prevents continued enunication
which is without modern analogue, suggests that of the arguments for cataclysmal deposition—
the entire sequences were built up by a periodi- though a profusion of arguments might be
cal and—as it were—pulsating succession of brought to the front, e.g. (1) the thanato-
turbidity currents. If the turbidity current hy- coenoces or “fossil graveyards,” (2) the excellent
pothesis is right, then the turbidites were, strictly preservation of even soft parts of single or
speaking, deposited in a cataclysmal way. packed up organisms, or (3) the phenomenon
None the less, Kuenen ( 1953, p. 7; 1957, p. of stratification as an indication of some recur-
232 and compare with 1964, passim.) claims that rent tidal wave phenomena of abnormal char-
the lutites were formed slowly by pelagic sedi- acter (compare MacFarlane, 1923; Price, 1923,
mentation and, as a result, the intervals between 1926; Nilsson, 1953; Velikovsky, 1956; Whit-
the deposition of successive sandy beds tended comb and Morris, 1961; et al.). These lines
to be long. However, evidence is growing that of evidence are commonplace since Buckland
the lutite layers were rapidly formed. Dzulinsky (1836-1837) and Miller (1840).
and Walton (1965) write: “Although emphasis On the other hand, the facts classified here as
has been laid on the operation of turbidity cur- “polystrate fossils” and “ephemeral markings”
rents in the formation of sands, the hypothesis are barely referred to in the literature on catas-
may also be applied to fine-grained beds. There trophic geology–though the former phenomena
is little doubt that the lower parts of most shaly are most conclusive and the latter are much more
layers associated with flysch sandstones com- common in sedimentary complexes than any of
monly belong to the same sedimentary episode the other facts. Without question they constitute
as the underlying arenite” (p. 11). strong arguments in favor of cataclysmal de-
And further they remark: “Even in seemingly position, and, generally, support catastrophism
homogeneous shales, close examination fre- as a scientific principle to interpret the earth’s
quently reveals a number of graded units. True history. It would be gratifying if competent sci-
pelagic deposits are probably very insignificant entists were alive to collect and publish examples
in flysch sediments and this contention finds of the mentioned fossils and markings. In con-
some support in the evidence that thick shaly- clusion of this article I present some results of
flysch units have accumulated in short time in- field work in The Netherlands (Winterswijk)
tervals” (p. 11). and in Belgium (The Ardennes).
 29

Figure 5. Ripple marks in the Winterswijk Muschelkalk

(The Netherlands). (Specimen from the author’s
collection).
30

III: Some Results of Field-work age the wave length is 1.5 cm. and ranges from
1) Winterswijk 1 to about 2.5 cm. As a rule the crests are sharply
In the Netherlands the Mesozoic is covered defined and the specimens show no indication of
practically everywhere with complexes of Terti- levelling of the ripple ridges (Figure 5). The
ary and Quaternary sediments. Only in some Old Quarry abounds with ripple marks; they are
areas they crop out; e.g., in the Geldersche found at various horizons and I traced them ever
Achterhoek where int. al. Triassic limestones are an area of some 20-30,000 square meters. It
only covered with thin beds of Pleistocene till is a riddle to me how Faber ( 1959, p. 25) can say
or niveo-eolian cover-sands. The limestones con- that ripple marks are rarely seen in this exposure.
tain Myophoria species and consequently are In this same quarry many pits occur which
classified as Muschelkalk; generally, it is as- look like imprints made by rain-drops; they do
sumed that the deposits belong to the Lower not extend in the limestone underneath and con-
Muschelkalk. In the vicinity of Winterswijk on sequently are not crossed burrows. The average
the Vossenveld the limestone is being exploited diameter is 4.5 mm., whereas imprints of 2 and
by the N. V. Winterswijkse Steen- en Kalkgroeve. 7 mm. are also found. For the most part the im-
In that area the Muschelkalk has a formation prints are but few or not rimmed-though I re-
thickness of 40-50 meters and is excavated in two corded also rain prints with extremely well pre-
quarries; viz. the Old Quarry and about 1 kilo- served rims. Now and then the impressions are
meter eastward, the New Quarry. Both I have elliptical and margined but to one side; the
visited several times. elevated side indicates the direction in which
In the Old Quarry the limestone displays a the rain-drop came down (Figure 6). In places
layered structure; it is built up of thin beds or the prints abound and they are found at various
even of laminae. On the surfaces of most beds horizons. Frequently they are found on slabs
ripple marks occur. They are of various sizes with fossilized mud cracks; the cracks are re-
and types—though for the most part they consist stricted to thin beds or laminae being only some
of interference wave ripple marks. On an aver- few mm. thick. For instance, on a surface, en-
closed by superficial mud cracks and being about
10 cm.2, some 10 to 15 rain prints occurred.
In the New Quarry also thin beds and laminae
are extant; in addition thick layering is observ-
able. On the relevant surfaces ripple marks are
relatively infrequent—whereas rain prints are
very abundant and often occur on laminae criss-
crossed by mud cracks.
Frequently surface markings of puzzling char-
acter appear which were not described or deter-
mined until now; Faber (1959, p. 31) seems to
make reference to it when he writes that he came
across some patterns which he could not place.
In figure 7 a specimen is pictured. Kuenen sug-
gests, by personal communication, that the struc-
ture was produced during consolidation–though
he does not vouch for the truth of his guess. Per-
sonally, I incline to the opinion that the structure
was produced by streamlets of flowing water
which eroded minute channels—called rill marks.
I observed a recent ephemeral structure identical
to Figure 7 on the beach of the Dutch isle
Schiermonnikoog.
On beaches the back washing wave is fol-
lowed by a film of water which finally divides
into streamlets. Sometimes the streamlets flow
back in zigzag line and produce tiny channels
round about rhomboid patches which are not
eroded away; the extremities of some diamonds
may run out into tongues of sediment. The same
was observed by Twenhofel (1932) who states:
Figure 6. Rain print in the Winterswijk Muschelkalk
(The Netherlands). (Specimen from the author’s On beaches composed of fine sands, the retur-
collection). ning waters of waves may be succeeded by a
 31

net-work of anastomosing rills or small cur-

rents whose minute erosion produces a sculp-
turing of the beach surface resembling the sur-
face of a Lepidodendron tree, the uneroded
surface or polygons between the minute cur-
rents being diamond-shaped, with the long
axes of the diamonds normal to the water’s
edge (p. 671).
Now then, the mentioned features are displayed
by the pictured surface; viz. the uneroded dia-
monds and the tongues of sediment (e.g. middle
left) –though on a small scale as compared with
rill marks on sandy beaches. Little joints which
are of secondary character confuse the original
structure as does also the clearly visible trial.
Trails and tracks are not abundant though
they are found (compare with Figure 7); a
trackway is recorded of Chirotherium (sic!)
peabodyi (Faber, 1958, pp. 317-321; p. 448; van
Regteren Altena, 1958, pp. 447-448),
Evidently both the Old and the New Quarry
hold a profusion of ephemeral markings; viz.
ripple marks, rain prints, mud cracks, rill marks,
and, incidentally, trails and tracks. Without
question the delicate structures here determined
as rill marks are very transient. Consequently,
all recorded markings must have been rapidly
covered with sediment.
Within the framework of Huttonian geology,
it is assumed that the limestone sequences were
deposited by the settling of calcareous skeletons
of marine micro- and macro-organisms. On ac-
count of rain prints, mud cracks, etc. it is as-
sumed that the Winterswijk Muschelkalk origi-
nated in shallow water, e.g. a lagoon. Van Straa-
ten (1963, pp. 12-13) supposes that in the north
half of the Adriatic some 20 grams of lime per
square meter per annum, i.e. 0.00008 cm. per
annum, is deposited.
In regard to the Winterswijk limestone, the
rate of lime deposit could not have been much
more—for the distinct bedding and lamination Figure 7. Rill marks (?) in the Winterswijk Muschel-
and other phenomena are thought to prove that kalk (The Netherlands). (Specimen from the au-
conditions of life were unfavorable. It is be- thor’s collection).
yond dispute that in sedimentary environments
like this no ephemeral markings could have been rhythmic and—as it were—pulsation depositional
rapidly covered and preserved; in other words, patterns.
uniformitarianism cannot account for the Win- 2) The Ardennes
terswijk Muschelkalk.
The relief of eastern Belgium is dominated by
In order to account for the excellent preserved an orogen called the Ardennes; in the folding
conditions of countless ephemeral markings process only Paleozoic sequences were impli-
which occur through the entire deposit it is cated; they are intersected by the Meuse and
necessary to assume that lime beds were rapidly her tributaries-e.g. the Ambleve or the Bocq.
deposited after each other. This implies that In their valleys, often Devonian and Carboni-
the calcareous materials were not auto- but ferous sand- and limestones are exposed. The
allochthonous, and were transported from else- Famennien–a stage of the Upper Devonian–
where. Moreover, the regular bedding suggests consists for the most part of psammites. They
that the sediment transport was governed by are excavated on a large scale for the purpose
32

of paving and building; as a result the Famen- Aywaille sur Amb1eve (Figure 10). The surface
nien is largely exposed and most data are ob- shows two imprints being slightly rimmed on
tained from the relevant quarries. the right, toward which the water-drops must
have been directed. Otherwise, the imprints may
On entering a psammite exposure the regular
–properly speaking–present spray- or splash
bedding is striking; beds of psammite succeed
prints. The imprints occur isolated, being about
each other with astounding regularity—more
1.5 cm. in width while one is clearly elliptic.
often than not thin beds of shale constitute the
In the splash zone of a beach I observed two
partings of the arenaceous units.
nearby splash prints of identical feature; both
Almost invariably on the bedding planes, rip- the fossil and the recent imprints were without
ple marks occur which are of various types. Both great depth.
symmetrical and asymmetrical ripple marks are In regard to trails there is no shortage; on the
found–though the former more frequently than contrary, they are typical of the Famennien.
the latter. Often it is possible to trace these In Figure 11, a trail is depicted which I found
marks over the entire surface of an exposed bed. in the quarry near Yvoir in the valley of the
When ripple marks are first exposed they appear Bocq. It occurred on a rippled surface, and
to be–for the most part–extremely well pre- lengthwise to a trough; the surface marking is
served. In this connection, I offer two examples: rimmed on both sides and the little ridges are
In Figure 8A, symmetrical wave ripple marks amazingly well preserved. Perhaps the trail was
are pictured which occurred in a quarry near produced by a worm though it is difficult to
Aywaille sur Ambleve; on an average the wave determine the true nature of the agent.
length is 4-6 cm.; the crests are still sharp. It is believed by van Straaten (1954) that the
In Figure 9A, asymmetrical current ripple Psammites du Condroz–the arenaceous facies of
marks are pictured—though the pattern was al- the Upper Famennien in the Ardennes—were
tered by wave action. This specimen occurred formed in “a tidal lagoon, bordered by tidal
in a quarry near Yvoir in the valley of the Bocq. flats and receiving a more or less periodical
The wave length is about 3.5 cm.; there is no supply of fluvial material” (p. 25); the supply
sign of levelling of the ripple ridges. In this con- must have been limited by a minimum of 0.03
text it is worthy of mention that these ripple mm. per annum and a maximum of 0.6 mm. per
marks occurred on sandy slabs. annum (compare with van Straaten, (1954) p.
45) .
Rain prints are not abundant in the psammites;
van Straaten (1954) even reports that “he did However, these uniformitarian suppositions
not find one single unambiguous example” (p. cannot be brought into agreement with the men-
36). However, they in fact are found, since I tioned phenomena. It is true that an alternation
came across an example in the quarry near of sandy and shaly laminae may be brought

Figure 8A. Ripple marks in the Aywaille psammite (Bel- Figure 8B. Ripple marks on the beach of Schiermon-
gium). (Photo by Rupke). nikoog (The Netherlands). (Photo by Rupke).
 33

Figure 9A. Ripple marks in the Yvoir psammite (Bel- Figure 9B, Ripple marks on the beach of Schiermon-
gium). (Photo by Rupke). nikoog (The Netherlands). (Photo by Rupke).

about in recent deposits; viz. as tidal- or storm- they were laid bare; nevertheless, the ripples be-
surge lamination on tidal-flats or marshes (Rich- came already blurred on account of sun- and
ter, 1926, p. 306; 1929, pp. 25-26). However, wind action (Figure 8B on the right and Figure
such laminae are only some few mm. or, at most, 9 B o n t h e l e f t ) , For that in the mentioned
some cm. thick. But the sandstone- and lime- Ardennes exposures, many specimens are extant
stone beds, parted by shaly units, as observed of amazingly well preserved ripple marks occur-
in exposures of the Famennien and—just as well ring on sandy bedding planes covered by shale-
—of various other sequences in the Ardennes, or sandstone beds. These conditions, bespeaking
more often than not measure several decimeters rapid deposition of successive beds, are abso-
in thickness and occasionally even much more. lutely unequaled in Holocene sediment. This
In fact, the distinct alternation of sandstone or statement is even more valid in regard to splash
limestone beds with shales suggests a tidal action marks and worm (?) trails—being extraordinary
and a consequent periodical deposition. But ephemeral, but nevertheless preserved in the
from the outset these tides must have acted Famennien. As a result uniformitarianism is
much more intensively and extensively than the deficient in accounting for the sedimentary phe-
known tides of today in order to bring about nomena of the Famennien, and of analogous se-
beds of the mentioned thickness. Perhaps a quences in the Ardennes.
periodical succession of tidal waves of great
Undoubtedly the actuality of cataclysmal de-
sedimentary competency came into play here.
position is apparent from a profusion of sedi-
In Holocene deposits ripple marks are pre- mentary phenomena. Y e t t h e m e c h a n i s m o f
served, but it applies mainly—maybe exclusively rapid formation of sedimentary complexes is
—to ripple marks in mud. Ripple marks in sands somewhat difficult to conceive–though enlight-
are extremely transient. In Figures 8B and 9B, ening elucidations are already given (Price,
ripple marks are depicted as observed on the 1923, pp. 679-692 to be compared with Twisden,
sandy beach of Schiermonnikoog. Figure 8B 1877, pp. 35-48; Nilsson, 1953, passim).
represents symmetrical wave ripple marks which
Perhaps–as to limestone–ooze from antedi-
are somewhat modified by erosion. Figure 9B
luvian deep-seas was stirred up and transported
shows asymmetrical current ripple marks—down-
by tidal waves, generated during the Noachian
stream slope on the left, so current from the
deluge. Then due to current-sorting, the finer
right—and crosswise symmetrical wave ripple
materials (e.g. lime- and clay particles) were
marks which likewise are modified by erosion.
deposited in one locality, and the coarser (sands
These patterns were photographed shortly after etc.) in another—though frequently not per-
34

Figure 10. Splash (?) prints in the Aywaille psammite

(Belgium). (Specimen from the author’s collection).

Figure 11. Worm (?) trail in the Yvoir psammite (Bel-

gium). (Specimen from the author’s collection).
 35
17
fectly sorted, Indeed, the Winterswijk Muschel- Karl Alfred von Zittel, “Geschichte der Geologie und
kalk is composed of limestone, and also of marl, Paleontologie,” p. 41; Geschichte der Wissenschaften
in Deutschland, Neuere Zeit, Band 23, 1899.
shaly marl, marly shale, and even of some cal- 18

careous sandstones. John Woodward, Ubi sup., p. 19.

19
In almost every publication dealing with Woodward,
However, and most importantly, the reader he is put on a level with Thomas Burnet (Compare
should bear in mind that the conceivability of Telluris Theoria Sacra: orbis nostri originem and muta-
cataclysmal sedimentation cannot constitute a tions generales, quas aut jam subiit, aut olim subiturus
criterion as to the actuality of it. It is unsound est, complectens 1681) and with William Whiston
(Compare A New Theory of the Earth, From its Origi-
to argue: “Non est, nam non potest,” as is fre- nal, to the Consumation of all Things. Wherein The
quently done by Huttonian geologists. In this Creation of the World in Six Days, The Universal
connection, the words of John Ray, cited at the Deluge, And the General Conflagration, As laid down
beginning of the present article, are worth laying in the Holy Scriptures, Are shewn to be perfectly
Agreeable to Reason and Philosophy (1696).
to heart, and accordingly I claim with all author- This trio is taken as representative as regards early
ity of empiricism: “Potest, nam est.” deluge, geology; however, wholly unjustly. Burnet and
December 1965. Whiston did not leave intact the biblical framework of
early history and undermined at will the inspired
Verl. Stationsweg 48, authority of scriptural passages or even of whole books;
Zuidlaren, Nederland. consequently, they were no more deluge geologists
than theistic evolutionists are real creationists.
Notes and References A recent evaluation of Woodward’s work is given by
V. A. EyleS , “John Woodward, F.R.S. (1665-1728),”
1
Francis Bacon, Novum Organum Scientiarum, Lib. I, Nature, Vol. 206, No. 4987, May 29, 1965, pp. 868-870.
Cap. LXXXII, Lib. II, Cap. X et passim. 20
PhH. Kuenen, “Experiments in Geology,” The Trans-
2
Nicolaus Steno, De Solido intra Solidum naturaliter actions of the Geological Societt of Glasgow, V o l .
Contento, pp. 26-32; Facsimile-Edition, ed. W. Junk, XXIII. 1858, p. 1.
no. 5, 1904. An English translaltion entitled The Pro- 21
See Histoire de l'Academie Royale des Sciences, Annee
dromus of Nicolaus Steno’s Dissertation concerning a 1710. Avec les Memoires de Mathematique et de Phy-
Solid Body enclosed by Process of Nature within a sique, pour la meme Annee, pp. 19-21, 1712. Compare
Solid with an introduction and explanatory notes by Journal des Scavans, Octobre 1713, p. 459, 1713.
John G. Winter appeared in 1916, University of Michi- 22
gan Studies, Humanistic Series, Vol. XI, Part II. Benoit de Maillet, Telliamed, Tome II, pp. 19-20:
3
John G. Winter, Ubi sup., p. 230. Compare p. 58; Nouvelle edition 1755.
23
4
Ibid., p. 227. See “Preuves de la Theorie de la Terre,” Art. VII,
5
Oeuvres Completes de Buffon et de ses Continuateurs,
Ibid., p. 258. Tome I, pp. 150-162; 1828.
6
Compare, pp. 67-76; original edition. 24
Ibid., Art. I, pp. 110-123.
7
Sir Andrew Geikie, The Founders of Geology, 1 8 9 7 ; 25

Dover Republication 1962, p. 60. Buffon, “Des Epoques de la Nature,” passim.

26
8
G. W. von Leibnitz wrote concerning Steno: “saepe Loc. cit., Art. V; Ubi sup., p. 135. Compare Gen. 8:11;
ipsum nobis narrantem audire memini, ac gratulantem this biblical passage constitutes a classical argument
sibi, quod sacrae historiae and generalis diluuii fidem against biblical catastrophism; it was dealt with by
naturalibus arguments, non sine pietatis fructu, as- Samuel Bochart, Hierozoicon, Lib. I, Chap. 6; Bocharti
trueret”; Protogea, Par. 6; Summi Polyhistoris Godefridi Opera, Tom. III, pp. 27-30; 1712; by Mattheus Polus
Gvilielmi Leibnitii Protogea, pp. 12-13; 1749. and Simon Patrick, Verklaring van Mozes eerste Boek,
9
genoemd Genesis, uit de Engelsche Verklaringen van
John Ray, De Wereld cvn haar Begin tot haar Einde. de heeren Patrik, Polus Wels, en andere voorname En-
In drie Natuurkundige Godgeleerde Redeneringen, II: gelsche Godgeleerden, H.1., pp. 98-99; 1741–being the
Den algemeenen Zuudvloed, desselfs Oorzaken en Dutch translation of their exegetical studies; by Theo-
Uitwerkingen, pp. 62-98; 1765 (being the Dutch trans- dorus Christophorus Lilienthal, Die gute Sache der in
lation of his “Discourses”). der hl. Schrift Alten und Neuen testaments enthaltenen
10
Because I only had the disposal of a Dutch edition of gottlichen Offenbarungen, Chap. XV, Par. 8; 1760-
Ray’s work I cite from Charles E. Raven, John Ray, 1780; and a recent discussion of the question is given
Naturalist, His life and Works, 1950, p. 438. by John C. Whitcomb and Henry M. Morris, T h e
11
John Ray, Ubi sup., p. 148. Genesis Flood, pp. 104-106.
27
12
Charles E. Raven, Ubi sup., p. 431. George Cuvier, Histoire des Progres des Sciences
13 Naturelles, depuis 1789 jusqu'a ce jour, p. 184; pre-
Byron C. Nelson, The Deluge Story in Stone, 1931. p. sente 1808; 1826.
37. 28
14 Jean-Andre Deluc, Lettres Physiques et Morales, sur
John C. Whitcomb and Henry M. Morris, The Genesis l’Histoire de Terre et de l’Homme, Tome, 1779, p. 7.
Flood, 1961, p. 90. 29
15
Horace-Benedict de Saussure, Voyages dans les Alpes,
John Woodward, An Essay toward a History of the precedes d’un Essai sur l’Histoire naturelle des En-
Earth, p. 73-76; 1702. Extracts are given by Melvin virons de Geneve, Tome I, pp. 145-149; Tome II, pp.
E. Jahn and Daniel J. Woolf (See “The lying stones 376-386; 1803.
of Dr. Johann Bartholomew Adam Beringcr being his 30
Jean-Andre Deluc, Ubi sup., Tome V, Partie II, p. 836.
Lithographiae Wirceburgensis,” Notes, pp. 176-178; 31

1963.) Ibid., pp. 649-650.

32
16
John C. Whitcomb and Henry M. Morris, The Genesis Willem Bilderdijk, Geologie, p. 109; 1813-published
Flood, pp. 273-274. anonymously.
36
33
Jean-Andre Deluc, Ubi sup., pp. 490-505; compare Fairholme, G. (1837): New and Conclusive Physical
Willem Bilderdijk, Ubi sup., Chap. 6. Demonstrations, Both of the Fact and Period of the
34
Jean-Andre Deluc, Ubi sup., p. 498. Mozaic Deluge, and of its having been the only event
of the kind that has ever occurred upon the earth,
35
Ibid., p. 505. London, Ridgway.
36
George Cuvier, “Discours surles Revolutions de la Sur- Faber, F. J. (1959): “De Winterswijkse Muschelkalk,”
face du Globe,” pp. 6-8 et passim. Geol. Mijnbouw, 21: 25-31.
37
Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, V o l . Fauth, Ph. (1913) : Horbigers Glacial-Kosmogenie. Eine
I, Part II, 1788, pp. 293-294. Neue Entwickelungs-geschichte des Weltalls und
38 des Sonnensysterns, Kaiserslautern, Kayser.
Ibid., p. 221.
39
John Playfair, Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory Of Geikie, A. (1903): Text-book of Geology, London, Mac-
Millan, 4th edition.
the Earth, facsimile reprint, Dover Republications 1956,
p. 117. Grand’Eury, M. C. (1890): Geologie et paleontologie du
40
Sir Charles Lyell, Principles of Geology (or the modern bassin houiller du Gard (with atlas), Saint-Etienne,
Theo1ier.
changes of the earth and its inhabitants considered as
illustrative of geology), Vol. I, Bk, I, Ch. XIV, 1867. p. Inman, D. L. (1958): “Environmental significance of
325. oscillatory ripple marks,” Eclogae Geol. Helv., 5 1 :
41
The controversy between catastrophism and uniformi- 552.
tarianism is discussed as a whole by R. Hooykaas, Kemper, E. (1965): “Uber einige Spurenfossilien des
Natural Law and Divine Miracle, 1960, 2nd impr. Bentheimer Sandsteins”; Grondboor en Hamer, N o
1963; the view of many geologists of today in this case 3, juni 1965: 74-80.
is expressed by M. G. Rutten, The Geological Aspects Kindle, E. M. and Bucher, W. H. (1932): “Ripple mark
of the Origin of Life on Earth, 1962; Dutch edit., 2, and its interpretation”; in: Twenhofel, W. H.:
1965, pp. 23-39.
42
Treatise on Sedimentation: 632-668, 2nd cd., New
Willem Bilderijk, Ubi sup., p. 104. York, Dover, 1961.
43
George Fairholme, New and conclusive Demonstra- Kirchmayer, M. (1960): “Beobachtungen an rezenten
ions, 1837, pp. 392-404. (I should appreciate a reader’s Wellenfurchen (=Wasser-Rippeln),“ N. Jb. Geol.
informing me on the dates of George Fairholme.) Palaont., 10: 446-452.
44
Francis C. Haber, “Fossils and the Idea of a Process Klusemann, H. and Teichmuller, R. (1954): “Begrabene
of Time in Natural History” in Forerunners of Darwin: Walder im Ruhrkohlenbecken,” Natur u. Volk, 8 4:
1745-1859, ed. Bentley Glass, Owsei Temkin, William 373-382.
L. Straus, Jr., 1959, p. 244. Kuenen, Ph.H. (1953): “Graded bedding, with observa-
45
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Ueber Naturwissen- tions on Lower Paleozoic rocks of Britain,” V e r -
schaft, IV; Goethe’s sammtliche Werke in vierzig handel. Koninkl. Ned. Akad. Wetenschap., Afdel.
Banden, Dritter Band, 1840, p. 300. Natuurk., Sect. I, 20 (3): 1-47.
Kuenen, Ph.H. (1957): “Sole markings of graded gray-
wacke beds,” J. Geol., 65: 231-258.
Altena, C. O. van Regteren (1958): “Kritische opmer- Kuenen, Ph. H. (1958): “Experiments in geology”,
kingen over Chirotherium peabodyi Faber,” Geol. Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, 23: 1-28.
Mijnbouw, 20:447-448.
Kuenen, Ph.H. (1964): “The shell pavement below
Arber, E. A. Newell (1912): The Natural History of
Coal, Cambridge University Press. oceanic turbidites,” Marine Geol., 2: 236-246.
Kuenen, Ph.H. and Migliorini, C. I. (1950): “Turbidity
Aronow, S. (1957): “On the postglacial history of the
Devils Lake region, North Dakota,” J. Geol., 6 5 : currents as a cause of graded bedding,” J. Geol.,
410-427. 58: 91-127.
Bolsche, W. (1918): Im Steinkohlenwald, Stuttgart, MacFarlane, J. M. (1923): Fishes, the Source of
Franckh’sche Verlagshandlung, 16th impr. Petroleum, New York, MacMillan.

Brongniart, A. (1828): Prodrome d’une histoire des Miller, H. (1840): The Old Red Sandstone (or new
vegetaux fossiles, Paris, F. G. Levrault. walks in an old field), Edinburgh, Hamilton, 2nd
edit., 1858.
Bucher, W. H. (1919): “Ripples and related sedimen-
tary surface forms and their paleogeographic inter- Moore, R, C. (editor) (1962): Treatise on Invertebrate
pretation,” Am. J. Sci., 47: 149-210, 241-269. Paleontology, Part W, University of Kansas Press.
Buckland, W. (1836-1837): Geology and Mineralogy, Nagtegaal, P. J. C. ( 1965): “An approximation to the
Considered with Reference to Natural Theology genetic classification of non-organic sedimentary
(Bridgewater treaties), London, Pickering. structures,” Geol. Mijnbouw, 44: 347-352.
Darwin. G. H. (1883): “On the formation of ripple Nelson, B. C. (1931) : The Deluge Story in Stone,
mark in sand,” Proc. Roy. Soc, London, 36: 18-43. Minneapolis, Augsburg, 1962, 16th impr.
Dunbar, C. O. (1960): Geology, New York, Wiley, 2nd Nilsson, H. (1953): Synthetische Artbildung. Grund-
edition. linien einer exakten Biologic, Lund, Gleerups.
Dzulinsky, S. and Walton, E. K. (1965): Sedimentary Pettijohn, F. J. and Potter, P. E. (1964): Atlas and
Features of Flysch and Graywackes, A m s t e r d a m , Glossary of Primary Sedimentary Structures, Berlin,
Elsevier. Springer.
Faber, F. J. (1958): “Fossiele voetstappen in de Potonie, H. (1910): Die Entstehung der Steinkohle und
Muschelkalk van Winterswijk,” Geol. Mijnbouw, 20: der Kaustobiolithe uberhaupt, Berlin, Borntraeger,
317-321, 448. 5th edition.
 37

Price, G. McCready (1923): The New Geology, Moun- Straaten, L. M. J. U. van (1953): “Megaripples in the
tain View, Pacific Press. Dutch Wadden Sea and in the Basin of Arcachon
(France) ,“ Geol. Mijnbouw, 15: 1-11.
Price, G. McCready ( 1926): Evolutionary Geology and
the New Catastrophism,” Mountain View, Pacific Straaten, L. M. J. U. van (1954): “Sedimentology of
Press. recent tidal flat deposits and the Psammites du
Condroz ( Devonian)," Geol. Mijnbouw, 16: 25-47.
Raaf, J. F. M. de and Betts, C. and Sluijs, G. Korten-
bout van der ( 1965): “Lower Oligocene bird-tracks Straaten, L. M. J. U. van (1963): De shelf, Groningen, Wolters.
from Northern Spain,” Nature, 207: 146-148.
Richter, R. ( 1926): “Eine geologische Exkursion in das Tanner, W. F. (1963): “Origin and maintenance of
Wattenmeer,” Nature u. Museum, 56: 289-307. ripple marks,” Sedimentology, 2: 307-311.
Richter, R. (1929): “Grundung und Aufgaben der Tayler, W. E. (1857): Voices from the Rocks (or proofs
Forschungsstelle fur Meeresgeologie ‘Senckenberg’ in of the existence of man during the paleozoic or
Wilhelmshaven,” Natur u. Museum, 59: 1-30. most ancient period of the earth: a reply to the
late Hugh Miller’s Testimony of the Rocks, London).
Schafer, W. (1962): Aktuo-Palaontologie nach Studien
in der Nordsee, Frankfurt am Main, Waldermar Trusheim, F. (1929) "Rippeln im Schlick," Natur u.
Kramer. Museum, 59: 72-79.
Sehafer, W. (1965): “Aktuopalaontologische Beobach- Twenhofel, W. H. (1932): Treatise on Sedimentation,
tungen; 4: Spiralfahrten und ‘gefuhrte Maander,’ “ 2nd ed., New York, Dover, 1961.
Natur u. Museum, 95; 83-90. Twisden, J. F. (1877): “On possible displacements of
the earth’s axis of figure produced by elevations and
Schuchert, Ch. (1924): A Text-book of Geology, Part depressions of her surface,” Quart. J. Geol. Soc.
II, Historical Geology, New York, Wiley, 2nd edition. London, 34: 35-48.
Seilacher, A. (1954): “Die geologische Bedeutung fos- Velikovsky, I. (1956): Earth in Upheaval, London, Col
siler Lebensspuren,” Z. deutch, geol. Ges., 105 (II) : lancz and Sidgwick and Jackson.
214-227,
Vlerk, I. M. van der Kuenen, Ph.H. (1962): G e h e i m -
Shrock, R. R. (1948): Sequence in Layered Rocks, New schrift der aarde, Zeist, de Hann, Arnhem, van Log-
York, McGraw-Hill, hum Slaterus, 7th impr.
Straaten, L. M. J. U. van (1951): “Longitudinal ripple Whitcomb, J. C., Jr. and Morris, H. M. (1961): The
marks in mud and sand,” J. Sediment. Petrol., 21: Genesis Flood, Philadelphia, the Presbyterian and
47-54. Reformed Publishing Company.
38

MICROFLORA OF THE GRAND CANYON

CLIFFORD BURDICK , M.S.
Tuscon, Arizona

Introduction pack, the surface of which was protected from

About two years ago, I made a study of the exposure to the air during the trip. Exposed
micro-fossils of the Chinle formation (Mezozoic) weathered rock was carefully chipped away until
in the Petrified Forest area, Arizona. The re- fresh unfractured rock was available. Then
markable variety of spores found there has been samples were cut and placed in the bags, labeled
reported by Roadifer et al.1 and securely tied. The sealed bags were taken
to the laboratory for maceration, and the rock
Since the resistance of the outer or exine was crushed in the bags. The following is both
layer of pollen grains gives them a stability in a general description of sampling technique and
time (geologically speaking comparable to that my own modification of technique previously
of diatoms, foraminifera and other minute sili- used.
caceous animal bodies), the study of palynology
has become, rather rapidly, of great importance Maceration Technique
in determining the flora of the past. Whatever instruments are used for grinding
Recent reports of finding fossil Angiosperm the rock samples must be thoroughly clean.
pollen in the Cambrian (Leclercq2) led to the After use all equipment is carefully washed with
suggestion that a study of the micro-fossils of the detergent.
various Grand Canyon formations might prove The chemical technique will vary with the
of interest. Several trips into the canyon were type of sample. Coal or peat requires boiling
made, the last one on November 18, 1965, with with K-O-H or Schultz solution to dissolve the
Harold Slusher, geophysicist of Texas Western carbonaceous material, nitric acid and potas-
College, El Paso, Texas. sium chlorate. For modern pollen the acetolysis
The following is a report on the various types method is used where the pollen and plant frac-
of spores found in various formations. tions are preserved in glacial acetic acid until
time for treatment.
The micro-fossil slides are available in my
collection for reference, and will be deposited The chemical method has been the most com-
in whatever museum the Creation Research So- monly used technique for the maceration of
ciety declares as their official source location for spores and pollen. Sulfides are removed with
material published in their journal. concentrated nitric acid, and carbonates with
hydrochloric acid. Much of the rock is com-
Acknowledgments posed of silica, which can only be dissolved with
The author wishes to express his indebtedness hydroflouric acid. This acid is highly toxic when
to the University of Arizona for use of laboratory it comes in contact with the skin, or when the
facilities during part of this study. My original fumes are breathed. Therefore, it is necessary
training in palynology was under the direction to use this acid under the ventilated hood, and
of Dr. Gerhardt Kremp, who first interested me with the operator wearing goggles and rubber
in this phase of Paleobotany. The observations gloves.
and conclusions reported in this paper, however, While the exine of the spores is not easily
in no way reflect the thinking of the Paleo- destroyed with acids, there is always danger of
botany department of the University of Arizona, some damage. The writer has therefore been
or that of Dr. Kremp. I also wish to express my employing a more simplified method, as follows:
appreciation to Harold Slusher, who made my
last trip into the canyon possible, and to Dr. 1. Clean the specimens. The sample should
Walter E. Lammerts for his careful evaluation be well cleaned to remove all contamination,
of the manuscript, botanical descriptions and with brush under running water.
general pertinence of the data submitted. 2. Disaggregation. If a mortar and pestle are
used to break up the rock, they should first be
Material and Methods.
well scrubbed with brush and abrasive cleanser,
The maceration technique, though somewhat then dried with compressed air before use.
similar to that used by Roadifer et al, is one Break up the rock until it passes a 1 mm. screen;
which I have especially perfected. Contamina- if ground much finer the spores may split.
tion by modern spores would seriously confuse
results, so all samples were collected with great 3. Place about 1 gram of sample in a 100 ml.
care. New plastic bags were peeled off a new lusteroid centrifuge tube.
 39

4. Add enough Varsol or other cleansing sol- Geography and Geology of the Grand Canyon.
vent to cover the sample, making sure it is wet Though well known to most everyone in a
all through. general way, a brief description of the various
5. Add 5 to 10 drops of a non-ionic detergent formations in descending order will help to clar-
(such as Lux or Joy) and stir. ify results obtained. The formations are identi-
6. Fill tube with distilled water, shake thor- fied in the usual way, but without attaching to
oughly, then place in transducer tank of ultra- them the usual time significance assumed by
sonic generator for about ten minutes. Stir occa- most modern geologists. For the geologist and
sionally if standing open, or shake if tube is non-geologist alike the vast chasm of the Grand
stoppered. This greatly speeds up disaggrega- Canyon with its multicolored rocks is truly one
tion of particles. of the greatest spectacles in the world.
7. Remove tube from tank, stir or shake, and On the south rim of the canyon you stand
place in rotating drum for several hours to com- on a whitish marine limestone of the Permian
plete the disaggregation. period and Paleozoic era. It is called Kaibab
limestone and is an accumulation of lime and
8. Centrifuge for 2-3 minutes at 1,500 r.p.m. sandstone with fossils of corals, sea shells and
and decant. sponges.
9. Fill with 10% hydrochloric acid solution,
Immediately below the Kaibab and Toroweap
stir, then centrifuge and decant, Wash and cen-
trifuge 2-3 times to get rid of hydrochloric acid. (also Permian) come the Permian white cliff
The acid will keep solution from clouding. forming sandstone with cross bedded sandstone
formed by wind causing dune formations. Tracks
10. After decanting, fill with zinc bromide of lizard-like creatures are found in this forma-
heavy liquid of 2.2 specific gravity. Stir or shake tion called the Coconino sandstone.
manually or with machine for a few minutes.
Hermit shale is next below the Coconino sand-
11. Pour into double plastic tubes inserted stone and is considered by paleontologists as
into larger centrifuge tubes. Place in centrifuge still part of the Permian formation even though
and rotate at 1500 r.p.m. for 2-3 minutes. lithologically radically different from the sand-
13. The sediment goes to the bottom and the stone above. It is an accumulation of mud and
spores float. The plastic tubes are pinched off sandy sediments, evidently formed by the flow
just below the float and the top is decanted into of sediment-laden, slow moving waters from the
smaller tubes. The residue may be saved for northeast. Trails of worms, salamanders, and
rechecking later to see how good a separation impressions of ferns are preserved. About 35
took place. species of fern and cone bearing plants have
been found.
14. Since the spores have a specific gravity of
about 1.5, they will float in the heavy liquid. The Supai formation, also Permian, is next
The tubes are now filled with distilled water, below the Hermit shale and is the thickest seen
which reduces the specific gravity below 1.5; from Grand Canyon Village, measuring about
thus the spores will sink. 800 feet thick. It consists of altered layers of
hard sandstone and soft shale or hardened mud.
15. Stir or shake, centrifuge and decant. Fill Some twelve to fifteen notable alternations can
again with distilled water, centrifuge and repeat be seen when viewed from a distance, and many
washing until heavy liquid is gone. The residue more when examined at close range.
is now mixed with glycerine and centrifuged to
get rid of most of water, Since the Supai is a non-marine formation,
some combination of river and flood action must
16. The small amount of residue containing be postulated to explain this interbedding or
the spores is now drained off into small vials for cyclic sedimentation. A rapidly changing prove-
storage after labeling. nance or source area for the origin of this series
17. A small amount of glycerine jelly is placed of deposits is also necessary. No adequate tec-
on a glass slide and heated until it melts; to tonic agent has thus far been suggested. This
which is added a like amount of the spore resi- formation is notable for its flaming red color
due, After mixing, a cover glass is placed over which also colors the Redwall limestone below.
it and after drying, is sealed with some type Large tracks of some four-footed animal as well
of sealer such as fingernail polish. The slide is as tracks of smaller creatures have been found.
labeled and filed away, or placed under the The Redwall limestone next is a great cliff-
microscope for examination. forming rock, mostly red and about 550 feet
18. The best spores or pollen are photo- thick. It contains many kinds of marine fossil life
graphed if the microscope is equipped with a sea shells, corals, and sections of crinoids. This
photographic camera. formation is Mississippian in age, and thus dis-
40

tinct paleobotanically from the various formations The only life so far reported in the Pre-
above. The iron containing sediments of the Cambrian is fungi and algae, very simple plants
overlying Supai are fire-brick red, and the de- structurally speaking, without a vascular sys-
scending water has carried this color to the tem. The Colorado River has cut a deep gorge
Redwall below. When not overlaid by the Supai, of about 1000 feet into the pre-Cambrian Vishnu
the “Redwall” is not red, but whitish like the schist.
Kaibab. This is quite evident as one descends
the Kaibab trail, but to date I have not seen any Such, in brief, is the order of formations seen
report on the significance of this phenomenon. as one descends into the Grand Canyon and
Later I will discuss this in relation to the proper some of the structural problems in need of
interpretation of what we are really seeing here. explanation.

The Devonian period is not well represented Present Grand Canyon Vegetation.
at this part of the canyon. A small section of The Canadian zone does- not generally typify
lavender colored rock, immediately below the the vegetation even at the top. However in the
Redwall, containing fish scales is the extent of colder parts typical Canadian zone Douglas fir,
that period. The lower Devonian, Ordovician, Engelman spruce, Colorado blue spruce and
and Silurian are missing altogether. This rep- quaking aspen are found. Mostly the top of the
resents an hiatus of over 100,000,000 million years canyon which is 7000 feet high is typically tran-
according to usually accepted theory as pre- sition zone or the yellow pine belt. Here are
sented in the “standard” geological column. The found, where water is available, the juniper,
Mississippian Redwall limestone rests apparently some pinion pine, cedar, scrub oak, manzanita,
conformably on the Cambrian. This is called brittle brush, cottonwood, willow, long-stemmed
paraconformity, and presumably represents a grasses, and various asters. Desert types such as
long period of time when neither erosion nor the burro brush catclaw, mesquite, and narrow
deposition of sediments occurred in this area. leaf yucca are also found. Down lower we come
All physical evidence for this gap in deposition to the Sonoran zone characterized by the box
of strata is lacking. No angular discordance or elder, Wilcox live Oak and the redbud or Judas
erosion surface can be found. tree. The Morman tea is one of the few re-
maining members of the ancient joint-fir family
The Muav limestone lies next below the Mis- and is found in the lower Sonoran zone.
sissippian Redwall at most places in the canyon.
At a distance it actually appears as a continua- An abundance of wild flowers are in bloom
tion of it. However it is of Cambrian age, was on the Tonto plateau in late April and May.
deposited beneath a sea, and contains fossils of Pollen of these were not found as fossils.
sea life, typically Cambrian as regards species The Angiosperm Pollen Grain.
and genera. Since many of the non-botanical members of
The Bright Angel shale lies next below the our society are unfamiliar with the structure of
Muav limestone and also is classified as Cam- pollen grains and spores a brief description is
brian. Lithologically it is very different and a in order.
striking greenish grey color. It contrasts more The Angiosperm pollen grain is built up of
sharply with the Muav limestone than the Muav three concentric layers. The center is the living
contrasts with the Redwall limestone, even cell, which germinates on the stigma and forms
though both are Cambrian in distinction from the pollen tube that penetrates the style, and
the Mississippian Redwall. The Bright Angel brings the fertilizing nuclei down to the ovum.
shale ranges 450 to 650 feet in thickness and the The middle layer is the intine, the composition
fossils are all marine. of which is at present not well known, but it
The Tapeats sandstone lies below the shale is thought that part of it consists of cellulose.
and is 225 foot thick and brown in color. This These two parts of the pollen or spore are quite
easily destroyed.
is the bottom stratum of the Cambrian and like-
wise the Paleozoic era. It rests on an erosion The exine is formed of one of the most ex-
surface of Pre-Cambrian. The Tapeats forms traordinarily resistant materials known in the
a great, nearly flat platform known as the Tonto organic world. It is the exine which survives
platform. North and south, normal vertical faults ages of decay processes and is relatively un-
cut across the canyon, slicing the Pre-Cambrian changed after lengthy chemical treatment. This
so that in places the Tapeats rests on or con- remarkable durability is the basis of palynology.
tacts Shinumo quartzite, in other places the Its resistance to destructive forces is due to its
Tapeats lies over the Hakati shale, Bass lime- unusual chemical composition. The exine of
stone and even the older pre-Cambrian Vishnu pollen, as well as spores, contains a highly poly-
schist or intrusive granite. merized, cyclic alcohol termed sporopollenin by
 41

Wyssling. It is related to suberine and cutin small percentage of polen grains will ever ful-
but is more resistant than either. fill the purpose for which they grew, their pro-
duction is very prolific.
The exine is structurally complex, with at
least two layers. The inner layer, the endexine, Results of Examination of Slides from Macera-
is a continuous homogeneous membrane. The tion of Rocks from Various Formations.
outer layer, the ektexine, is composed of numer-
ous small elements whose development and dis- The following identifications are only tenta-
tribution produce great variability in structure. tive, but at least are indicative of the type of
If the outer elements of the exine do not form a spores found in various formations, and usually
continuous covering, the type is called intectate. are certain at least to the genus unless otherwise
On the other hand, if the covering is continuous, indicated.
the type is tectate. The Supai Formation (Permian)
Most pollen grains possess openings or thin The shaly members of this lowest of the Per-
areas of the exine through which the pollen mian series are relatively thin and are the ones
tube emerges at germination. Two general types sampled. One slide showed about 20 vesiculate
of apertures exist, known as the furrows a n d pollen grains of Conifers. This was not unex-
pores. Furrows are boat-shaped depressions in pected since the Permian is not very far from
the exine, while the pores are tiny holes in or below the Triassic, which, in the Chinle for-
the exine. One-furrowed grains are common in mation at the Petrified Forest, produced so many
monocotyledonous and gymnospermous plants. fossil conifer pollen grains. There were also
Three furrows or pores are typical of dicotyle- about half a dozen pollen grains of various An-
donous plants. giosperms, both polyplicate and disaccate.
If the pollen is divided into lobes longitudin-
ally, they are known as dicolpate or tricolpate, Technical Description
according to whether there are two or three Genus Podocarpitis Cookson
lobes. These occur mainly in the dicotyledons.
Diagnosis: Disaccate pollen grains with the
Spore Morphology equatorial outline of the central body oval to
polygonal; marginal crest usually visible; sacci
Since the pollen are specialized types of large, pendent distally; length of the sacci always
spores, the above description of pollen also greater than that of the central body.
covers spores in a general way. Spores are usu-
ally elongate instead of spherical in shape, with Podocarpitis species. (Plate I, Figure 2)
three contact faces and radial symmetry. The These grains because of their marginal crest
universal distinction between the two funda- and large sacci are provisionally compared to the
mental spore types is the tetrad scar. It is usually genus Podocarpitis. The ornamentation of the
well defined and easily discernible as monolete sacci is radial; body granulose. The pollen
or trilete. grains average 110 microns in breadth. Found
Regarding size, spores are divided into two in about the center of the Supai formation ver-
classes, the megaspores, or large female spores, tically speaking. These grains also have a re-
and the microspore, or small male spores. The semblance to Picea complantoformis.
latter are much more numerous, and include Plate I, Figure 1 shows a tiny bit of bark that
the pollens. The spores belong to the algae, somewhat resembles a lycopod, showing the
ferns, lycopods, the Psilophyta, the Arthrophyta, characteristic leaf cushions pattern on scar left
and non-seeding plants. Spores and pollen vary from the fallen leaf stems. These were found
in size from 5 microns to 200 microns or more. commonly in coal measures and are an arbores-
Pollen is usually produced in large quantities cent type of plant. The rock samples were taken
and the pollen dispersed to the ground is known 30 feet west of the Kaibab trail, about 5 miles
as pollen rain. The wind has been known to east of Grand Canyon Station on O’Neill Butte
have dispersed pine pollen as far as 60 miles flats. They are from a prominent 6 foot thick
from the nearest pine forest. Pine pollen is seam of shale between sandstone layers.
equipped with wings or bladders which help
them float afar, so that the presence of pine pol- Ephedra species. (Plate I, Figure 3)
len in soil or rock does not necessarily mean that These grains measure 35 x 52 microns and are
pine trees grew in that exact location. The prolate to sub-prolate, They have about thirteen
spores and algae and water plants are carried longitudinal ridges separated by well defined
by water largely. It has been estimated that a grooves. When the pollen grains germinate, the
single anther of Canabis sativa produces as many exine dehisces, splitting into two or more parts
as 70,000 grains. Since only a comparatively through the grooves. Wodehouse has observed
42

PLATE I
 43

this kind of dehiscence in the grains of Ephedra well as some vesiculate coniferous ones. The
intermedia. samples described were taken from a shaly seam
The same phenomena has been recorded by sandwiched between limestone strata in the back
Stapf (1879) for other species. His figures show of a prominent cave on the south side of the
a grain split that way with the protoplasm emerg- Kaibab trail, 100 feet from the Redwall-Supai
ing from the split end. The exact species cannot contact down the trail vertically. This was at a
be determined but comparison indicates close point where the trail passes from the west to
resemblance to Ephedra eccenipitis. This genus the east side of the rock exposure.
is a Gymnosperm and is commonly found in the
Eccene Green River formation, an oil bearing Technical Description
shale. This specimen is from the same rock Selagenella species (Plate II, Figure 1)
sample as described above. Here is illustrated what appears to be a tri-
colpate spore but a definite classification is
Gymnosperm as yet unidentified impossible. Bolkhovitina 4 describes a similar
(Plate I, Figure 4) spore or pollen grain of Jurassic age which he
This is a small pollen grain about 30 microns classifies as Selagenella reclusa. The usual hori-
in length and is evidently monoculpate or mono- zon for this spore is middle Mesozoic and mid-
sulcate. It is either a Gymnosperm or a mono- Tertiary, yet here we find it in the upper Paleo-
cotyledon spore which often have only one zoic. The spores average 120 microns.
furrow. Alisporitis opii (Plate II, Figure 2)
Genus Alisporites (Daugherty) This is a spore 110 microns in diameter shown
Potenie and Kremp. in proximal view. The spores of this species are
described above as one usually found in my
Diagnosis: Disaccate grains; proximal outline Supai formation slides. This spore is also illus-
including sacci more or less oval; longest axis trated in Plate I, Figure 5. The smaller size
of the oval central body about as long as bladder shown in the illustration is due to a lower mag-
bases; distally a distinct relatively narrow germi- nification.
nal groove with thin exine, bordered by the par-
allel straight bladder bases. The bladders are The Bright Angel Shale
only slightly pendant and crescent shaped. This yellow Cambrian formation lies below the
Muav limestone, also classified also as Cambrian,
Alisporites opii, Daugherty (Plate I, Figure 5) which in turn lies unconformably beneath the
These pollen grains are identified as being Redwall limestone. It is a shale formation sev-
identical to those reported by Daugherty from eral hundred feet thick, actually 450 to 650 feet
the type locality in the Petrified Forest so are thick at the location where collected. Samples
undoubtedly of this species. (Compare with were taken 9 feet south of the Kaibab trail from
Daugherty’s Figure 1, proximal view. ) Diameter a vertical exposure where the trail leads west-
110 microns. ward for a short distance about 200 feet below
the Bright Angel-Muav limestone contact line.
Unidentified spores (Plate I, Figure 6)
A definite identifiation of these spores is not Technical Description
possible. There are three fossil spores described Alisporitis opii Daugherty (Plate II, Figure 3)
which come close to maching it. Phlug 3 illus-
trates one he calls Shizoplanites bipolaris Phlug. The similarities and variations in this spore
It also resembles Bolhovitina's 4 Selagenella re- are illustrated by comparison with Plate I, Fig-
clusa. Another possibility is Azonaletes. All ure 5 and Plate II, Figure 2. The spore diameter
three genera are typical of the Cretaceous, or averages about 110 microns.
are Mezozoic in the literature so far available. Tricolpate dicotyledon (Plate II, Figure 4)
The spores average 110 microns in diameter. This somewhat triangular spore resembles Shi-
They are possibly dicotyledonous plants with zoplanitis bipolaris described by Phlug. If so
tricolpate pollen grains. it is a tricolpate dicotyledon. Identification—
The Redwall Formation even to the genus has not yet been made.
This Mississipppian formation lies under the Unidentified spore (Plate III, Figure 1)
Supai and measures about 550 feet in thickness This spore was 80 microns long. Picture taken
near the Grand Canyon Station. Samples were at l00x. The spores were reddish in color.
not taken of the limestone but from some of
the numerous shaly seams interbedded with the Unidentified spore (Plate III, Figure 2)
limestone in the Redwal. Reddish colored ob- This spore was 70 microns in diameter. The
late spores were found of unknown origin as picture is at l00x.
44

PLATE II
 45

Disaccate spore (Plate III, Figure 3) Podocarpidites marwickll Couper

This disaccate spore is 40 microns in diameter. (Plate IV, Figures 1, 2)
Picture taken at l00x. A reticulate structure is Discussion: Locality usually Mesozoic; in this
shown. case Grand Canyon, Arizona. Common to abun-
dant in many localities. This species is charac-
A disaccate Gymnosperm spore terized by having large air bladders well ex-
(Plate III, Figure 4) tended beyond the central body, which is heart-
A disaccate spore 100 microns in diameter is shaped. The line of bladders beyond the cen-
shown. The spore was yellow in color, and un- tral body is slightly cambered. The surface is
doubtedly is a Gymnosperm. ornamented, with reticulate granular surface.
Length of spore is 140 microns. Specific locality:
Vesciculate spore (Plate III, Figure 5) Hakati shale, Grand Canyon, at the government
This elongated reddish spore was vesciculate marker designating the Hakati formation. Fig-
in appearance. It was 120 microns long and the ure 2 is a little smaller, about 100 microns, and
picture is taken at 100x. the specific location is near the top of the Ha-
kati formation. About twelve vesiculate fossil
Though identifications have not been made on spores were photographed, but space does not
the above spores even to the family they are permit publishing all of the Hakati specimens
shown to give some idea of the variety of spores here. Color: reddish.
found in the Bright Angel shale.
Genus Parcisporites Leschik
The Hakati Shale Formation
Diagnosis: Monad, discaccate, nonaperaturate,
The Hakati is in a vertical fault block and reticulate ornamentation. The air bladders not
lies below the Cambrian Tapeats sandstone from well developed, most have two small wings. The
which no spores were obtained even though bodies are circular with rough, reticulated exine
many macerations were made. The Hakati is covering.
several hundred feet thick at its exposure on
the Kaibab trail and of brick red color. It is Parcisporites annectus Leschik
a prolific source of spores, Fungi were found (Plate IV, Figure 3)
as well as tricolpate pollen of Angiosperm plants. Discussion: This is the genotype of Parcispor-
Articulate stems were found and also lycopods.
The predominant type of pollen was vesiculate ites Leschik. Diameter 30 microns, body cir-
cular and spore circular except for the rudimen-
characteristic of conifers. Approximately 50% tary bladders protruding from each side, Rough,
of all spores found were coniferous. The vege- heavily reticulated surface of both body and
tation which contributed these windblown spores bladders. The Figure here shown is a double
was evidently similar to that from which the spore, the two still attached after being ejected
Permian Supai was derived. All specimens were from the spore mother cell, The coloration is
obtained from a single slab of rock taken ten deep red, quite different from the lack of colora-
feet from the Kaibab trail on the east side right
tion of many recent spores, Thickness of reticu-
at the government marker describing the Hakati lum 2 microns.
shale.
Genus Tricolpites Cookson, ex Couper
Technical Description
Diagnosis: Cookson described a new sporo-
Genus Podocarpidites Couper morph Tricolpites reticulates. Tricolpites is here
Diagnosis: This a monad, disaccate, non-apera- considered a form genus and is diagnosed as
follows: Free, isopolar, tricolpate. Exine vari-
turate spore with reticulate ornamentation and
able in thickness and sculpture, Size variable.
a sort of a granular exine covering on the central
body. The central body is oval to round. Cook- Tricolpites matauraensis Couper
son proposed the sporotype Podocarpidites for (Plate IV, Figure 4)
fossil pollen grains with two air bladders, of
the type met with in Podocarpus, or when it is Discussion: Monad, ornamentation, reticulate,
not known whether they have been derived from non-aperaturate, free, isopolar, tricolpate, colpae
Podocarpus, Dacrydium or some extinct member long, broad, no trace of ora, grain sub-prolate to
of the family Podocarpaceae. Studies by Cran- prolate. Exine 2 to 3 microns thick, exine 1
well and others have shown that the number of micron, sexine 1-2 microns, clavate, baculate,
air bladders is relatively unimportant in the sepa- forming a fine-pitted reticulate sculpture in sur-
ration of generic groups, but the nature of the face view; lumen of reticulum less than 1 mi-
thickenings of the air bladders is a good diag- cron across. 50 microns polar. Usual range,
nostic feature. lower Tertiary.
46

PLATE III
 47

Plate 4, Figure 5 is fossil spore that I will Furthermore, three of the four shales were
not try to describe with certainty. There appear practically the same color, brick red. The Bright
to be three fossil spores that have been described Angel shale is greenish grey to yellow buff. Not
that come close to matching this fossil spore all the shale formations yielded spores, since the
found in the Hakati near the bottom of the for- Hermit shale immediately above the red Supai
mation. Pflug describes a fossil spore that close- formation has so far produced nothing from the
ly resembles Figure 5 which he calls Schizoplan- many macerations made from it.
ites bipolaris Pflug, 1953. (Cretaceus age)
The Russian Bolkhovitina describes a similar The Bass limestone lies just below the Hakati
fossil spore that closely resembles Figure 5, as shale and according to evolutionary theory con-
Selagenella reclusa, Bolkhovitina, 1956. This too tains the oldest life in the Grand Canyon. Many
is Mesozoic. Another possibility is that it may samples were run from this formation, but so
belong in the genus Azonaletes, also Mesozoic. far only one small spore was found. It appeared
to be from a modern grass, and bore no resem-
Schizoplanites is an Angiosperm (or flowering blance to the large reddish vesiculate conifer
plant) often found in the Cretaceus, and pollen grains.
though tentative, I am of the opinion that the
spore shown is from a plant closely related to It should also be stated that not all macera-
this species. In any event it is a typical Angio- tions even of the spore bearing formations yield
sperm type of spore. spores. Thus one of my associates ran about
sixty samples from the Supai before he was
Plate 4, Figure 6 illustrates a small tricolpate able to isolate a single spore. Obviously these
pollen grain that I also will not try to identify; wind blown spores are not evenly distributed
there are several possibilities. Potonie describes through the rocks and patience as well as a cer-
such a pollen as Pollenites. Under this genus he tain amount of “good luck” is necessary for this
describes a host of species but P. maculites bears sort of “grab bag” study as any palynologist will
a close resemblance to the one photographed. testify. For this reason negative results are dan-
He gives a Miocene age for this fossil. gerous as far as conclusions are concerned.
The Russian palynologist, Bolkhavitina, 1953, However continued lack of success with sand-
also describes a similar fossil tricolpate pollen stone and limestone would seem to indicate a
as Sambucus pseudocanadenis. His horizon for relationship between the type of deposition and
this fossil is Upper Cretaceus. the chances of spore entrapment. Therefore,
the suggestion is made that the cohesive quali-
Discussion ties of clay particles together with a relatively
In pre-Pleistocene times before the glacial quiet phase of fine particle sedimentation are
epochs, there is abundant fossil evidence that two essentials for spore entrapment and fossili-
not only pines but sub-tropical flowering plants zation.
(Angiosperms) ranged much further north than
what we now know as the arctic region. This It is important to note also that an entirely
study of the micro-fossils of the Grand Canyon different type of vegetation is indicated by the
formations is the first one indicating that Coni- fossil spores than that which is now growing in
fers and Angiosperms extended backward into or near the Grand Canyon. Thus Podocarpidites
what is usually called Cambrian and Pre-Cam- simply means a fossil plant resembling the genus
brian times. Though variations in percentages Podocarpus, a group of species in the yew fami-
of spore types occured, in general the same ly or Taxaceae. This genus is found in rather
type of characteristically wind blown pollen was moist areas, such as Japan, and indicates that
found in all the formations from the Permian prior to the deposition of the formations of the
on down through the Pre-Cambrian. The vesic- Grand Canyon, the climate was not so dry and
ulate, disaccate spores or pollen (a specialized arid as now.
type of spore really) outnumber all others about
None of the plants resembling the fossil spe-
two to one.
cies or rather genera with the exception of
Spores were not found in the sandstone and Ephedra now live near the Grand Canyon. Thus
limestone rock layers even though many macera- the pollen grains of the yellow pine, pinion pine,
tions were made. We cannot rule out the pos- spruce, and Douglas fir do not resemble those
sibility that with sufficient work spores from this found in the various formations. This also in-
lithological type of formation might be found. dicates that the climate in the past was warmer
However it does seem significant that of the and less arid than now. In other words these
many macerations made only those from the species survived because of their genetic vari-
same lithological type of rock formation, namely ability potential to adapt to the increasingly arid
shale, yielded spores. conditions.
48

PLATE IV
 49

For those who insist on a time significance to It is not the purpose of this paper to present
the various formations, discovery of both Gym- the many lines of evidence indicating rapid de-
nosperm and Angiosperm pollen grains in the position of these and other stratified rocks dur-
Cambrian and Pre-Cambrian does indeed pre- ing a world wide catastrophe of gigantic pro-
sent problems. A parallel situation in the animal portions. I do wish to point out that such facts
kingdom would be location of mammals in the as the white “Redwall” formation areas are easily
Pre-Cambrian. explained as the result of very rapid erosion of
I am inclined to consider retention of the idea the relatively soft sediments soon after their
of time significance more a matter of faith than deposition during the subsidence period in the
science. The unusual fact that all formations centuries following the world wide Flood. Soon
yielded essentially the same types of spores is here used in a relative sense as compared with
would seem to indicate that all the formations the usual concepts of hundreds of thousands or
were formed within a relatively short period millions of years.
of time. The presence of a flora liberating pollen fol-
It is really difficult to conceive of Podocarpus- lowed by entrapment in suitable fine clay par-
like plants existing for several hundred millions ticles must be clarified. Destruction by flooding,
of years close enough to the slowly submerging outpouring of lava and other volcanic activity
synclines to contribute pollen to the four different even miles away would liberate millions of wind
shales representing this time span from the Per- blown spores. Even though the plants them-
mian to the Pre-Cambrian! selves would no doubt for the most part be
destroyed, leaving only occasional areas where
The peculiar fact, that when not overlaid by fossil stem and other parts could be found, the
the Supai, the Redwall formation is not red is pollen and spores would be much more wide
important. Why did oxidation of the iron in the spread in their distribution.
Supai not occur until all of this Permian for-
mation was eroded away from the surface of Whenever currents from the areas in which
that portion of the Redwall which is white? these plants grew had subsided enough to drop
For, when overlaid by the Supai, the Redwall all the heavier sand particles, the remaining finer
is always red. During at least 198,000,000 years suspended clay particles would settle out and
of its existence, the iron was not oxidized, ac- entrap whatever spores might happen to be pres-
cording to the presently accepted practice of ent. The limestone was probably from a different
attaching a time significance to the various or marine source and so would normally not
formations. have any pollen. The ebbing and flowing of
various currents then built up the formations we
According to the usually accepted geological now see.
time scale, the Supai was deposited on top of
the Redwall some 200,000,000 million years ago. With patience and fortunate chance we can
Yet, according to usually accepted theory, the gradually unravel the chain of events at least
erosion of the canyon did not begin until the locally which took place. Little by little these
uplift of the Colorado plateau about ten million must then be fitted together to give an overall
years ago. Erosion and cutting of the canyon concept of exactly how the complex of events
then continued until all the Supai was removed making up the world wide catastrophe actually
from portions of the canyon leaving the un- occurred. The total effect here at the Grand
colored “Redwall” exposed. Canyon is indeed one of grandeur.
Let us assume that this was complete by about Summary
2,000,000 years ago. The problem then is, why 1) Evidence is presented indicating that pol-
should about 198,000,000 years of the existence len grains of Angiosperms and Gymnosperms
of the Supai pass by without oxidation of the are found in four shale formations of the Grand
iron, thus leaving the underlying “Redwall” Canyon, beginning with the Permian Supai on
whitish in appearance? For it is the red oxide down to the Pre-Cambrian Hakati shale.
of iron that makes the Supai so beautifully con-
trasting with the white Coconino sandstone 2) Sandstone formations did not yield any
above. If the iron had been oxidized earlier all spores even though many maceration were
of the Redwall formation would be red instead made.
of only that covered by the Supai. 3) Attention is called to the difficulty of ex-
As discussed in a previous article (Burdick5), plaining the white “Redwall” portions of this
the many repetitive lithological alternations pre- formation in terms of the usual concepts giving
sent further difficulties in the way of accepting time significance to the various formations.
the usual interpretation and explanation of how 4) Finding of spores of plants at least closely
these strata were formed. related to pines in the Pre-Cambrian makes it
50
4
extremely difficult to visualize any evolutionary Bolkovitina, N. A., “Atlas of Spores and pollen
development of these specialized plants. The from the Jurassic and Lower Cretaceus De-
undoubted occurance of pollen of flowering posits of Vilyni Depression.” Transactions Geo-
plants is even more difficult to explain in usually logical Institute Academy of Science. USSR #2.
accepted evolutionary concepts. 188, page 9. Text Figure 4. Tak. 25 plates,
Moscow. Type locality, Yakutsk, USSR. Yakutsk
Literature Cited District Horizon, Mid-Jurassic.
5
1
Interim Research Report #3. “Preliminary Burdick, Clifford, “Streamlining Stratigraphy,”
Investigation of the micro-environment of the Creation Research 1964 Annual, pages 42-47.
Chinle formation,” Petrified Forest National References
Park, Arizona. Jack Roadifer, Joseph Schreiber,
Jr., David Peabody, Gerhard Kremp, Terah L. Andrews, Henry N., 1961. Studies in Paleo-
Smiley. Geochronology Laboratories, Univer- botany. John Wiley and Sons Co., New York,
sity of Arizona. (pp. 30, 179, 314 and 315).
2 Bold, Harold C., 1957. Morphology of Plants.
Leclercq, S., “Evidences of Vascular Plants
in the Cambrian,” Evolution, Vol. 10, June, 1956, Harper and Bros.
pp. 109-113. Dunbar, Carl, and Rodgers, John, 1957. Prin-
3
Pflug, H. D., 1953. Cretaceus Angiosperms, ciples of Stratigraphy. John Wiley and Sons Co.,
Mid-Senonian, Type locality Aachen, Germany. New York. (p. 128).
page 89, plate 15, figures 40-41, Geological In- Florin, Rudolph, 1949. The Conifers of the
stitute of Aachen, Germany. Upper Carboniferous and Permian, p. 101, 102.
 51

HYDRAULICS, SEDIMENTATION, AND CATASTROPHISM

D R . HENRY M. MORRIS
Department of Hydraulic Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, BIacksburg, Va.
PART 1
Role of Water in Geologic Interpretation earth’s surface either now is, or has been, at
Of all physical factors involved in the study some time or times, completely submerged by
of geology, one of the most obvious and certain water, and that these waters have been pro-
facts is that water has been the primary geo- foundly effective in the very formation of the
physical agent in shaping the earth’s surface. rocks themselves, as well as the surface features
The planet Earth, uniquely among all bodies of the earth’s physiography.
in the universe in so far as any real knowledge This, of course, is not surprising to the student
goes, has been equipped with an abundant sup- of Scripture. According to Biblical revelation,
ply of water, and this fact is profoundly imp- there have been two periods in earth history
ortant in the understanding of earth history. when the surface of the earth was completely
This water supply is intricately associated with submerged by water. The first was immediately
almost all the physical processes and structures after the Creation of heaven and earth, when
of the earth. Approximately 71% of the earth’s the earth is said to have been covered with water
surface is, in fact, covered with water. Prac- (Genesis 1:2, 3). Second, the earth was again
tically all plant and animal life is composed fully inundated at the time of the Great Flood,
mainly of water; the human body, for example, in the days of Noah (Genesis 6-9). In both
is more than two-thirds water! Most chemical cases, it is certain that much geological work
processes of importance involve water, as do must have been accomplish on the earth’s crust
biologic processes. No wonder the Apostle Peter by the waters, as affirmed in II Peter 3:5, 6.
said: But modem geologists have been unwilling
. . . heavens came into existence long ago to accept such an apparently simple explanation
by word of God, and an earth also which was for the earth’s sedimentary rocks, especially since
formed out of water and by means of water. it involves a worldwide catastrophe with super-
(II Peter 3:5b, Amplified Bible). naturalist overtones. Instead, it has, for more
than a hundred years, been assumed more “sci-
It is obvious that even the 29% of the earth’s entific” to explain the great masses of sedimen-
surface which is dry land has in the past been tary rocks, sometimes several miles in thickness,
covered with water and that most of the rocks in terms of the ordinary processes of sedimenta-
on the surface were originally laid down by mov- tion which are in operation in the present world.
ing water. Rock formations are usually classified
as igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary, with Biblical and other ancient literature of the
the latter formed primarily by deposition of Middle East is dominated by a tradition of
sediments out of water after transportation from universal deluge. Characteristic of this view
some source area. It is significant that most sur- is an extremely short time scale for the dura-
face rocks are sedimentary rocks. tion of our planet-measured in thousands
rather than in billions of years. One flood dur-
By volume, sedimentary rocks are about one- ing this period sufficed to explain all evidences
tenth as abundant as igneous rocks in the of former seas on land.
earth’s crust; but when it comes to the rocks
exposed at the earth’s surface, sedimentary Little by little, the excrescences of the Middle
rocks, or sediments, as they are sometimes Ages were shaken off by the developing sci-
called, cover nearly three-fourths of the land ence of geology. . . By the end of the nine-
surface. 1 teenth century, only religious fundamentalists
. . . refused to accept the overwhelming evi-
Furthermore, many of the igneous rocks at dence that not once but many times the seas
the earth’s surface are underlain by sedimen- have crossed where land lies now.2
taries, upon which they flowed after eruption
through volcanic vents or fissures. Similarly, Uniformitarian versus Catastrophic
many of the metamorphic rocks at the surface Sedimentation
represent rocks which once were sedimentary
rocks (e.g., marble, transformed from limestone There thus seem to be two possible types of
by processes of metamorphism). explanations for the fact that essentially all of
the earth’s surface has been, at some time or
Thus it is evident that probably all of the times in the past, beneath the sea. One is that
52

of catastrophism, the other that of uniformi- these must always be of very limited and doubt-
tarianism. In the one, a tremendous cataclysm ful value, and comparison with modern sedi-
of water, pouring down from the skies and up mentary phenomena is likewise a very difficult
from the subterranean deeps, produced a year- and subjective procedure. Our purpose here,
long debacle of erosion and deposition of sedi- therefore, is simply to show that aqueous catas-
ments that could have accounted for at least trophism provides a very reasonable explanation
most of the sedimentary deposits in the earth’s for the sedimentary rocks, and that uniformit-
crust. In the other, the very slow processes of arianism, on the other hand, is beset with ex-
weathering, denudation, river flow, delta deposi- ceedingly serious difficulties. The conclusions
tion, land subsidence and emergence, and similar one may draw from this fact will depend largely
geomorphologic processes, acting over many upon his own philosophic preferences, or per-
hundreds of millions of years, have combined to haps prejudices.
produce these formations.
Difficulties in Uniformist Theories
In both cases, the amount of geologic work We shall consider first some of the difficulties
accomplished is the same, but the power re- encountered by uniformitarian explanations of
quired–the time-rate of work accomplished– the ancient sediments. It is incumbent upon
is vastly different. It is a question of whether the uniformitarian, of course, to explain the
great forces and energies were at work during formation of these sedimentary rocks in terms
a short period of time, or small energies operat- of the same processes of sedimentation (includ-
ing over great expanses of time. ing the erosion, transportation, deposition, and
In either case, the bulk of the work was ac- lithification of sedimentary materials) that are
complished prior to the writing of the secular now taking place in nature.
records of human history (excepting, of course, One of the major difficulties encountered in
the Biblical record in the early chapters of accomplishing this is the fact that we do not
Genesis ). The events which formed the sedi- even understand much about how these proc-
mentary strata are non-reproducible events and, esses operate right now! Processes of sedimenta-
since the very essence of the scientific method tion are highly complex phenomena and do not
is experimental reproducibility, it is impossible yield very readily to any kind of rational, quanti-
to prove, scientifically, whether catastrophism tative formulation. One leading hydrologist
or uniformitarianism provides the true explana- says:
tion (unless, of course, we are willing to accept It is difficult to imagine a recognized field of
as trustworthy the apparently eye-witness ac- science which is broader and more complex
counts of the catastrophic events described in than sedimentation . . . In the process between
Genesis 7 and 8; this would be a valid scientific erosion and deposition, soil particles are acted
approach, but one which is nevertheless arbitrar- upon by many forces which are difficult to
ily rejected by most historical geologists). measure and evaluate. Sediment rates are
The best that can be done is to examine the highly variable because the many inter-related3
ancient sediments and compare them with factors themselves vary in time and space.
modern processes of sedimentation, to see Because of the great practical importance of
whether the latter are producing deposits which sedimentation in reservoirs, canals, rivers, and
are comparable in character to those of the the like, a great deal of research has been de-
geologic column, and also, on the basis of what voted during the past few decades to an attempt
we know about hydraulics, to try to estimate to obtain a quantitative understanding of the
the possible type and extent of sedimentation process. But these have been only partly suc-
that could occur in a world flood, in order to cessful and in a very preliminary sort of way.4
evaluate the sedimentary rocks in terms of this
possibility. Now if we do not even understand the nature
of sedimentation as it occurs at present, how
The decision between the two alternatives will can we be justified in confidently extrapolating to
very likely be, to some extent, subjective. A the tremendously vast sedimentary deposits of
deposit which seems to one student to give over- the past on the basis of an arbitrary application
whelming evidence of rapid deposition will be of the principle of uniformity? Any use of pres-
explained by another as having been laid down ent rates of erosion or deposition, for example,
very slowly and gradually. It may well be im- as an index to the time required for the deposi-
possible to delineate, scientifically, which is ulti- tion of a certain formation is utterly meaningless,
mately right, for the simple reason that the de- if not indeed quite deceptive.
posits cannot be reproduced experimentally.
Even to attempt to identify ancient environ-
The use of laboratory models to study such ments of sedimentation (as deltaic, lagunal,
large-scale and long-duration phenomena as lacustrine, geosynclinal, etc.) on the basis of an
 53

imagined similarity with deposits of the present accepted among thinking biologists, so also
is, in very large measure, arbitrary and unreal- the geosynclinal origin of the major mountain
istic. Most sedimentary rocks are believed to ranges is an established principle in geology.6
have been deposited in shallow marine waters. Now it does seem odd that a theory of such
The attempt to discover the characteristics of fundamental significance to all branches of
such deposition as it exists at present is quite geologic science as this one seems to be has not
difficult and has barely scratched the surface yet been explained in terms of the even more
so far. Dr. Bruce Nelson, formerly at V. P. I., fundamental geological concept of uniformity!
and now Geology Department Head at South The origin, nature, causes of subsidence and
Carolina, who for several years conducted field causes of uplift of the great geosynclinal troughs
studies on sedimentation processes in Chesa- are even yet unsettled, although many theories
peake Bay, says: have been put forward at one time or another.
A review of the various aspects of our recent Kennedy has discussed the problem as follows:
sediment program as it has been conducted The problem of the mechanics of the forma-
during the last year will show that we have tion of deep troughs of low density sediments
come into contact directly with over a dozen is heightened when their full history is con-
separate scientific disciplines in an effort to sidered. Many are known in the geologic rec-
decipher our geological problems . . . Our ord. In most, sediments accumulate for per-
understanding of the geological processes lead- haps a hundred million years and reach a total
ing to the production of recent sediments and thickness of as much as 100,000 feet. These
their conversion into sedimentary rocks, there- thick, highly elongate lenses of sediments may
fore, will depend upon how thoroughly we, then be slowly folded and uplifted to form
as geologists, can understand and master these mountain ranges which may initially stand as
bordering sciences.5 much as 20,000 feet high. Surprisingly, the
A good example of the inadequacy of the geologic record shows that a large fraction of
uniformity concept in the interpretation of sedi- the mountain ranges of the world have been
mentary rocks is found in the geosynclinal formed from rocks of these thick, geosynclinal
theory. A geosyncline is conceived of as a tre- troughs. Extensive volcanic activity may ac-
mendous near-shore trough, into which sedi- company and continue beyond the time of the
ments are continually poured by the rivers carry- formation of the mountain ranges. The
ing them to the sea. However, the trough is mystery, then, of the downsinking of the sedi-
never very deep, so that the sediments are de- mentary troughs, in which low density sedi-
posited in fairly shallow water. ments apparently displace higher density
rocks, is heightened when we note that these
As the sediments accumulate, the trough narrow elongate zones in the earth’s crust,
gradually subsides, leaving the sediment surface downwarped the most, with the greatest ac-
elevation about the same all the time, Eventu- cumulation of rock debris, shed by the higher
ally great thicknesses of sediment are built up portions of the continents, become in turn the
in this way, many miles in depth! mountain ranges and the highest portions of
As geologic time goes on, the geosyncline is the continents.7
finally uplifted and folded to become a great The only modern crustal feature believed to
continental mountain range. Most of the earth’s be comparable to these ancient geosynclines is
mountain ranges, such as the Rockies and Ap- is the deep trough in the Gulf of Mexico, which
palachians, have been explained largely in this is believed to be subsiding at about the same
way. rate as the annual increment of sediment de-
The importance of the geosyncline theory to posited on it by the Mississippi River. Kennedy
notes an interesting problem in this connection:
stratigraphic studies is indicated by Clark and
Stearn: Each year (the Mississippi) brings to the Gulf
of Mexico approximately 750 million tons of
The geosynclinal theory is one of the great
dissolved and solid material . . . the rate of
unifying principles of geology. In many ways erosion for the entire United States approxi-
its role in geology is similar to that of the mates one foot in 10,000 years. At this rate, all
theory of evolution that serves to integrate the land masses of the world would be eroded
the many branches of the biological sciences. to sea level in something of the order of 10-25
The geosynclinal theory is of fundamental million years.8
importance to sedimentation, petrology, geo-
morphology, ore deposits, structural geology, This length of time is geologically minuscule,
geophysics, and practically all the minor of course, and seems hard to reconcile with the
branches of geological science. Just as the almost universally accepted evidence that the
doctrine of organic evolution is universally present continents and ocean basins are es-
54

sentially stable features of the earth’s crust. cerned, since it is in the sedimentary rocks that
There are supposed to have been many trans- fossils are found, purportedly providing a docu-
gressions and regressions of the sea throughout mentary record of the development of all the
geologic time, but the main continental masses various forms of living creatures which now in-
and ocean basins are believed to have remained habit the earth, And if uniformity is inadequate,
essentially as they are today for at least the past it ought to be at least permissible to consider
two billion years.9 catastrophism as a possible frame of interpreta-
tion for the sediments.
Kennedy and many others are convinced today
that the only possible way of accounting for This will be done in Part II ( which will appear
these anomalies is in terms of “phase changes” in a later Quarterly—Editors).
of the material in the rocks deep under the sur-
face, at high pressures and temperatures. The
level at which such changes occur is the so-called References
1
“Mohorovocic Discontinuity.” Without entering James H. Zumberge: Elements of Geology ( Second
into the details of the theory, the essence is that Edition, New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1963), p. 44.
the density of rocks under the mountains or un- 2
Malcolm C. McKenna: “The Undersea History of
der the ocean bottoms adjusts in response to America,” Science Digest, Vol. 57, April 1965, pp.
changes in load, as the mountains are eroded or 80-81.
as the troughs are filled. This is not primarily 3
W. C. Ackermann: “Needed Research in Sedimenta-
a change of density due to compaction, but due tion,” Trans. American Geophysical Union, Vol. 38,
to an actual change of state in the material. December 1957, p, 925.
4
For a summary of modern research and methods in
However, the physical evidence that such sedimentary processes, see Ch. 10, “Mechanics of
an explanation is valid is still lacking. In fact, Sedimentation,” and Ch. 11, “Stream Channel Me-
the Gulf of Mexico “geosyncline” (actually this chanics,” in Applied Hydraulics in Engineering, b y
is a misnomer, as there are many discrepancies Henry M. Morris ( New York, Ronald Press, 1963),
between the characteristics of this modern geo- pp. 321-401.
5
syncline and those of the ancient geosynclines Bruce W. Nelson: “Recent Sediment Studies in 1960,
which have been uplifted to form the present Mineral Industries ]ournal, Virginia Polytechnic In-
mountain ranges) seems to contradict the stitute, Vol. VII, December 1960, p. 4.
theory. 10 6
Thomas H. Clark and Colin W. Steam: The Geological
Evolution of North America, ( New York, Ronald Press,
Uniformitarian explanations, therefore, have 1960), p. 43.
been unable as yet to account for the most im- 7
George C. Kennedy: “The Origin of Continents, Moun-
portant of all the sedimentary rock deposits. tain Ranges, and Ocean Basins,” in Study of the Earth
There seems to be no really legitimate way to (J. F. White, Ed., Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962), p. 354.
extrapolate from the sedimentation processes 8
lbid, p. 355.
of the present to explain the sedimentary phe-
nomena of the distant past. This is true not 9
Ibid, p. 356.
only in the case of geosynclines, It is equally 10
J. I. Ewing, J. L. Worzel, and M. Ewing: “Sediments
difficult to show similarities between ancient and Oceanic Structural History of the Gulf of Mexico,”
deposits which are supposedly deltaic in origin Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 67, June 1962,
and modern deltas. The same applies in general p. 25-26.
to the identification of most other possible de- 11
E. Potter and F. J. Pettijohn: Paleocurrents and Basin
positional environments. In fact, many sedi- Analysis (Academic Press, 1963). A reviewer of this
mentologists have taken the position that study book in a recent issue of American Scientist summaries
of modern processes of sedimentation is of es- the author’s approach thus: “Potter and Pettijohn have
focused attention on ancient rocks and present force-
sentially no help whatever to their identification fully the point of view that most sedimentary structures
of sedimentary structures, preferring to use other are better understood by careful observation of ancient
methods! 11 rather than of modern sediments. In this spirit they
have emphasized the usefulness of structures for the
In this Part I, it has been pointed out that the determination of paleocurrents and have given rela-
geologic postulate of uniformity is inadequate tively little consideration to fundamental fluid me-
chanics by which the structures are produced. In writ-
to explain the sedimentary rocks. These deposits ing this book, then, they have had the approach of the
are of course the most significant geologic phe- historical geologist rather than that of the student of
nomena as far as the theory of evolution is con- any particular set of sedimentary processes.”
 55

A GRAVITY STUDY OF THE KILBOURNE HOLE AREA, NEW MEXICO

HAROLD S. SLUSHER , M.S.
Texas Western College, El Paso, Texas

Introduction trusion of high temperature was formed under

This investigation is one of a number of geo- the crater-like structure, Kilbourne Hole, vapor-
physical studies in progress of an area running izing the subterranean water there and raising
east from the Guadalupe Mountains of West it to a high pressure. The pressure supposedly
Texas to the Potrillo Mountains of Southern became so great that a vast explosion occured
New Mexico. It is hoped that these studies creating the Hole.
will reveal the structure of the mountain ranges The other hypothesis maintains that the hole
and also the intervening bolsons in this area is merely a weathered collapse hole into which
thus providing important clues to cause of moun- the basalt from the north has flowed.
tain building.
In the Kilbourne Hole area there has been no Geologic Setting
previous geophysical investigation, except by
geophysical exploration crews of oil companies, Physiography
and their work is generally not available for Kilbourne Hole is a crater-like structure gen-
study. Kilbourne Hole was chosen for study, erally elliptical in shape. The major axis is
since an interesting controversy has raged for about two miles, and the minor axis is about
years as to the cause of the structure. Many 1.25 miles. From the edge of the Hole to the
ideas have been put forth, but most of these are lowest point is a change of elevation of 280
reducible to two principal hypotheses. feet. A rim of slightly varying height rises 170
One hypothesis maintains that a basaltic in- feet above the surrounding desert terrain.

Figure 1 Geologic Map of Kilbourne Hole Area

56

Directly to the south is Hunts Hole, a similar Gravity Survey

feature except smaller, having a depth of 100 Gravity Field Methods
feet and major and minor axes of 1.25 miles and
0.75 miles, respectively. To the west of these Gravity stations were established in the vi-
features are the Potrillo Mountains rising to cinity of Kilbourne Hole and Hunts Hole. A La-
Coste-Romberg gravity meter was used. These
heights exceeding 5,000 feet. observations were made during the years of
All these features are located on an extensive 1962 and 1963 while some have been made
tableland, eastern boundary of which forms the very recently during February and March, 1966.
western edge of the Rio Grande Valley rising Latitude positions of the stations were deter-
mined to an accuracy of ½ foot in elevation
about 400 feet above the valley floor. The Frank- and 50 feet in latitude position.
lin Mountains are to the east of this edge of the
mesa and rise to a height of 6477 feet. Gravity reductions
Gravity values were reduced to the Bouguer
Rocks of the Area anomaly. A density of 2.2 gmcm–3 was found
Kilbourne Hole is filled with bolson andallu- to be most suitable for most of the area. Ter-
vium material intermixed with basalt flow mate- rain corrections were omitted since they are
rial. Along the sides of the Hole are huge blocks fairly uniform throughout the area, and those
of basalt. Basalt flows can be traced back from of a local character are insignificant for most
the edge of the Hole thus giving the appearance stations. The results are shown on the Bouguer
of basalt flows into the Hole. There are num- anomally map in Figure 2. The gravity values
are given in Table I.
erous and very extensive basalt flows surround-
ing Kilbourne Hole. Many volcano cones are
Gravity interpretation
located to the north, east, and west of Kilbourne
Hole. Study of the gravity values available would
indicate that Kilbourne Hole is a collapse struc-
In this area there are mesa like structures ture into which basalt lava has flowed. The grav-
about 100 feet in height built up of basaltic ity highs do not exist over the Holes thus in-
flow material. The West Potrillo Mountains are dicating that anomalous igneous plugs do not
mainly composed of basalt. Mount Riley on the exist under the Holes.
eastern edge of this range is composed of an- However, the stations are so arranged that it
desite, latite, and rhyolite flows and pyroclastics. is difficult to obtain a Bouguer contour gravity
The East Potrillo Mountains are made up of map. It may be that material has flowed out
sandstone, shale, and limestone layers and are from under the Hole thus causing a collapse.
classified as Cretaceus according to the type of This paper represents a preliminary study and
fossils they contain. certainly is not complete. Establishment of more
gravity stations to fill in the gaps for the area
The Franklins to the east are composed of is anticipated. A more complete picture and re-
limestone and sandstone with andesite and gran- port on this study is planned for the future.
ite intrusions. It is interesting to note that in
the Franklins, layers classified as Ordovician are Acknowledgments
resting conformably on layers classified as Cre-
My students provided much valuable assist-
taceus without the slightest physical evidence ance. J. VanVelkinburgh helped considerably
of thrust movement. The surface distribution with the data reduction of the gravity readings
of the rocks may be seen in Figure 1. (These to the Bouguer gravity values. J. B. Gillespie,
conformable layers are discussed in the paper Jr.; Isaac Segura; and James Johnson did much
immediately following: “Supposed Overthrust in field work in obtaining the data. J. Powell did
Franklin Mountains.”--Editors) the drawings.
 57

THE SMALL CIRCLES INDICATE THE LOCATION OF THE GRAVITY

STATIONS. TABLE 1 GIVES THE GRAVITY VALUE IN MILLIGALS
FOR EACH STATION RELATIVE TO STATION 28.

Figure 2 Bouguer Gravity Map

58

TABLE I

Gravity Value Gravity Value Gravity Value Gravity Value

Station in Milligals Station in Milligals Station in Milligals Station in Milligals
A 285.50 34 279.60 78 291.13 122 284.26
B 284.53 35 279.61 79 290.31 123 283.60
C 284.28 36 279.52 80 290.09 124 282.23
D 282.89 37 279.23 81 289.76 125 282.66
E 282.61 38 279.69 82 289.38 126 282.81
F 284.68 39 279.39 83 288.87 127 281.62
G 285.78 40 279.34 84 288.94 128 281.22
H 283.90 41 279.82 85 288.55 129 281.07
I 283.88 42 279.85 86 288.13 145
J 283.25 43 279.97 87 146
K 283.73 44 280.24 88 288.68 147
1 293.44 45 279.93 89 148 281.73
2 293.04 46 280.55 90 149 288.14
3 292.26 47 280.48 91 288.53 150 288.37
4 291.87 48 280.32 92 289.13 151 288.64
5 291.15 49 278.95 93 289.74 152 289.19
6 290.41 50 278.86 94 290.22 153 289.56
7 289.67 51 278.79 95 290.86 154 289.61
8 289.07 52 278.72 96 291.31 155 289.71
9 288.32 53 278.76 97 292.24 156 285.08
10 54 278.93 98 293.37 157
11 286.94 55 278.85 99 287.70 158
12 286.38 56 279.05 100 287.28 159 284.96
13 285.68 57 293.46 101 28745 160 284.30
14 284.97 58 292.93 102 287.46 161 284.30
15 284.67 59 292.56 103 287.31 162 28400
16 284.35 60 292.05 104 287.24 163 283.74
17 283.65 61 291.51 105 287.23 164 282.44
18 283.03 62 290.65 106 287.58 165 282.17
19 282.52 63 290.01 107 287.81 166 281.01
20 281.94 64 278.73 108 287.67 167 281.34
21 281.67 65 278.76 109 287.60 168
22 281.11 66 278.83 110 287.71 169
23 280.62 67 278.88 111 288.99 170 282.70
24 280.18 68 112 288.04 171 282.72
25 279.91 69 279.12 113 287.44 172 282.82
26 279.65 70 279.29 114 287.76 173 282.83
27 279.54 71 279.48 115 287.40 174 282.82
28 279.28 72 279.72 116 286.84 175 282.93
29 73 280.07 117 286.36 176
30 74 280.37 118 285.96 177
31 75 280.66 119 285.56
32 76 120 284.98
33 279.54 77 292.24 121 284.50
 59

SUPPOSED OVERTHRUST IN FRANKLIN MOUNTAINS, EL PASO, TEXAS

HAROLD S. SLUSHER, M.S.
Texas Western College, El Paso, Texas

This brief note is in regard to a supposed the boundary between outcrop of Cretaceus
overthrust in an area on the southwestern slope rock of very light grey color and the Ordovician
of the Franklin Mountains known as West Crazy of a dark grey color running to the top of the
Cat Canyon. West Crazy Cat Canyon has the
striking structural feature of massive Upper Or-
dovician limestone immediately overlying the
Upper Cretaceus on the west side of the canyon,
The west side of the canyon has an elevation
of 4368 feet, and the highest elevation on the
east side is approximately 4200 feet. Crazy Cat
Mountain is the high point joining the two sides
of the canyon at its north end.
Alluvial deposits are abundant in Crazy Cat
Canyon, and the presence of these deposits
makes collection of geological information diffi-
cult since they conceal many of the structural
features of the area. However, the Ordovician,
Silurian, Permian and Cretaceus are well ex-
posed in the Canyon.
Figure 2
The Ordovician is capped in the northwest
corner of the Canyon by a section of Fusselman canyon. The other Figures are photographs of
limestone of Silurian classification. On the east the west face of the canyon taken from the
side of the Canyon, across a creek bed running east side.
in a north-south direction, lower Cretaceus I asked the geologist who accompanied me on
beds are exposed which rest conformably on the initial trip to study the area if there was
Permian beds. actual physical evidence of the block of Ordo-
The outcrops on the west side of the canyon vician being thrust from the upper slopes of
are mainly Cretaceus overlain by Ordovician Mt. Franklin down onto the Cretaceus. He re-
as shown in Figure 1. plied that there was no actual physical evidence
discovered but that since fossils were completely
The west face of the canyon is considerably out of order an overthrust was assumed. A more
eroded but the outcrops are very distinct. Figure complete investigation is planned for the near
2 is a photograph taken looking northward along future.

MONTOYA LIMESTONE ORDOVICIAN

BUDHA LIMESTONE

GRAYSON DEL RIO

MAINSTREET SANDSTONE

Figure 1
60

Figure 3 Figure 4

NEW PUBLICATION

Why Scientists Accept Evolution by Robert T. Clark and James D. Bales.

Baker Book House, 1019 Wealthy Street, S. E., Grand Rapids, Michigan 49506
(Telephone 456-1489, Area Code 616). Hardcover, $2.50, paperback $1.50.
The aim of this book is not to delve into arguments pro and con for the
hypothesis of evolution. It is to deal with the real reason why it was accepted
in the nineteenth century and then passed on to the twentieth century.
This is a valuable book for the open-minded evolutionist to trace the devel-
opment of his hypothesis. It is valuable for the non-evolutionist to assure himself
that he need not castigate himself as being unscientific.
James D. Bales is Professor of Bible and Robert T. Clark is Vice President
in charge of Research at Harding College, Searcy, Arkansas.
 61

OVERTHRUST FAULTS OF GLACIER NATIONAL PARK

DR. WALTER E. LAMMERTS
Freedom, California
Glacier National Park, among other marvelous line of contact is almost level. This was gener-
features, is famous because of the Lewis over- ally true at the base of Chief Mountain.
thrust. In fact, the very essence of this unusually
lovely national park is dependent on the resis- The shale was soft and crumbly. There were
tance to erosion of the Pre-Cambrian limestones many intercalations of limestone and shale below
which comprise the mountains in contrast to the the main contact line and even several layers
softer Cretaceus shales below, out of which of limestone several feet thick! Thin, crumbly,
the valleys are carved. approximately 1/2-3/4 inch layers of shale were
in between these intercalations, The shale here
A preliminary report on my study of this area was much softer than that at the base of Mt.
is given in Morris and Whitcomb’s The Genesis Wynn.
Flood, pages 189-191.1 The photographs shown
there were taken in August of 1956. Just as at Mt. Wynn and at the contact line
near Glacier National Park Hotel, a very thin
In August of 1957, I visited Glacier National layer of shale was present at the main line of
Park again. I was fortunate in securing the contact, and it was often cemented to the lime-
services of Ray Siers of Chief Mountain Ranch stone above. The particles in this layer were
who drove a Dr. Hines and me right up the comparable in size to those of the lower layers
side of the ridge to within about 1½ miles of of shale, and so gave every appearance of water
the steeply rising cliff of Chief Mountain. Since deposition rather than being the result of grind-
only low brush covers the Cretaceus shale the ing action, such as would occur in the presumed
hike on up from there was easily made. overthrusting.
We easily found the contact line, shown from While I was taking pictures Ray Siers and
a distance in Figure 1, A closer view is shown Dr. Hines hiked on up to the top of Chief Moun-
in Figure 2. Here the contact line is just below tain. When they finally returned Ray Siers re-
the lighter limestone above as shown by the ported that 8-10 feet of granite was on top of
arrow. The limestone juts out in places because the mountain. He is not a geologist and may
of the rigorous pickax work of Dr. Hines and have been mistaken, but most keen outdoor
me. The dark appearance of the Cretaceus men of his type at least know granite when they
shale upon which pieces of limestone are lying see it, or its metamorphic equivalent.
should be noted. These larger pieces have fallen,
over the years, from the Pre-Cambrian cliffs I had asked him to check especially as to
above. whether any remnants of the shale, which ac-
cording to the theory of overthrusting should
Figure 3 is a closeup view of the contact line at one time have covered the limestone, could
where we had chipped away the shale in order be found. He reported that he could not find
to make a close examination of the physical even a shred of shale. And by the time he had
nature of contact between the limestone above been with us, pickaxing around at the base
and shale beneath. It should be noted that the of mountain, he certainly knew what shale was.

Figure 1. Base of Chief Mountain, Arrow indicates Figure 2. Close-up of contact line showing Allyn lime-
the contact line. stone (above) and Cretaceus shale (below).
62

toward the east. Since then or at least since the

deposition of the shale, all of it was presumably
eroded away from on top of the limestone but
only on the area overthrusted. And all this went
on without such ephemeral records as ripple
marks and raindrops being eroded away!
This is indeed hard to believe and I find it
more in harmony with objectivity to postulate
simply that the limestone was deposited on top
of the shale. As the final part of the deposition
occured the water was so shallow as to allow
the formation of wave and ripple marks. A short
time later as the surface was drying and before
hardening, raindrops were recorded, and finally
Figure 3. Limestone and Cretaceus Shale (below) at mud cracks formed.
the contact line.
The clear preservation of these indicates (1)
Yet an oil well core made on the slope leading that a relatively short time has occurred since
on up to Chief Mountain was drilled through their formation, i.e. a few thousand years, and
11,000 feet of shale before hitting any limestone. (2) that most of the time during precipitation
What has happened to the shale above the lime- they are covered with snow or ice.
stone supposedly thrust over the shale? Its One of the most profitable avenues of re-
total disappearance from the tiny area on top search open to the Creation Research Society is
of Chief Mountain might not pose too much of a detailed study of many so called “thrust faults,”
a problem for the usual orthodox geological of which there are thousands of examples, from
interpretation of this area. the viewpoint of Flood geology. Also a careful
However, the next day, all of us hiked over study of oil well cores reported in the American
to the Granite Park Chalet, arriving just in time Society of Petroleum Geologists would show how
for one of their marvelous dinners one can really really localized such so called “world-wide” for-
enjoy after about a ten mile hike! The next mations as the Cambrian. Silurian, Devonian.
morning we hiked up to Swift Current Peak Permian, Cretaceus and indeed all those used
Lookout; a stiff climb but well worth it, On as “time markers” really are. As we get better
the way we were of course hiking on top of organized let us hope that funds for studies
the limestone. I was tremendously impressed such as these may be obtained.
by the many wave and ripple marks, raindrop Literature Cited
marks, and mud cracks, phenomena similar to 1
Morris, Henry M., and Whitcomb, John C., Jr., The
those so splendidly reported by Rupke.2 Genesis Flood. Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing
Here is indeed a strange situation: vast areas Co., Philadelphia, 1961. Also available through Bible-
Science Association, c/o Walter Lang, secretary, Cald-
of limestone supposedly deposited over 500 well, Idaho.
million years ago, and then later thick sediments 2
Rupke, N. A., “Prolegonma to a Study of Cataclysmal
of shale. Finally long sections on the west frac- Sedimentation,” Creation Research Society 1966 Annual,
tured were uplifted, and thrust over the shale pp. 16-37.
 63

THE ICE AGE PHENOMENA AND A POSSIBLE EXPLANATION

D ONALD W ESLEY P ATTEN , M.A.
Pacific Meridian Publishing Company,
Seattle, Washington

The subject of the Ice Epoch (sometimes and refrigeration have been so effective that
known as the Ice Age or Ice Ages) is one which mammoth carcasses have been thawed to feed
has been difficult for catastrophists to locate in sled dogs, both in Alaska and Siberia (Figure 1).
time; most have placed it following the Genesis In fact, mammoth steaks have even been fea-
Flood. This would mean that it is located, more tured on restaurant menus in Fairbanks.
often than not, between 2,000 and 2,500 B.C.
or a little earlier. Every indication is that the mammoths died
(1) suddenly, (2) in intense cold, and (3) in great
Uniformitarians have dated the Ice Epoch numbers. Death came so quickly that the swal-
variously between 1,000,000 B.C. and 8,000 B. C., lowed vegetation is yet undigested in their stom-
with datings between 15,000 and 8,000 B.C. achs; other vegetation is yet unswallowed in
being most common in recent decades.1 Most their mouths. Choice grasses, bluebells, butter-
of them ignore the idea of a Flood, or relegate cups, tender sedges and wild beans have been
it to a local phenomenon. found, still identifiable and undeteriorated, in
their mouths and stomachs.2
There is a third alternative which has for
some reason never been considered. This con- What killed the mammoths with such sudden-
cept is that the Flood and onset of the Ice Age ness and such unearthly cold? An illustration,
may have been simultaneous events. It is the well known and substantially recorded, may ex-
purpose of this paper to first present the facts plain this strange phenomenon. We refer to
dealing with the occurrence of ice, and then to the case of ancient Pompeii, and the people
suggest an explanation which will take them into engulfed therein. One observer was Pliny the
account. The following then are the requirements Elder, a Roman naturalist, who himself lost his
which any adequate theory must meet, life in his investigations of the erupting Vesuvius.

Requirement 1 The Frozen Mammoths: An Pliny recounts that as the eruption began,
many Pompeiians at first did not take it seriously;
Illustration of Sudden Freezing this sort of thing had happened before, and had
Vast volumes of ice, as vast as 30,000,000 quickly settled down again. This particular time,
cubic miles, is one issue with which any theory however, the mountain continued to roar and
for glaciogenesis must deal. But such an issue rumble in increasing crescendoes; smoke kept
is quite different from the issue of suddenness. belching, cinders kept falling in increasing vol-
Was the ice deposited upon the Earth slowly umes, and hot, toxic, gaseous fumes continued
in terms of centuries and/or millenia? Or was to be expelled in increasing volumes.
it deposited upon the Earth suddenly in terms
of days and weeks? The people became apprehensive, and soon
began to panic. Long streams of refugees began
Mammoths were, along with mastodons. the to flee from the doomed city. As the cinders
largest members of the elephant family. They and sulphurous fumes turned day into night,
have become mummified in two manners, both and as the variable winds shifted, sudden squalls
of which suggest cataclysm and suddenness. In brought hot, toxic, sulphurous fumes down
Alaska and Siberia, mammoths have been mum- upon groups of fleeing refugees. Asphyxiation
mified, apparently by the millions, both in ice dropped the refugees in sudden death, seem-
and in sedimentary strata. These twin types of ingly within one breath. Their fossil remains
fossilization support the proposition that the have been preserved by a blanket of pumice;
Flood and the Ice Epoch were simultaneous the dying expressions yet remain on their faces,
global catastrophes (or rather, differing phases and the details in the fabric of their garments
of the same catastrophe.) remain vividly imprinted in the pumice templet.3
In some areas, it is as if mammoths were de- Excavations of Pompeii have revealed how
posited in watery graves, in which the alluvium swiftly the fleeing victims were (1) asphyxiated,
was freshly deposited, then compressed and re- and (2) promptly encased, in this case in pumice.
compressed. In other areas, mammoths were In the case of the mammoths, the span of time
encased suddenly in ice, ice which has remained between death and freezing can be estimated
unmelted since the event. Their entombment quite accurately through an examination of the
64

Wrangell, the Artic explorer, observed on Bear

(Medvizhi Ostrova) Island that the soil consisted
of only sand, ice, and such a quantity of mam-
moth bones that they seemed to be the chief
substance of the island. On the Siberian main-
land, he observed that the Siberian tundra was
dotted with more mammoth tusks than with
Arctic shrubbery.6
Pallas related that there was not a river bed
in all Russia or Siberia, from the Don to the
Bering Strait, which did not contain bones of
elephants and other animals, 7 It has been re-
corded that during two consecutive decades
(1880 to 1900) at least 20,000 elephant tusks were
taken from one single Siberian mine. Ivory trade
has a history as old as the recorded annals of
the area.8 Traditions of Siberian ivory are at
least as old as the historians of the Roman
LOCATION OF THE ICE FOSSILS Empire.
Figure 1 The long series of astounding finds of frozen
carcasses. This is determined by the extent of carcasses are too volumnious to relate here. 9
the water separation within cells, for water be- The findings of Howorth, Nelson, Rehwinkel,
gins to separate within a cell at death, and it Sanderson and Vail are notable. But the im-
ceases to separate at freezing. The small extent portant thing is that an adequate explanation
of separated water within the cells indicates that is needed, and furthermore, an adequate ex-
the mammoth carcasses were frozen rapidly, per- planation should be possible. The slow-snow
haps at temperatures below –150°F.4 theory intrinsic to uniformitarian notions is based
on the assumption that climatological (and me-
Temperatures of this severity exist in our solar teorological) observations must contain the ex-
system, but not at the surface of the Earth under planation. 10
its present rotation and orbital scheme. This
kind of temperature exists for example, among Requirement 2 The Regions of Sudden Chilling
the frozen atmospheres of Jupiter and her icy
satellites such as Callisto and Ganymede, and the The regions of sudden chilling occurred in
icy crusts of Saturn’s satellites, or rings. Among both hemispheres. The locations were in high
satellites such as Saturn’s Mimas, Enceladus, latitudes with respect to both (1) the geographi-
Iapetus or Hyperion, these temperatures are cal poles and (2) the magnetic poles. However
normal, as is the presence of vast volumes of the regions covered by the ice coincides 75%
ice. And apparently the same is true for many more closely with the Magnetic North pole than
of Uranus’ satellites, such as Miranda, Ariel, it does with the Geographic North Pole.
Umbriel, Titania and Oberon. In Antarctica, less than 200 miles from the
If icy particles in temperatures nearing –200° South Pole, Byrd found evidences of a former
F. were deposited upon the Earth from such an climate which nurtured luxuriant forests.ll On
astral visitor, this could produce a great, icy the island of Spitzbergen (Svalbard), palm leaves
avalanche of supercooled ice, possibly reproduc- ten and twelve feet long have been fossilized,
ing the supercooled conditions under which the along with fossilized marine crustaceans—which
mammoths so suddenly met their death. Under could only inhabit tropical waters. This sug-
such conditions, even a huge, woolly mammoth gests that at one time the temperatures of the
would immediately perish, not to mention bison, Arctic Ocean were similar to the contemporary
camels, rhinoceroses, sheep and other animals, temperatures of the Bay of Bengal or the Carib-
which have been found similarly encased in ice. bean Sea, Spitzbergen is half way between the
They may have perished by asphyxiation be- northern tip of Norway and the North Pole, at
cause, at these temperatures, their lungs were a latitude of 80° N. Today, ships can reach
suddenly frozen solid. They dropped immedi- Spitzbergen through the ice only about two or
ately; freezing of the carcass ensued shortly. at the most, three months of the year.
Actually, the temperature of the ice which And in the New Siberian Islands (slightly
killed the mammoths may well have been below warmer than Spitzbergen, at a latitude of 75°
–300° F. The surface temperature of Neptune, N., between Siberia and the Geographic North
Nereid and Triton is about –325°F.5 Pole) explorers claim to have found species of
 65

tropical plants, apparently including breadfruits, However there are indications that the Ice
encased in ice, as were mammoths. How could Epoch covered such diverse locations, beyond
this be? Were explorers spinning yarns? Antarctica, as Patagonia, the Kerguelen Islands,
Antarctica, Spitzbergen and the New Siberian New Zealand and Tasmania. This is comparable
Islands are but three places where evidence to about a 5,000 mile diameter of the ice sheet
occur that coldness came with extreme sudden- in the Northern Hemisphere.
ness, wiping out a previous tropical climate In 1958, an ice core was taken on the Antarctic
with a finality which has lasted over many thou- Ice Cap near Byrd Station. Drilling commenced
sands of years. This directly leads to two at an elevation of about 5,000 feet above sea
queries: First, what caused the abrupt change level. The thickness of the ice sheet was 10,000
which so dramatically froze the fauna and feet. The drill went through solid ice all the
flora? 12 And secondly, and probably more im- way until it hit bedrock, at 5,000 feet below
portant, what was the nature of the previous sea level.13
climate? This second question may be con-
sidered in a future article, together with reasons Uniformitarian theory claims that snow flakes
as to why this is ultimately the more significant fell over unending epochs until ice was built
of the two questions. Meanwhile, the immediate up to 10,000, or perhaps 15,000 feet on the Cana-
question is, What happened? Was the sudden dian Shield. Then it began to melt faster than
coldness natural or unnatural, seasonal or un- the rate of buildup, This theory, to be consis-
earthly? To say the least, uniformitarian-minded tent, also should explain the ice packs at 5,000
geologists are hard pressed to produce a satis- feet below sea level.
fying answer.
Now when snow falls into brine at 25° to
Requirement 3 The Depth of the Ice Mass 32° F., it will not sink; it will dissolve into a
sort of floating slush. And we know what just
The suddenness of the onset of the Ice Epoch a little bit of salt will do on a frozen pavement.
has been briefly considered, relative to not just The real question is not whether it may be lu-
one but both hemispheres. The evidences are dicrous to propose that ice might be formed
amazing and phenomenal. Of no less import, in brine, some 5,000 feet below sea level, by
and of no less amazement, is the depth to which falling snow flakes. The real question is whether
ice occured. Sudden frost, as measured in a or not uniformitarians require us to believe other
fraction of an inch, may be one thing, and winter propositions equally ludicrous.
snows to a depth of 20 to 50 feet, such as on
the Matterhorn or Mt. Rainier, are another thing. In the work, The Biblical Flood and the Ice
What was the depth of the ice mass in the North- Epoch (See footnote #12), it is demonstrated
ern Hemisphere? What was the depth in the that the Flood was tidal in nature, including
Southern Hemisphere? tides of great magnitude; tides both in the
It has been established, from the direction hydrosphere and in the lithosphere. It is demon-
of ice flows, studies of gradients, distances, and strated that the recent series of mountain up-
other related data, that there were several nodes lifts occur in scallop-like curves which merge
of ice on the Canadian Shield. The Keewatin into great circles, (Figure 2) suggesting a global
Node, centering East of Great Slave Lake and scale of orogenetical uplift, caused by massive
north of Lake Winnipeg is among the leading tides of magma within the Earth’s crust. It is
examples. The depth of ice in this node was further demonstrated that the scallop-like or
between 15,000 and 17,000 feet. Fifty feet of arcuate curves comprising mountain ranges trav-
winter snows, located in mountain regions is erse across continental massifs and oceanic
not comparable to 15,000 feet of ice, located basins with seeming equal ease. Consider the
on a North American plain, many miles distant parallel. Here, it would seem, ice was deposited
from the Arctic, Atlantic and Pacific oceans. in the high magnetic latitudes, irrespective of
sea level, and on both a continental shield (Can-
Do we find similar depths of ice in the South- ada) and on the Antarctic shelf, well below sea
ern Hemisphere? This question is complicated level. This parallelism (actually a twin parallel-
by the fact that the floor of the Antarctic shelf ism) must not be disregarded in evaluating the
is often well below sea level. Furthermore the nature and the cause of the Ice Epoch of the
Northern Hemisphere has a predominance of planet Earth.
land in the high latitudes where glacial mass
flows can be recognized, traced and measured.
Requirement 4 The Volume of the Ice Mass
This includes glaciation in three continents;
Asia, Europe and North America. No such The ice sheet is pretty well traced in the
comparable circumstance exists in the Southern Northern Hemisphere due to the prevalence of
Hemisphere. land at high latitudes (Europe, Russia, Siberia,
66

that is where little sunshine is received, and

climates are cooler. Illinois, at 37° N. latitude,
was glaciated; Siberia, at 70° N. latitude was
unglaciated; however Illinois is closer to the
magnetic pole, and has a better view of the
Aurora Borealis.
If the ice sheet was about 5,000 to 5,200
miles wide, and 3 miles deep, feathering out
toward the edges, the resultant volume of ice
is about 15,000,000 to 20,000,000 cubic miles.
The former number will be used since there
is virtue in being conservative, This is still a
lot of ice to account for; particularly when it
is realized that another 15,000,000 cubic miles
was deposited in the Southern Hemisphere.
Of course this is not a great deal of ice by
the standards of Callisto, Neptune, Uranus, or
even tiny, icy Iapetus, with a diameter of 1,000
miles and a very heavy percentage of ice among
its components. But it is a lot of ice to account
for by uniformitarian standards, where 50 feet
of snow is sometimes viewed as a phenomenon.
The volume of heat required to reduce
30,000,000 cubic miles of water from 70° F. to
below freezing and turn it into ice exceeds 7
septillion calories. Seven septillion calories of
heat loss is sufficient to freeze 400 cubic feet of
ice for each and every cubic foot of the Earth’s
surface. Imagine 400 blocks of ice stacked ver-
tically, upon each square foot of Earth’s surface.
This is the magnitude of heat exchange which
must be explained, apart from the obvious sud-
denness, which also must be explained. This
is enough heat exchange to reduce about 7
Earth atmospheres to absolute zero.
There is another method to check out this
estimated volume of ice which was deposited
upon the Earth. It involves review of the in-
Figure 2. The Great Circle Alignment of the Two Recent
crease in sea level, as adjudged by the con-
Zones of Orogenetic Uplift. tinental shelves. The Hudson River Valley, for
(After J. Tuzo Wilson, The Earth as a Planet, ed. Kuiper,
instance, does not end at New York. It continues
p. 138, Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1954. ) for about 100 miles beyond New York to the
edge of the continental shelf. The Delaware
Alaska, Canada and the United States.) Figure Valley is a similar case. Other continents con-
3 illustrates this region, which apparently ex- tain other examples. The North Sea has been
tended from Alaska to Central Europe, and from inundated within recent geological times, if the
the fringes of Siberia to the Central United stumps which are raised therefrom are any
States. Its location is polar, but it more closely indication.
coincides with the Magnetic North Pole than Evidences point to a recent rise in sea level
the Geographic North Pole. It is about 75% of between 300 and 450 feet. If this is attributed
closer to the Magnetic North Pole; furthermore to the addition of juvenile ice to the Earth’s
there is substantial evidence for the conclusion hydrosphere, which melted in the early post-
that the magnetic pole was once located between diluvian age, then this tends to substantiate the
Baffin Island and Greenland, the center of the ice previous volume estimate. It also corroborates
sheet. The eccentricity of geographical latitudes the observation in Genesis that some 200 to
with the ice sheet must be considered significant. 300 years after the Deluge, the land mass became
Simultaneously this observation does nothing divided, (Genesis 10:25) for rising waters tend
for the uniformitarian proposition that the Ice to divide islands off from continents, and archi-
Epoch developed in the high latitudes because pelagoes from islands.
 67

Perhaps the best illustration is found in the

coldest area of the Earth, Interior Antarctica.
In Interior Antarctica, the air is not only very
cold, but is incapable of containing much water
vapor. It is also very dry. In fact, Interior Ant-
arctica ranks along with the interior of the
Sahara Desert in lack of precipitation. 14 It is
rather at the fringes of Antarctica where sub-
stantial snows occur, for this is the region where
warmer and more humid maritime air mixes
with cold, dry, polar air.
Snowfall in Antarctica therefore takes on a
saucer-shaped pattern, being greatest at the rim
and least at the center. This saucer-shaped
pattern of snowfall also occurs in the Northern
Hemisphere. The regions of abundant snowfall
are mostly at maritime locations on the Arctic
peripheries where warm humid maritime airs
mix with colder and drier Arctic fronts. The
saucer-shaped pattern is more irregular in the
Northern Hemisphere than the Southern, due to
THE GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF THE ICE AGE IN THE
the irregular distribution of polar seas and con-
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE tinental massifs; however the same principle in
with regard to ( 1 ) the Geographical Center of the Ice Age
general holds.
( 2 )
(3 )
the Geographical North Pole
the Magnetic North Pole
If falling snow is presumed as the cause of
Figure 3
the Ice Epoch, then it would be logical to con-
clude that the ice would build up deepest where
the snow fall is deepest. There would be a
Requirement 5 The Geometry of the Ice Sheet thicker accumulation at the edges than at the
Any acceptable theory on the Ice Epoch must dry interior, where little humid air would pene-
accommodate itself to the conical geometry of trate, and where temperatures would not allow
the ice formation. On the Canadian Shield, there the air to retain much humidity. Yet geological
were several nodes with ice elevations around study of ice masses reveal that the ice mass
15,000 feet. From these areas, the ice flowed was conical in shape; not saucer-shaped, as uni-
outward in all directions, in a radial pattern, formitarian theory would logically suppose.
corrected only by local topographical considera-
tions or coriolis force. This kind of pattern Furthermore, the pattern of ice flow does not
occurs when honey is poured onto pancakes, or agree with the slow-snow uniformitarian hypoth-
pancake batter on the griddle. esis. Today there are slow-snow glaciers in the
Cascade Mountains along the Pacific Ocean,
It flowed over hills a thousand or more feet from Alaska, through British Columbia and
high, en masse for hundreds of miles. As the Washington, and into Oregon. Here, glacial flow
ice flowed, it gathered rocks, timber and other is similar in pattern to riverine flow, This is
debris, which were ultimately dropped at or known as a dendritic, or river-like pattern. The
near the edges, forming lateral or terminal mor- glacial flow is between hills and ridges, and is
aines. The extent of the ice flow is determined concentrated in the valleys.
from, and orthogonal to the terminal moraines;
the direction of flow was parallel to such forma- Requirement 6 The Ice Cave Phenomena of
tions as drumlins and lateral moraines. The
path of flow is also plotted by locations of erratic Eastern Washington
boulders, striations and other methods. A most unusual phenomenon is that of ice
According to uniformitarian theory, the ice sandwiched between lava formations. Lava ( ig-
was supposedly formed by snow, which had neous rock) usually is considered as being laid
been transported by planetary wind systems down in temperatures which are either warm or
from moist, warmer regions where waters evap- hot, and at the very least, at temperatures other
orated abundantly. It built up until the process than below freezing (32° F.)
was exceeded by principals of outflow and melt. In the intermontane region of North America
But this hypothesis does not agree with the which is located west of the Rockies and East
manner of flow of the ice mass; neither does it of the Cascades, there was a great outpouring
agree with the direction of ice flow. of lava during the Flood catastrophe. In some
68

places, the lava deposits exceed 8,000 feet in thus ate beef during the hot summer months
depth overlaying the original bedrock. It is while their neighbors ate salt pork. Even today,
punctuated systematically by paper-thin layers by family tradition, as the family fathers on
of shales, as if the lava had alternately bled out, each 4th of July, one of the foremost of festivities
and had been washed and compressed by im- is the making of home-made ice cream with the
mense oceanic tides. old wooden bucket and the rotating cylinder
and crank, using fresh ranch cream. And they
Several great outbleedings of lava occured, use ice from the ice cave—ice which is obviously
forming basaltic plateaus. One was in Abyssinia; old, perhaps 5,000 years old in terms of its ter-
one was in Brazil; one was in India. But the restrial existence.
one in North America was unique in that in
this region, the ice deposition coincided with This ice cave is at the base of a natural lava
the lava outflow. Here ice and lava are mixed terrace. Rising above and back of the cave is
with fossil debris and alluvium. a large hill, composed almost entirely of ice and
lava. Its face, almost a cliff, is about 300 feet
This area covers approximately 150,000 square high, and beyond that are further rises. The
miles, in five states and one Canadian province, chill, constant draft emanating from within the
namely Idaho, Oregon (Eastern), Washington cave is felt as one stands in front of the cave,
(Eastern) and a small portion of northern Cali- which is prehistoric in existence, and located
fornia, Utah and British Columbia. between layers of lava. Upon entering one sees
At the northern edge of this lava plateau, the massive icy stalactites and stalagmites and
inflowing ice complicated geophysical features. marvels at their architecture and origin.
Great coulees were formed by rivers of flowing At the base of the lava terrace, in addition
ice. Rivers were alternately formed, blocked
to the ice cave, is a spring formed by melting
and rerouted. The Columbia Valley, Grand Cou- water from the ice contained within the hill.
lee and Moses Coulee are among the examples. Its temperature is a constant 34° F., summer
Throughout this area, particularly Eastern Wash- and winter, since it comes from the cave interior
ington, Eastern Oregon and Southern Idaho, which is 32° F. The rate of water flowing per
there occurs a phenomenon known as ice caves. hour from this icy cool spring is unknown. It
Apparently, much ice was sandwiched in be- is known that it is sufficient to accommodate
tween alternating layers of lava, and has thus ranch needs, including watering the livestock.
been insulated by the surrounding lava from The amount of water lost in seepage is thought
copious melting. Where melting has occurred, to be far greater than the amount of water flow-
ice caves have resulted. ing from the spring itself.
When the Milwaukee Railroad was being If the rate of flow of the icy water, including
built in this impressive, volcanic, desert-like re- both that from the spring and the lost seepage,
gion, ice caves were discovered in Southern
is five gallons per hour17 ( and since we endorse
Grant County. They were used for refrigeration the many virtues of conservativism, this is most
of food for the railroad construction gangs.
assuredly a conservative estimate), then by sim-
When highway construction crews made great ple calculations, at least 1 million tons of ice have
cuts through the lava hills, they also ran into melted from within this hill over the last 5,000
pocket after pocket of ice which has been there years. And no one knows how much ice yet re-
certainly for thousands of years (but we doubt mains unmelted; unquestionably both amounts
for millions of Lyellian years. ) are vast when viewed from any perspective.
In Okanogan County, in the hills above To-
nasket, an ice cave exists which spelunkers have Recall that these temperatures exist today,
followed for 7,000 feet without finding its end. 15 sandwiched between lava formations which must
have contained much original heat. In this ex-
And it has been reported that outside of Bend,
Oregon, a man was digging a foundation for a ternal climate, the annual temperature average
house, and encountered an ice cave.16 In Des- is not 34° F. or 32° F., but a little more than
chutes County, there are reportedly several ice 40° F. Also it must be realized that tempera-
caves. tures increase vertically within the Earth’s crust,
at a rate of about 16° F. per 1000 feet. Thus
A small ice cave is located about 15 miles this ice and lava sandwich overlays rock which,
downstream from Grand Coulee Dam, in the some 10,000 feet down, contains temperatures
hills overlooking the Columbia, on the Norman which approach boiling, For ice to maintain its
Ailing ranch. It has been inspected by this state under these conditions for millenia is no
writer. This particular cave apparently had been small feat. The fact that the ice has not fully
known to the Indians. In the homestead days, remained at 32° F. has resulted in formation of
the Allings used the cave for refrigeration, and the ice caves.
 69

Figure 5

If the Deluge was tidal in its essence, this

means that the Earth underwent an extreme
gravitational disturbance. This means the Earth-
Moon system may have temporarily been faced
with an icy intruder. But the Earth has two
fields; one is gravitational and the other is mag-
netic. If the Earth experienced historical gravi-
tational chaos, might it not simultaneously ex-
perience magnetic havoc? And if astral ice par-
ticles were captured, possessing both extremely
Figure 4. The Van Allen Belts and the Direction of low temperatures and dielectric charges, would
Descending Ice. not they respond to magnetic deflections?
There seems to be a relationship between the
For the ice to maintain its temperatures, im- geographical poles and the magnetic poles, the
bedded in igneous rock, is remarkable. But how nature of which is not yet understood. They
did it get there? By falling snow flakes? How are located about 1300 miles apart in each case.
was it that this condition occurred not just a It is supposed in this essay that had the magnetic
few times in one county, but hundreds of times poles been located in tropical climes, the Ice
over a tri-state region? Epoch would have been located there also.
But in the Ice Epoch, the flow was radial, It is further supposed in this essay that a vol-
not dendritic. It flowed out in all directions, ume of astral or celestial ice, in a volume of
with no relation to hill or dale, and engulfing 30,000,000 cubic miles, was captured simultane-
both as it moved on for hundreds of miles. This ously with the gravitational havoc (the Flood).
radial pattern of flow, like the example of the Therefore the uniformitarians were incorrect in
mammoths, requires suddenness and not gradu- concluding that the Ice Epoch was antediluvian.
alness as a major explanatory feature. And the catastrophists such as Price, Rehwinkel
and Morris were incorrect in concluding that
Discussion the Ice Epoch was a postdiluvian development.
Siberians generally get a poor view of Aurora The two were simultaneous. However it needs
Borealis, not because of their colder climate, to be added that the catastrophists, such as those
but because of their remoteness to the North just previously mentioned, did read the geologi-
Magnetic Pole, which is located in Northern cal record correctly in ascribing glacial deposi-
Canada. Illinois is about 500 miles closer to the tion and scouring to the postdiluvian age. It
Magnetic Pole than is Northern Siberia. More took weeks, months, years for the waters to drain
glaciation occurred in Illinois despite the fact off, and reach a new equilibrium.
that glaciated areas occur at latitudes as low as Similarly, it took the ice many centuries to
37°, which is well over half the way from the outflow, and melt down. And also similarly, the
North Pole to the Equator (almost 60% of the oceans were filled with a great volume of cold
way to the Equator. ) juvenile ice water. It took the oceans several
In noticing the location of the Aurora Borealis millenia to reach a new temperature equilibrium.
in association with the region of the ice sheet, This is why the climatology of the ancient post-
one might realize that in geography, associative diluvian world was somewhat different from to-
relationships may be as meaningful as “cause day. This is why Arabia was a well-watered
and effect” relationships. The Aurora is related, region in Job’s time; humidity, temperature and
not to the Ice Epoch, but rather to the Van Allen precipitation conditions resembled the mid-lati-
Belts and the magnetic poles. Could it be tude conditions of today and not the horse lati-
that the Ice Epoch also is related to magnetic tude conditions to today’s Sahara. This is why
principles? olive groves extend deeply into Cirenaica, and
 70

Cyrene along with Carthage were metropoli. about 30,000,000 cubic miles. The ice evidently
Their hinterlands were much greater than today, was conical in its geometric] outline, and acted
since the planetary wind systems have become in its outflow like honey that is poured onto pan-
warmer (and for those areas, more dessicating.) cakes. One of the most unusual phenomena is
It is finally supposed in this essay that at the the occurrence of ice caves sandwiched between
time of the Flood catastrophe, millions of cubic lava formations.
miles of extremely cold, charged ice particles It is proposed that the earth temporarily cap-
were engulfed in the Earth’s magnetic field tured a small satellite (Figure 6) from outer space
(Figures 4 and 5). They were shunted around, similar to one of the moons of Saturn having
not dissimilar to ions during times of sunspot about the same icy composition. As a result the
activity. They were deflected toward the mag- earth captured about 30,000,000 cubic miles of
netic polar regions. Here, these high speed par- ice particles at the same time as it suffered great
ticles tended to converge. In coverging they gravitational havoc resulting in the Flood. Evi-
collided. In colliding, they decelerated. In de- dence is given suggesting that this capture was
celerating, they descended. Their pattern of related to the magnetic poles due to the dielec-
descent was some 5,000 miles in diameter; tric charges of the ice particles.
their depth was 3 miles in the central mag- Diagrams illustrating this concept are pre-
netic regions, and increasingly less toward the sented and for further detailed data the reader
peripheries. is referred to a book soon to be published by
the author entitled The Biblical Flood and the
Summary Ice Epoch. Pacific Meridan Publishing Co.,
Six major groups of facts are presented in rela- Seattle, will publish this book.
tion to the occurrence of ice both as regards the
present and the past. The evidence is clear that Literature Cited
1
mammals, particularly mammoths, were frozen Charles Lyell, the originator of the uniformitarian Geo-
very suddenly by the millions. The regions of logical Time Scale, originally ascribed the dating of the
Ice Epoch to 1,000,000 B.C., a “recent” event. This
this sudden freezing coincide 75% more closely dating was as arbitrary as his many other datings.
with the magnetic north pole than with the geo- Later, it was pointed out to Mr. Lyell that Niagara
graphic north pole. Falls was a “geological clock.” An escarpment, a crys-
talline structure, lies across Northern New York and
The depth of ice in both polar areas is from Eastern Ontario between Lake Ontario and Lake Erie,
10,000 to 15,000 feet. In the south polar area two lakes which were formed at the end of the Ice
5000 of the 10,000 feet of ice is below sea level. Epoch. Across this escarpment flows the Niagara River.
The volume of ice conservatively estimated is The crystalline escarpment is underlain by a layer of
soft limestone, which erodes out from under the harder
surface layer, causing an eroding of Niagara Falls from
the original escarpment line back towards Lake Erie.
Lyell viewed this recession. He knew the distance
which it had eroded back from the original escarpment
line. He inquired of local residents as to the rate of
recession. The consensus of the local residents was that
the rate was 3 feet per year. Lyell’s calculations in-
dicated that this was about 12,000 B. C., which was
much too recent for his Geological Time Scale. He im-
mediately concluded that the local residents were ex-
aggerating. He allowed 12 inches per year rather than
the 36 inches which the local residents had considered
reasonable. He proceeded to revise his earlier pro-
nouncement; the Ice Epoch ended at 40,000 B.C.
We now know that the local consensus was not ex-
aggerated, it minimized the current rate by at least
50%. Furthermore it is reasonable to assume that the
rates of erosion immediately after the end of the Ice
Epoch were greater, not less, than the current rate.
This is because of a much greater amount of water
flowing over the falls, together with more debris and
ice. Lyell’s error in dating in reality was over 99%;
this brief review notes that he ultimately acknowledged
96% of that error. The essential point to gather is
Lyell’s arbitrariness in organizing his Geological Time
Scale, one which is still considered sacrosanct by uni-
formitarian geology.
2
Ivan T, Sanderson “Riddle of the Quick-Frozen Mam-
moths,” Readers Digest, April, 1960, p. 123. (Also see
author’s “Riddle of the Frozen Giants,” Saturday Eve-
Figure 6. Era of Flood Catastrophe and Era of Ice ning Post, Vol 232, Part 4, January 16, 1960, pp. 39
Capture. and 82, 83.)
 71
7
3
The fossils of these people, dead for 2000 years, have Nelson, op. cit., p. 125. “The remains of mammoths
been found by a careful search of the ruins of Pompeii. are incredibly numerous in Siberia and, strangely
Where a person died and was covered by pumice, the enough, their numbers increase farther north toward
body decomposed, but the pumice did not subsequently the Arctic Ocean. Their bones are spread over the bot-
shift. The result was a cavity in the pumice which, tom of that ocean, where ships have dredged them up.
if filled with plaster of paris, produces a perfect speci- And 200 miles to the north, in the New Siberian Islands,
men of the dying individuals, with dying expressions not much farther from the North Pole than New York
on their faces, in positions reaching for loved ones. is from Chicago, mammoth remains are thickest of all.”
Even the detail of the fabric of their clothes, along Author’s note: The reason that the New Siberian
with wrinkles are preserved. Islands and other offshore islands in the Arctic Ocean
were populated by fauna are ( 1 ) there was a subtropi-
4
Sanderson, loc. cit. “It takes a great deal of cold to cal climate in the antediluvian age, and ( 2 ) there was
freeze a warm-blooded mammal. Men have been out a lower mean sea level, approximately 400 feet lower
in temperatures of — 100° F. for up to half an hour than the current level. Thus not only were the New
without their lungs freezing. Sled-dogs in the Arctic Siberian Islands connected with Siberia; the Bering
and Antarctic have been out in blizzard conditions in Strait also did not exist, and Alaska was connected with
temperatures well below —80° F. for many hours and Siberia. Africa, Asia, Europe and North America were
even days without freezing, and admittedly moving one interconnected land mass in that age.
air is more chilling than still air. In 1911 when Scott 8
took his ill-fated dash to the South Pole, his little Shet- Charles H. Hapgood, “The Mystery of the Frozen
land ponies survived until their food gave out. Mammoths,” Coronet, September, 1960, pp. 71-72.
9
“At —40° F. it takes 20 minutes to quick-freeze a Hapgood, Op cit. p. 74. “Baron Edward Toll, the ex-
dead turkey, 30 minutes to preserve a side of beef. But plorer, reported finding a fallen 90-foot fruit tree with
these are mere bits of meat, not the mammoths clothed ripe fruit and green leaves still on its branches, in the
in fur, at a temperature of about 98° F. Unless we frozen ground of the New Siberian Island. The only
have tremendous cold outside, the center of the ani- tree vegetation that grows there now is a one-inch
mal we are trying to freeze will remain comparatively high willow.”
warm for some time, probably long enough for decom- 10
The writer has taken courses in geography and related
position to start. Meanwhile. the actual chilling of the
flesh will be slow enough for large crystals to form subjects in two different colleges, and has discussed
within its cells. Neither event occured with most mam- this problem with uniformitarians in several different
moths, although one of them has been found by the departments. The tendered explanations were nearly
radio-carbon dating method to be just over 10,000 years identical. The following kind of suggestion was the
old. The flesh of many of the animals found in the normal explanation:
muck is remarkably fresh. Frozen-food experts say they Perhaps some mammoth started walking across the
must have been frozen at well below —150° F. ice in a blizzard on a recently-frozen lake. Perhaps
he wandered into an area where the ice was too thin,
“Further, several studies indicate that mammoths and the mammoth fell through and drowned. Per-
were not especially designed for the Arctic; nor did haps he had been carrying his breakfast of butter-
they live in Arctic conditions. The Indian elephant, cups, wild beans and tender sedges with him across
which is a close relative of the mammoth . . . has to the ice, and drowned with them yet in his mouth.
have several hundred pounds of food daily just to sur- Maybe through some freak of nature, his drowned
vive. But, for more than six months of the year, there body did not deteriorate, and was not cannibalized
is nothing for any such creature to eat on the Arctic by fish. Perhaps it was preserved until a permanent
tundra. Yet there were tens of thousands of mammoths.” change of climate occurred. And possibly this sort
5
of thing happened to thousands or millions of animals
Janles S. Pickering, 1001 Questions Answered about over long periods of time—animals including bison,
Astronomy, New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1959, p. 68. horses, lions, rhinoceroses, sheep and others.
See also p. 59 for discussion of satellites of Jupiter, The author totally disagrees with such inadequate and
p. 61 for discussion of Saturn and its ice structure, and incongruent explanations, no matter how sincerely
page 62 for discussion of the rings of Saturn. Interest- tendered, no matter by how many professionals, no
ingly, Pickering says, on page 58: matter how devious and complicated the path of ex-
planation may be. Logic just happens to be over-
Jupiter has more atmosphere than any of the other strained.
Planets, excepting possibly Saturn. . . . Rupert Wildt,
ll
a modern astronomer and an authority on the planets, Dolph Earl Hooker, Those Astounding Ice Ages, N e w
has constructed theoretical models of both Jupiter York: Exposition Press, 1958, p. 44, as taken from
and Saturn. His model of Jupiter shows an atmos- National Geographic, October 1935. Admiral Byrd
phere of hydrogen, methane, and ammonia which is wrote as follows:
about 8,000 miles deep. Beneath this, there is a The rock fragments from this mountainside invari-
layer of ice about 10,000 miles deep over the entire
ably included plant fossils, leaf and stem impressions,
core of Jupiter. These dimensions leave about 38,000 coal and fossilized wood. Here at the southernmost
miles for the diameter of Jupiter itself. known mountain in the world, scarcely two hundred
The following references should also be noted by the miles from the South Pole, was found conclusive evi-
reader: Robert H. Baker, Astronomy, Princeton, N, J.: dence that the climate of Antarctica was once tem-
D. Van Nostrand Co., 1959, pp. 218, 228; Gerald P. perate or even sub-tropical.
Kuiper et. al., Planets and Satellites, Chicago: Univer- 12
sity of Chicago Press, 1961; and George Abell, Explora- Author’s note: It is suspected that many geophysical
tion of the Universe, New York: Holt, Rinehard and alterations, changes and upheavals took place simultan-
Winston, 1964, p. 298 for good discussion of the origin eously in this gravitational-magnetic crisis period. One
of comets. was tidal upheaval of the oceans ( fluid hydrosphere. )
6
One was tidal upheaval of magma (fluid lithosphere. )
Byron C. Nelson, The Deluge Story in Stone, Minneap- One was a reorganization of the climatological regime.
olis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1931, p. 122. One is the relocation of the geographical poles, quite
 72

16
likely accompanied by a change in the angle of the axis Mr. Rupert Shaw, Seattle, Washington.
to the perpendicular of the ecliptic (currently 23½º).
This may assist in explaining many things, and the exis- 17
Mr. Arthur Kalmen, Grand Coulee, Washington. Mr.
tence of warm-water crustaceans in Arctic latitudes is Kalman, an employee of the Department of Interior,
only one. Further reference is made to The Biblical Bureau of Indian Affairs, is a credit manager for the
Flood and the Ice Epoch, Seattle, Pacific Meridian Pub-
lishing Co., 1966, written by the author. Colville Indians. He is familiar with this particular ice
13
cave, the Ailing ranch, and surrounding area. Our es-
Hooker, op. cit., p. 68. timate of 5 gallons per hour from the spring at the base
l4
Hooker, op. cit., p. 30. "The everlasting wind blowing of the hill containing the ice cave is considered marked-
from the pole is as dry as the winds over the Sahara." ly conservative by Mr. Kalman.
15
Mr. Arthur Patten, Tonasket, Washington.

NEW PUBLICATION

“The Fallacy of Reconstructions” (Paper #33) by Arthur C. Custance, Ph. D.

Doorway Papers, Box 1283, Station B, Ottawa, Canada, 1966. The price is 50¢.
post free.
This Paper is an attempt to show that in dealing with living forms of the
past, especially those which have to do with man’s supposed evolution, there
has been a lack of complete honesty on the part of experts when it comes to
providing the public with pictorial reconstructions. This is particularly true in
the case of Anthropology, a subject which occupies most of the Paper. Photo-
graphs and line drawings derived from well-known texts are used to show the
extent to which the evidence has either been falsified or “distorted” to reinforce
in the public mind the claim that evolution of man is based on solid grounds.
This Paper, very carefully documented, is a 28 page symposium of the kind
of reconstructions that are commonly found in the literature, plus 11 pages
of figures.
 73

THE GALAPAGOS ISLAND FINCHES

D R . WALTER E. LAMMERTS
Freedom, California

Introduction their island origin, were compared both in gen-

Gregory and Goldman’s Biological Science eral appearance and detailed measurements.
(Green version in B.S.C.S. series) gives an im- Unless otherwise mentioned 25 specimens of
pression of a most remarkable adaptive varia- each species and subspecies were measured.
tion in the Darwin finches of the Galapagos
Islands (page 729).1 Though somewhat more Results of the Examination
realistic, the B.S.C.S. Yellow version, An In- The Darwin finches are a rather drab gray
quiry Into Life, illustrates the same group on to brownish colored group of birds, except for
page 593.2 Forms presumably resembling hum- the almost fully black dorsal plumage of the
ming-birds, woodpeckers, large and small seed males of some species. The whole collection
crushers, and insect-eating types are shown as had an appearance of general uniformity. Only
derived from a single pair of original birds. the Certhidea or the Warbler finches seemed
truly distinctive.
It was my good fortune to be able to study
the large collection of Darwin’s finches at the Were it not for the historical importance of
California Academy of Science in the Fall of these finches as one of the “pillars” of evidence
1965 and Spring of 1966. The following is a for the evolution of adaptive variation, I doubt
report on the variations observed and measure- if much attention would be given to them. A
ments made. resume of the collection may best be given by
arbitrarily calling the tray containing the largest
Acknowledgments finches Tray 1. This is also the order from top
to bottom in which they are filed in the collec-
I wish to acknowledge the kind cooperation tion. (Body measurements are given in centi-
of Dr. Robert F. Orr, ornithologist of the Acad- meters, and bill in millimeters throughout.)
emy, who permitted me to examine the speci-
mens in this fine collection. He also showed me Tray #1
the remarkable range of variation in the collec- Tray #1 consisted entirely of specimens labeled
tion of specimens of the song sparrow, Melo- Geospiza magnirostris from Culperrer, Wenman,
spina melodia. Abingdon, Bindloe, Tower, and James Islands.
This “species” has the largest bill and body.
Material and Methods Much fluctuation in measurement was found
The California Academy of Science collection however.
consists of 37 trays, each with about 100 speci-
mens; some 3700 well-preserved Darwin finches. Body variation: 3½-4 high x 14½-15 long.
I first made detailed measurements of the height, Bill variation: 13-18 wide x 19-20 long. Total
curvature, length and breadth of each mandible of specimens measured—50.
of several specimens of each species. Overall
length, breadth, and height of the body and
wing measurements were taken. It was soon
apparent that such a high correlation usually
existed in these various measurements that only
four will be reported in this paper, as follows:
1) Length of bird from tip of bill to end of
tail.
2) Height from belly to top of the back
3) Total length of the bill.
4) Width of the ventral side of the lower
mandible of the bill. (Figure 1)
All the specimens in each tray were first given
a general examination, and then those Which
showed extremes in variation for curvature,
width and length of the bill were carefully meas- Figure 1. Typical Ventral view of lower mandible of
ured. Then the various trays, irrespective of G. magnirostris
74

The general impression was one of remarkable

uniformity except for bill variation, The males
were mostly black.

Tray #2
G. magnirostris from James, Jervis, Seymour,
Indefatigable, Albemarle and Barrington Islands.
Same range in variation shown except that
one specimen had a bill only 13mm. wide x
15mm. long. Most of the males had black plum-
age. Total of 80 specimens measured.
Figure 2. Left: solid line, small G. magnirostris; broken
Tray #3 line, large G. fortis. Right: large, intermediate, and
small form of G. fortis.
All specimens were labeled Geospiza fortis.
My first impression was that here we have a
small version of G. magnirostris. The specimens Tray #8
were from Wenman, Abingdon, Bindloe, James, G. fortis from Charles Island. There were
Jarvis, Daphne, and Seymour Islands. many large specimens as Lack reported.3 As he
states it, “where G. magnirostris is absent, G.
Body variation—2.5-3 high x 11.5-15 long. Bill fortis is large.” But careful study failed to reveal
variation—9-11 x 10-15. any difference between these and G. magniro-
stris, other than the label!
Tray #4 Thus specimen #5260 had a bill 12 mm. x 17
Also G. fortis. Mostly lighter gray forms from mm. and a body 3.2 cm. wide x 12 cm. long.
Seymour, Indefatigable, and Duncan Islands. Others had bodies fully as large as the smaller
G. magnirostris. The bill shape often identical
Body—2½-3 x 11-14½. Bill—9-12 x 11-15. as may be seen in Figure 2. Though the bill of
One specimen was as large as the smallest the specimen shown is slightly longer, many
G. magnirostris, i.e.: 3½ cm. high x 14½ cm. were exactly the same length and height.
long.
Tray #9
Tray #5 All G. fortis from Charles Island. All were
G. fortis from Duncan and Albemarle Islands. grayish-brown specimens and averaged large for
Many black colored males with mostly small the size of the species. One had a bill 13 mm.
bills. One had a bill 13 mm. x 15 mm., exactly wide by 17 mm. long. Another (#5501) was 3
similar in shape (curvature size and size of man- cm. x 14½ cm. with a bill 13 mm, x 18 mm.
dibles, 13 x 15 mm. ) to the specimen in Tray #2,
all of which were labeled G. magnirostris. Tray #10
All G. fortis from Charles Island. All except
Tray #6 two black-colored males were gray colored on
sides and belly and brownish above. One speci-
G. fortis – specimens from Albemarle, Mar- men, #6321, was 3.2 high and 14 long with a bill
borough, Barrington, and Chatham Islands. 13 mm. wide x 15 mm. long.
Some specimens had bills as large as 13 mm.
wide and 18 mm, long. This bill was on a male
3 cm. high x 13 cm. long. There was also a great Tray #11
difference in the curvature of the bills. Thus G. fortis from Charles, Champion, Gardner,
one specimen, #5357, was much broader than and G. fuliginosa fuliginosa from James, Jervis,
#6270, as shown in Figure 2. There were many Seymour, and Indefatigable Islands. The G. for-
black-plumaged males in this collection. tis specimens were similar to those in Trays 8,
9, and 10. G. fuliginosa fuliginosa however had
dimensions as follows:
Tray #7
Body—2.5 cm. high x 10 cm. long. Bill—7
G. fortis f r o m Chatham, Hood, Gardner, mm. width x 11 mm. long.
Charles Islands. At first glance this seems a very sharp break
Body—3½-3¾ high x 14-14½ long. Some in continuity. However one of the smaller G .
birds were fully as large as G. magnirostris in fortis in Tray #3, #6189, had a body 2.5 cm. x
this tray, both regarding body and size of bill. 11.5 cm. and a bill 9 mm. x 12 mm.
 75

Tray #12
G. fuliginosa, var. fuliginosa from Indefatig-
able, Duncan, Albemarle. Here a great variation
in bill size and conformation occurs, as some
were long and slender, ( 5 mm. x 10 mm. ) and
others were wider ( 8 mm. x 13 mm. ) About half
were black colored males and the rest were light
gray to brownish females.

Tray #13
G. fuliginosa fuliginosa from Albemarle, Mar-
borough, Brattle, and Barrington Islands. These
had much coarser beaks but many were quite
hooked, or rather showed great mandible curva- Figure 3. Solid line G. conirostris, broken line G. scan-
ture. dens. Ventral view of lower mandible adapted from
Figure 61 of Bowman’s article.
Tray #14
G. fuliginosa fuliginosa from Chatham Island. Jervis, and Seymour Islands. At first glance these
Many males with black coloration. The speci- specimens seemed remarkably uniform for a
mens were more uniform than most, long narrow bill, and I thought that here at last
was a really distinctive species.
Trays #15 and 16 The following are some characteristic meas-
Tray #15 was also G. fuliginosa fuliginosa urements: Bill–8 x 18; 9 x 20; 9 x 19; and
from Chatham, Hood, Gardner, Charles Islands 10 x 19. The body was rather uniform: 3½ cm.
and Tray 16 from Charles and Captive Islands. high x 14 cm. long. However specimen #7173
had a bill 10 x 20 with a body 3½ x 13.
Some beak variation, but body size was slight-
ly smaller than that of Tray #11.
Further comparisons with G. fortis are as Tray #22, 23 and 24
follows: G. conirostris conirostris from Culpepper,
Body Bill Hood and Tower Islands. The body was 3-3.5
x 13.5-14 cm. and samples of bill measurements
G. fuliginosa fuliginosa 2.6X11 8X10 were as follows: 10 x 15, 10 x 17, 12 x 15, (iden-
Seymour island (typical tical to one specimen of G. magnirostris in both
black male) size and curvature of the bill), and 10 x 18 (iden-
specimen #5781 2.5X11 8X12 tical to G. scandens in size and curvature of the
(black male) bill).
specimen #6567 2.5X11 9X11 The individuals of the species then are a con-
(Indefatigable) necting, intergrading link between G. magniro-
G. fortis (typical black) 2.7X12 10X13 stris and G. scandens. Incidentally this fact is
also referred to by Bowman on page 285 of his
G. fortis Abingdon #5184 2.5X10.5 8X12 Morphological Differentiation and Adaption in
G. fortis Indefatigable 2.5X12.5 10X12 the Galapagos Finches where he says, “It would
#5187 seem, then, that in size and shape the bill of G.
conirostris spans the morphological ‘gap’ between
So, although G. fuliginosa fuliginosa averaged G. magnirostris, G. fortis, and G. scandens.”4
smaller, complete intergradation was found.
To be fair in my quotation from him I might
Tray #17 and 18 also state that he considers G. conirostris unique
in its structural plan of the mandibles and skull
All G. difficilis. Body variation – 2.5-2.75 x area. His discussion of these slight distinctions
11-11.5 long. Bill variation—6-65 x 11-12. on page 247 is not too convincing however in
The specimens in general had a more rufous
view of the great variation shown. (For com-
colored tail but there was complete intergrada- parison of typical forms see Figure 3.)
tion as regards this characteristic with that typi-
cal of G. fuliginosa fuliginosa and magnirostris.
Tray #25, 26 and part of 27
Tray #19, 20 and 21 G. crassirostris: the plumage is generally more
G. scandens from Abingdon, Albermarle, Bind- brownish and the males are black only on the
loe, Charles, Chatham, Duncan, Indefatigable, head area. Otherwise this species is so similar
76

in size to G. magnirostris that after a few pre-

liminary measurements further study was not
made. The bill also varied greatly such that
identical measurements of length and width
could easily be found in both “species.”
Bowman who is mightily impressed with mi-
nute skull differences, shows seventeen differ-
ences in his comparative analysis. It would seem
that he is comparing the typical or perhaps
average rather than those which show marked
intergradation. A better comparison emphasiz-
ing the similarities is shown in his Figure 56
where variations in G. magnirostris are shown.
Unfortunately he does not show the marked and
overlapping variation found in G. crassirostris.

Tray #27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33 and 34

Camarhynchus psitticula, habeli, and affinis
from Abingdon, Albermarle, Barrington, Bindloe,
Charles, Duncan, Indefatigable, James, Jervis,
Marborough and Seymour Islands. All were pre-
dominantly gray in color although much varia-
tion was found in coloration and some were as
brown as G. conirostris, Again some G. magni-
rostris were fully as gray as specimens of the Figure 4. a) G. scandens (left) vs. G. magnirostris
“genus” Camarhynchus. (right) b) G. scandens (left) vs. G. fortis (right)
c) G. scandens (left) vs. G. fuliginosa (right) d)
Body Bill G. scandens (left) vs. G. difficilis (right). All speci-
mens are black plumaged males.
C. habeli 3 x 12 9 x 13
C. psitticula 3 x 13 11 x 12 bottom. The upper two birds are females, the
C. affinis 2.5 x 11 7 x 10 lower one a male. Note the variation in plumage
color of background birds.
C. pauper 2.5 X 11 7 x 10
C. parvulus 2.5 x 10.5 7x7 Discussion
2.8 X 10.7 7 x 10 If one were to remove all the species labels
and arrange the Darwin finches from the largest
2.8 X 12.5 7 x 10 to the smallest in body and bill size, complete
These all intergraded and except for the differ- intergradation would be found. The same is
ence in species labels would most certainly be true of bill length and width. As mentioned
considered as a variable group of light gray in- above there is complete intergradation of plum-
dividuals of the same species. age coloration although the smaller birds tend
to have lighter gray feathers.
Tray #35 and 36 The situation is exactly comparable to that
of the song sparrow, Melospiza melodia, where
Cactospiza pallida from Albermarle, Chatham, one finds a comparable range in size of bird
Duncan, Indefatigable, James, Jervis, and Sey- and bill. Here also the small desert forms are
mour Islands. All were very light gray, especial- light gray in color.
ly as regards the side and belly plumage colora-
tion. The size was quite uniform, varying only Bowman works hard to show that there is a
slightly from a body of 2.5 x 12 and bill of 7 x 15. basic difference in skull configuration between
G. magnirostris, fortis, and conirostris. However
Figure 4 shows a comparison of the typical his Figure 30 is not very convincing to me. For
G. magnirostris at the top, then G. fortis, G. fuli- we must remember that the broken lines of G.
ginosa and G. difficilis compared to G. scandens fortis show the variation in skull size and the
on the right. All are males. The variation in solid line of G. magnirostris upon which he
color of bill is not significant for color is a highly places much confidence is only an average of
variable feature, both intra- and interspecifically. many skull size measurements. Also Figure 56
Figure 5 is a comparison of G. fortis at the is quite revealing in showing the gradation. One
top, then G. conirostris and G. scandens at the cannot help but feel that the pattern of distinc-
 77

Evidently a different original stock with quite

a distinctive variability potential resulted in these
Warbler finches, which incidently are remark-
ably distinctive in feeding habits also, Present
feeding habits are the result of the particular
types of bills the individuals happened to have
inherited. Most emphatically I cannot accept
the idea that the variations in size of bill are
“adaptive divergencies” resulting from natural
selection.
The various races now labeled as species and
genera certainly exist and are not imaginary.
But they are more comparable to the tribes of
Indians existing in North America before Colum-
bus discovered it, than to species, let alone
genera. Ornithologists call attention to the fact
that these forms remain distinct and have dif-
ferent song patterns. However, Orr reports that
the basic song is the same. Again this would
be comparable to the various languages of the
Indians, all variations of the same basic pattern.
Evidence as to the amount of natural hybridi-
zation is far from adequate. Possibly some of
the intermediate forms, such as G. conirostris
rothschildi, are really hybrids. Who really
Figure 5. Top: G. fortis female ( much beak curvature). knows? Attempts so far to interbreed the so-
Middle: G. conirostris, female. Bottom: G. scandens, called “species” in captivity have failed accord-
male. G. fortis varies in curvature of beak some ing to Robert Bowman’s assistant, Miss Cutler.
being identical to G. conirostris. However she points out that mating even be-
tween individuals of the same species is difficult
tion exists more in the mind of Bowman than in to achieve in cages.
the reality of specimens observed and so care- One conclusion is certain, the entities called
fully measured. species are certainly not comparable in distinc-
If species are to be erected on such minute tion to the basic species as in the genus Rosa
norms, then indeed we will be burdened with or Prunus of the family Rosaceae. When it
an almost infinite number of names. comes to genera, would any ornithologist claim
It seems much more in line with reality to Geospiza, Camarhynchus, Cactospiza, and Pla-
consider these birds as all one species, broken tyspiza are comparable to the genera Rosa,
up into various island forms as a result of Rubus, Prunus, Fragaria, (Strawberry), or Pyrus
chance arrangement of their original variability (pear)? With all due respect to the importance
potential, as regards the rather minor variation of taking seriously subtle and not “easily recog-
in bill and body size, skull features and plumage nized” differences, I submit that we are here
coloration. A Sewell Wright random variation considering variations on a totally different level.
pattern would give exactly this sort of thing. This leads to an even more important ques-
Presumably many pairs of finches from either tion: Are not the families, genera, and species
Ecuador or even Central America happened to of all mammals and birds based on a lower
fly there and settle on these islands. order of diversity than those existing in plants?
The Certhidea or Warbler finches surely are
distinctive though I doubt if the four species are Postscript on Needed Research
more than merely color variations. C. fuscus, Familiar as I have to be in my work with a
becki, olivacea, and mentalis were the labels wide range of flowering plants, and especially
shown on the various individuals in the collec- the genera of the family Rosaceae and Com-
tion. There was so much intergradation in color posite, it has for many years seemed to me that
that it seemed rather strange to have different the families, genera, and species of vertebrates
labels on these all of which were rather similar are based on characteristics which in plants
in size. would be classed as genera, species and varieties.
78

Furthermore there is an undue emphasis on bone ears. Sus is credited with five species but they
structure, as if this feature outweighed all other certainly look remarkably similar to one another.
characteristics in establishing the validity and Sus salvanica is often put in a separate sub-genus
importance of the various distinctions. Porcula simply because it is small, weighing
up to 75 kg. By contrast the giant forest hog
This emphasis was understandable before we Hylochoerus meinertzhayeni weighs from 160
became aware of how the DNA system of in- to 275 kg. It lives in the forests and bamboo
heritance works. But surely it must be apparent jungles of Africa and looks like a great big Sus.
now that bone structure really has no more sig- It does not however have facial glands.
nificance than such apparently ephemeral char-
acteristics as color of the hair or indeed the The wart hog, Phacohoerus aethiopica, is dis-
finger print pattern of a foot or hand. For de- tinguished mainly by its warts, which are prom-
fects in the DNA code show up just as often inent only in the male. They are located on the
in defective bone structure as in other parts side of the head and front of the eye.
of the body such as the brain. It is only the The above differences seem simply the expres-
relative permanence of the bones in terms of sion of heterozygocity for size, location of hair,
time that has given them a false importance in and presence or absence of warts, often a heri-
the evaluation of resemblances and differences. table genetic defect.
We must have a new look at vertebrate sys- There appears to be no basically distinctive
tematic in order to bring the classification of pattern such as distinguishes the genus Fragaria
animals more in line with reality. On the basis (Strawberry) from the genus Rosa (Rose). I am
of a world catastrophe we would expect air not here claiming that all of these nine species
breathing creatures to be much more reduced of hogs came from only one ancestral pair, but
in variety than plants or insects (which are pre- rather that the distinctions compared to those
served as eggs or pupae). Here the facts of defining the genera of the family Rosaceae are
nature are in accord with God’s revelation in relatively slight. Careful breeding research may
Genesis. For according to the inspired narrative, indeed show that all are capable of interbreeding
only representatives of the various kinds of ani- and so, as in domestic dogs, are really the result
mals and birds were preserved. Furthermore the of segregation from an originally heterozygous
genetic potential of the clean animals and birds pair. Mutations for other differences may well
is recorded as being greater than that of the have also occured during the early phase of their
unclean ones, since three pairs of clean animals distribution and so added to the distinctions
and only one pair of unclean animals were now observed as characteristic.
preserved.
The case of the fifth genus Babyrousa with
Do we indeed now find greater diversity of its single species babyrussa is fascinating. Here
clean than unclean animals? Lack of space for- we have a remarkable example of how an
bids a complete analysis but let us look at a animal can continue to live in spite of its obvious
few cases. defects. It lives in such odd places as the North
The horse is classified as unclean, and we have Celebes, Togian Islands, the island of Burn, and
only one living species as compared with the Sula. This creature is almost entirely devoid of
dozen or more living before the Flood, ranging hair, and has a rough skin which is brownish
in size from the little five toed, forest dwelling grey, and hangs in loose folds as if reduced from
Eohippus to the large, open plains and still liv- twice its former weight. It now weighs about
ing Equus, We have only two species of camels, 90 kg. Most interesting is that the upper tusk
yet many are recorded as fossils. grows through the top of the muzzle and then
curves backwards and so is of no use as a
The hog is most interesting. Mammals of the weapon. Even the lower tusks are little used
World page 1357 5 lists five genera and nine since they are not kept sharp. The young are
species. The genus Potomochoerus has only one not striped like most pigs.
species porcus living in Southern Africa, Mada-
gascar, and Impalita Islands. It weighs 75 to Surely this creature should long ago have
150 kg. and resembles the genus Phacochoerus been eliminated were natural selection the po-
and Sus. There is less hair on Phacohoerus and tent agent for survival of the fittest as usually
it has more teeth. The ears are more tufted claimed. Genetically, it seems to be the result
than those of Sus. It is known as the European of real-functioning of several DNA molecules
wild hog but is also living in North Africa, Asia, which resulted in such an abnormal expression
Japan, and the Malaysian islands. of ancestral Sus traits.
Frankly, I see little justification for placing In birds we have many types of unclean
Sus and Potomochoerus in different genera on kinds which are now represented by only a few
the basis of differences such as tufting of the species. Thus the Grehes of the world total 20.
 79

If comparable to western ones I have seen introductory to this vast subject of survival pat-
(listed incidentally in Peterson’s, A Field Guide terns. However I believe it demonstrates that
to Western Birds), they might well be reduced often the picture of genetic diversity given as
to as few as 10. The pelican is represented by the result of natural selection is, to put it
only six species, two of which are in the west. mildly, exaggerated.
There are only two eagles listed.
By contrast among the clean animals we have References
dozens of species of grosbeaks, finches, sparrows, 1
High School Biology (Biological Sciences Curriculum
and buntings (Fringillids), tanagers (Thraupidae), Study-Green Version). Chicago: Rand McNally and
meadowlarks, blackbirds, orioles (Icteridae), and Co., 1963.
warblers (Parulidae). 2
Biological Science: An Inquiry into Life (Biological Sci-
ences Curriculum Study-Yellow Version). New York:
There does indeed seem to be a correlation Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1963.
in survival between the greater number of clean 3
Lack, David, Darwin’s Finches (An Essay on the General
birds and animals saved and their present greater Biological Theory of Evolution). Harper Torchbooks,
diversity, as compared to the single pair of un- #TB 544 of The Science Library. New York: Harper
clean kinds saved and their present lack of and Brothers, 1961. (First published in 1947.)
variety. Careful research into this aspect of 4
Bowlllan, Robert I., Morphological Differentiation and
animal classification is needed. Adaptation in Galapagos Finches. University of Cali-
fornia Publications in Zoology. University of California
This paper is presented mainly with the hope Press, Berkeley, California, 1961.
of arousing interest on the part of creation re- 5
Mammals of the World. Philadelphia: Johns Hopkins
search oriented naturalists. It is admittedly only Press, 1964.
 Our Society of research scientists representing various fields of successful scientific accom-
plishment is committed to full belief in the Biblical record of creation and early history, and thus
to a concept of dynamic special creation (as opposed to evolution), both of the universe and the
earth with its complexity of living forms.
We propose to re-evaluate science from this viewpoint. Beginning in 1964, we are publish-
ing an annual yearbook of articles by various members of the Society and thereafter a quarterly
review of scientific literature. Our eventual goal is the realignment of science based on theistic
creation concepts and the publication of textbooks for high school and college use.
1. The Bible is the written Word of God, and because it is inspired throughout, all its asser-
tions are historically and scientifically true in all the original autographs. To the student
of nature this means that the account of origins in Genesis is a factual presentation of
simple historical truths.
2. All basic types of living things, including man, were made by direct creative acts of God
during the Creation Week described in Genesis. Whatever biological changes have oc-
curred since Creation Week have accomplished only changes within the original created
kinds.
3. The great Flood described in Genesis, commonly referred to as the Noachian Flood, was
an historic event worldwide in its extent and effect.
4. We are an organization of Christian men of science who accept Jesus Christ as our Lord
and Saviour. The account of the special creation of Adam and Eve as one man and woman
and their subsequent fall into sin is the basis for our belief in the necessity of a Saviour
for all mankind. Therefore, salvation can come only through accepting Jesus Christ as
our Saviour.

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Bolton Davidheiser, Ph.D.; Geneticist, Biola College, La Mirada, California
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