Chapter 8

Root Locus Techniques

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 Chapter 8 Learning Outcomes：
Chapter 8 Learning Outcomes：After completing this
chapter the student will be able to：
□Define a root locus (Sections 8.1-8.2)
□State the properties of a root locus (Section 8.3)
□Sketch a root locus (Section 8.4)
□Find the coordinates of points on the root locus
and their associated gains(Sections 8.5-8.6)
□Use the root locus to design a parameter value to
meet a transient response specification for
systems of order 2 and higher (Sections 87)

Scope of ch. 8 in this course: 8.1 - 8.7

EE360 Control System Spring 2016
Chapter 8 Learning Outcomes：After completing this chapter the student will be able to：
□Define a root locus (Sections 8.1-8.2)
□State the properties of a root locus (Section 8.3)
□Sketch a root locus (Section 8.4)
□Find the coordinates of points on the root locus and their associated gains(Sections 8.5-8.6)
□Use the root locus to design a parameter value to meet a transient response specification for systems of
order 2 and higher (Sections 87)
Scope of ch. 8 in this course: 8.1 - 8.7

Terminology Review
Open-loop transfer function
Open-loop poles
Open-loop zeros
Loop gain (system gain / Gain)
Denominator polynomial of open-loop transfer function
Numerator polynomial of open-loop transfer function
Closed-loop transfer function
Characteristic equation (polynomial) of closed-loop system
Closed-loop poles

Introduction Control system problem

Figure 8.1 Figure 8.2

Pole plot (×) for several K Root Locus

Definition of Root Locus
Root Locus represents the paths of the closed-loop poles as the gain is varied. It is used to analyse and
design the effect of loop gain on the system’s transient response and stability.

Basic Process for sketching the root locus

1) Open-loop transfer function: 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)
2) Open loop poles:
3) Number of finite open-loop zeros: 𝑚
4) Number of poles:𝑛
5) Number of infinite open-loop zeros:𝑛 − 𝑚

6) (n-m) asymptotes.
(2𝑘−1)
7) Angle of asymptotes 𝜃𝑎 = ± 180°
𝑛−𝑚

ex.) n - m=0: no asymptote, n - m=1: 𝜃𝑎 = 180°

n - m=2: 𝜃𝑎 = 90°, 270° n - m=3: 𝜃𝑎 = 60°, 180°, 300°

∑ 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛−𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠−∑ 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛−𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠

8) Centroid of asymptotes: 𝜎𝑎 = 𝑛−𝑚

9) Substitute 𝑠 = 𝜎(𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙) into 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = −1, and represent 𝐾 𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝜎

𝑑𝐾
If all solutions of the equation = 0 are real numbers, their locations yield breakaway /
𝑑𝜎
break-in points.
10) If the root locus crosses the imaginary axis (jω axis):
Generate the Routh of the characteristic equation: See Example 6.10 (Table 6.17)
From auxiliary equation, we can find the imaginary axis crossing:

11) From the Routh table above we also find the range of K causing stable closed-loop system.

Example 8.2
8.1 Introduction

Control System Problem

8.2 Defining the
Root Locus

𝐾
𝑠(𝑠 + 10)
Root locus:
Representation of
the paths of the
closed-loop poles as
the gain K is varied
8.3 Properties of the root locus

𝐾𝐺(𝑠)
𝑇 𝑠 =
1 + 𝐾𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)

Closed pole satisfies 𝐾𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 = −1

8.4 Sketching the Root Locus
Basic Rules
Number of branches:
The number of branches of the root locus equals the number
of closed-loop poles.
Symmetry:
The root locus is symmetrical about the real axis.
Real-axis segments:
On the real axis, the root locus exists to the left of an odd
number of real-axis, finite open-loop poles and/or finite
open-loop zeros.
Starting and ending points:
The root locus begins at the finite and infinite poles of
G(s)H(s) and ends at the finite and infinite zeros of G(s)H(s).
Example: Open-loop pole-zero plot
Real axis segment
Real axis segment and complete root locus
Behavior at infinity:
The root locus approaches straight lines
as asymptotes as the locus approaches
infinity.
Further, the equations of the asymptotes
are given by
Centroid: real-axis intercept:
open loop poles − open loop zeros
𝜎𝑎 =
𝑛−𝑚
n: number of finite open-loop poles
m: number of finite open-loop zeros
Angles of asymptotes:
2𝑘 + 1 180°
𝜃𝑎 = 𝑘 = 0, ±1, ±2,
𝑛−𝑚
Example 8.2 Root locus with asymptotes

Centroid: real-axis intercept:

−1 − 2 − 4 − (−3) 4
𝜎𝑎 = =−
4−1 3
Angles of asymptotes:

𝜃𝑎 = 60, 180, 300 (degree)

Centroid
𝜎𝑎 = −4/3
8.5 Refining the Sketch
Real-axis Breakaway and Break-in points

𝐾(𝑠 − 3)(𝑠 − 5)
𝐾𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 =
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)
 Additional Rules
Real-axis breakaway and break-in points:
The root locus breaks away from the real axis at a point
where the gain is maximum and breaks into the real axis
at a point where the gain is minimum.
Substituting 𝑠 = 𝜎(𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙) into 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 = −1, and
represent 𝐾 𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝜎. If all the solutions of
the equation
𝑑𝐾
=0
𝑑𝜎
are real numbers, their locations yield breakaway / break-
in points.
Calculation of jω-axis crossings:
The root locus crosses the jω-axis, generate Routh table
and find K causing zero row. From the auxiliary equation
yields imaginary axis crossing. See Example 6.10
 𝐾(𝑠 − 3)(𝑠 − 5)
𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝐾𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 =
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)

𝐾(𝜎 − 3)(𝜎 − 5)
𝐾𝐺 𝜎 𝐻 𝜎 = = −1
(𝜎 + 1)(𝜎 + 2)

−(𝜎 2 + 3𝜎 + 2)
𝐾= 2
(𝜎 − 8𝜎 + 15)

𝑑𝐾
Solve
𝑑𝜎
=0
 Learning Objectives
ECE 345 / ME 380
• State the phase and gain properties of a root locus
Introduction to Control Systems • Sketch a root locus, by identifying
Lecture Notes 8 – Real-axis segments
– Start and end points of the locus
Dr. Oishi – Number of asymptotes, and location of the asymptote center
[email protected] • Refine a root locus sketch, by identifying
– Real-axis breakaway and break-in points
November 12, 2013 – Angles of departure and arrival
– Imaginary axis crossings
• Find the gain associated with a point on the root locus
• Use the root locus to design a gain to meet a transient response
specification
References:
• Nise Chapter 8.1–8.8

Outline What is the root locus?

For the negative unity feedback system with

• What is a root locus?
• Review: Vector representations of complex numbers 1
G(s) =
• Phase and gain property of the root locus s(s + 10)
• Sketching the root locus
Y (s)
• Refining the root locus sketch the characteristic equation of R(s) is
• Control design via root locus
(s) = 1 + KG(s) = s2 + 10s + K

The poles of the closed-loop transfer function

p
s= 5± 52 K

will be real-valued for K  25 and complex-valued for K > 25.

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 What is the root locus? What is the root locus?

For the negative unity feedback system with For the negative unity feedback system with
(s) = 1 + KG(s) = s2 + 10s + K (s) = 1 + KG(s) = s2 + 10s + K

1 1
G(s) = G(s) =
s(s + 10) s(s + 10)

Plot the poles for various values of K > 0. The root locus is a plot of the roots of the
closed-loop system as K varies from 0+ to 1.
Also plot the poles of the open-loop system
KG(s). The plot starts at the poles of KG(s)
with K = 0.
As K ! 0, the poles of 1 + KG(s) move
towards the poles of KG(s).
(s) = 1 + KG(s) = D(s) + KN (s) = 0

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What is the root locus? What is the root locus?

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 What is the root locus? Phase and Gain Criteria of The Root Locus

The root locus is a plot of the roots of the closed-loop system as All plots on the locus satisfy
K varies from 0+ to 1. (s) = 1 + KG(s) = 0

• Developed by Walter Evans (1920–1999) as a graduate student at

UCLA. Phase criterion
• Generic technique to sketch roots of a polynomial as a function of one • All points s 2 C on the locus satisfy \G(s) = 180 ± 360k, k 2 Z.
parameter in the polynomial. (Recall that G(s) is simply a complex number. Then for all K > 0,
• Simple graphical representation of all potential locations for poles of the 1
= G(s)
closed-loop system as the gain K increases. K
• Particularly convenient for negative unitary feedback systems, because
analysis of open-loop system KG(s) allows quick assessment of Gain criterion
KG(s)
behavior of closed-loop system 1+KG(s) . • The gain required to place one of the poles of the closed-loop system at
a desired location s⇤ is
• Back-of-the envelope sketching techniques are important. 1
K=
• Numerical tools in Matlab (rlocus, rlocfind). G(s⇤)

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Sketching the Root Locus Sketching the Root Locus

Main idea 1. Symmetry

• Back-of-the-envelope sketch • The root locus always has symmetry about the real axis
• Identify basic features of the root locus 2. Number of branches
• Based on gain and phase properties of the root locus • A branch is the path a single pole traverses as K increases
• The number of branches of the root locus is equal to the number of
• Can refine later, or plot numerically
poles.
3. Real-axis segments
Key features • The root locus exists on the real line to the left of an odd number of
• Symmetry poles and zeros
• Number of branches
• Real-axis segments
• Start and end points
• Behavior at infinity

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 Review: Vector representation of complex numbers Review: Vector representation of complex numbers

For a transfer function The magnitude of G(s) is

(s + z1)(s + z2) · · · (s + zm) |s + z1| · |s + z2| · · · |s + zm|

G(s) = |G(s)| =
(s + p1)(s + p2) · · · (s + pn) |s + p1| · |s + p2| · · · |s + pn|

• The vector s + p is the vector drawn from pole p to a point s Product of magnitudes of vectors drawn from zeros to s
=
• The vector s + z is the vector drawn from zero z to point s Product of magnitudes of vectors drawn from poles to s

The phase of G(s) is

\G(s) = (\(s + z1) + \(s + z2) + · · · + \(s + zm))

(\(s + p1) + \(s + p2) + · · · + \(s + pn))

= (Sum of angles of vectors drawn from zeros to s)

(Sum of angles of vectors drawn from poles to s)

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Sketching the Root Locus Sketching the Root Locus

Clicker question
4. Start and end points
• The root locus starts at the poles of G(s) and ends at the zeros of Which of the following is a feasible root locus plot?
G(s)
1 N (s)
(s) = 1 + KG(s) = D(s) + KN (s) = + =0
K D(s)

For K small, 0 = D(s) + KN (s) ⇡ D(s).

For K large, 0 = K 1
+N (s)
D(s) ) N (s) ⇡ 0.
5. Behavior at infinity
• For a system with n poles and m zeros, A. B. C.
n m branches do not end.
D. Both A. and B.
• “Infinite zeros”
E. Both B. and C.

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 Sketching the Root Locus Sketching the Root Locus

Clicker question 5. Behavior at infinity (cont’d)

Which of the following is correct, based on the system whose root locus • n m branches converge to asymptotes that approach infinity as
plot is shown below? K!1
• The asymptotes have (n m) angles

(2k + 1)⇡
A. The system is unstable for low gains. ✓k = [rad]
n m
B. The system is unstable for high gains.
C. The system is stable for any gain. • The asymptotes have 1 centroid
D. The system is unstable for any gain. Pn Pm
k=1 ( pk ) k=1 ( zk )
=
n m

(s+z1 )(s+z2 )···(s+zm )

for G(s) = (s+p1 )(s+p2 )···(s+pn )

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Sketching the Root Locus Refining the Root Locus Sketch

Clicker question 6. Real-axis breakaway and break-in points

Consider a negative unity feedback system • Occurs when branches intersect
• A breakaway occurs when the locus leaves the real axis
• A break-in occurs when the locus returns to the real axis
• Angle of the breakaway / break-in with respect to the real axis is
180 /n and maintains symmetry about the real axis
for which G(s) has no zeros. Use a root locus sketch to determine under – 2 poles ) ±90
which of the following scenarios the closed-loop system YR(s)
(s)
will remain – 3 poles ) 60 , 180 , 240
stable for all values of K > 0. – 4 poles ) 45 , 135 , 225 , 315
– ..
A. G(s) has one pole in the LHP.
B. G(s) has two poles in the LHP.
C. G(s) has three poles in the LHP.
D. A. and B.
E. A. and B. and C.

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 Refining the Root Locus Sketch Refining the Root Locus Sketch

6. Real-axis breakaway and break-in points 7. Angles of departure and arrival

• A breakaway / break-in occurs for the value of s in the appropriate • Angle of departure from each pole
range that solves • Angle of arrival to each zero
Xm Xn
✓ ◆
dK d 1 ✓zk ✓pk = 180
= =0 k=1 k=1
ds ds G(s)

• Or equivalently, for s that solves

m
X n
X 1
1
=
s + zk s + pk
k=1 k=1

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Refining the Root Locus Sketch Refining the Root Locus Sketch

Sketch the root locus for the negative unity feedback system with
8. Imaginary axis crossings s+1
G(s) = s(s+2)(s+3) .
• Routh table
– Choose K such that there is a row of zeros
– Solve the roots of the polynomial formed from row above row of
zeros to find the location of the imaginary axis crossing
– See Nise Example 8.5
• Hurwitz criterion 1. How many poles and zeros, and where are they located?
– Choose K such that constraints on 2. Which parts of the real line are on the root locus?
coefficients equal 0 instead of being 3. How many asymptotes, and at what angles ✓k ?
greater than zero
4. Where is the centroid of the asymptotes?
5. Where is the real-axis breakaway point?
6. For poles and zeros not on the real line, what are the departure / arrival
angles?

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 Refining the Root Locus Sketch Refining the Root Locus Sketch

Clicker question Clicker question

1 1
G(s) = G(s) =
s(s + 4)(s2 + 8s + 32) s(s + 4)(s2 + 8s + 32)

Consider the above system, with open-loop poles at s = 0, 4, 4 ± 4j. Consider the above system, with open-loop poles at s = 0, 4, 4 ± 4j.
Which of the following is the most correct? Which of the following is the most correct? (Note that the solutions of
4s3 + 36s2 + 128s + 128 = 0 are s = 3.71 ± 2.55j, 1.58.)
A. With four asymptotes at ✓k = 0 , ±90 , 180 , with high enough gain,
Y (s)
R(s) will become unstable with one pole in the RHP. A. One break-away point at s = 1.58.
B. With four asymptotes at ✓k = ±45 , ±135 , with high enough gain,
Y (s) B. One break-away point at s = 1.58, one break-in point at s = 3.71.
R(s) will become unstable with two poles in the RHP.
Y (s) C. Departure angles of the poles at s = 4 ± 4j are ⌥135 .
C. R(s) is unstable at low gains with one pole at the origin.
Y (s)
D. Departure angles of the poles at s = 0, 4 are ±135 .
D. is unstable for all values of K, with either one or two poles in the
R(s) E. Both A. and C.
RHP depending on the value of K.

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Summary

• Root locus is a plot of the poles of the closed-loop system as K varies

from 0 to 1
• Sketching the root locus allows for quick assessment of what is needed
to stabilize a system
• Precise numerical tools available in Matlab (locus)
• Root locus starts at the poles of the open-loop system and ends at the
zeros of the open-loop system
• Important landmarks: Location of open-loop poles and zeros, root locus
on the real axis, asymptote angles and centroid
• Additional landmarks: Real axis breakaway / break-in points, departure
/ arrival angles, imaginary axis crossings

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