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Reinforcement Corrosion in Concrete Structures and Service Life Predictions –

A Review

Conference Paper · November 2014

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 9th International Symposium on Advanced Science and Technology in Experimental Mechanics, 1-6 November, 2014, New Delhi, India

Reinforcement Corrosion in Concrete Structures and Service Life Predictions – A Review

Sushil DHAWAN1, Suresh BHALLA2 and B. BHATTACHARJEE3

1, 2, 3
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi (IITD), India, 110016

Abstract has a low permeability, which minimizes the penetration of

This article provides an overview of the mechanism of corrosion including agents such as chlorides, CO2,
reinforcement corrosion, its initiation, progress and factors moisture etc. to steel surfaces. Further the high electrical
that expedite the process of reinforcement corrosion. Since resistivity of the concrete restricts the rate of corrosion by
the desirable requirement of high electric resistivity of reducing the flow of electric current from the anodic to the
concrete and high alkalinity of the pre solution is not cathodic sites. At the outset, it must be mentioned that
achieved in practice, a monitoring system of the structures usually in a properly, constructed and maintained structure,
become essential to assess the damage of the structure over there should be little problem of corrosion during its
time due to reinforcement corrosion. Once the service life.
reinforcement corrosion is initiated, it shortens the service In general there are two major features which cause
life of the structures by crack initiation, propagation and corrosion of reinforcement in concrete to an unacceptable
subsequently spalling of the cover concrete due to degree; (i) Carbonation (ii) presence of chloride ions which
expansion of corrosion steel. Hence prediction of the may either have been present in the concrete constituents’
remaining service life of the structure becomes essential in right from the beginning or are introduced into the concrete
the assessment of the stability of structures. The prediction during the service life. When the rebar in the concrete is
of the remaining service life of a corroded structure may be exposed to the chlorites, either contributed from the
carried out with the help of various available prediction concrete ingredients or penetrated from surrounding
models on experimental techniques with the utilization of chloride bearing environment, carbonation of concrete or
the data through monitoring. penetration of acids into the concrete are the causes of
reinforcement corrosion along with others related to the
Key words external environment such as moisture, oxygen, humidity,
Corrosion, concrete, service life, rebar & crack temperature and bacterial attack.

1. Introduction 2. Mechanism of corrosion of Rebar in Concrete

Reinforced concrete is one of the most common Corrosion of steel embedded in concrete is an
materials used by the construction industry all over the electrochemical process. The surface of the corroding steel
world. The raw materials required for its construction are functions as a mixed electrode that is a composite of the
widely available and the built structures are in general anode and the cathode electrically connected through a
durable. Owing to the wide variety of applications, body of steel itself, upon which coupled anodic and
reinforced concrete structures are subjected to a range of cathodic reactions take place.
exposure conditions including marine, industrial, or other
severe environments. Actually, high durability
requirements is not always achieved in practice due to
which corrosion of reinforcement in concrete is one of the
main cause of deterioration in RC structures.
Reinforcement corrosion has been widely reported and it is
one of the main durability problems. Reinforced concrete
is used for construction of transportation infrastructure
such as bridges, tunnels, and harbour structures. It is also
used for offshore platforms and a wide range of public and
private buildings. Owing to the wide variety of
applications, reinforced concrete are subjected to a range
of exposure conditions, including marine, industrial or
Fig.1 Schematic representation of corrosion of
other severe environments.
reinforcement steel in concrete as an electrochemical
The functionality and reliability of infrastructure is
process [1]
crucial for a society and its economy to function. Concrete
normally provides a high degree of protection to the
The assessment of the causes and the extent of
reinforcing steel against corrosion, by virtue of the high
corrosion is carried out using various electrochemical
alkalinity (pH 13.5) of the pore solution. Under high
techniques. In this paper a review on the mechanism of
alkalinity steel remains passivized. In addition, well
reinforcement corrosion techniques utilized to monitor
consolidated and purely cured concrete with low w/c ratio
 9th International Symposium on Advanced Science and Technology in Experimental Mechanics, 1-6 November, 2014, New Delhi, India

reinforcement corrosion and methodologies that are • Permeability of concrete which is a function of w/c
utilised for the production of remaining service life of the ration affects the corrosion of the rebar
structures.
Concrete is a complex material of construction that The detrimental effects on the durability of RC structures
enables the high compressive strength of natural stone to are that it causes volume expansion developing tensile
be used in concrete structures. In tension, however, stress in concrete, which ultimately results in cracking and
concrete can be no stronger than the bond between the spalling of concrete. Due to loss of concrete cover there
cured cement and the surfaces of the aggregate. This is may be significant reduction in the load bearing capacity of
generally much lower than the compressive strength of the structure.
concrete. Concrete is therefore frequently reinforced,
usually with steel. When the system of steel bars or a steel 4. Durability of Concrete (Construction Practice)
mesh is incorporated in the concrete structures in such a • Aggregate washing of deleterious materials
way that the steel can support most of the tensile stresses • Recommended w/c ratio, minimum cement
and leave the immediately surrounding concrete
content, cover thickness etc
comparatively free from the tensile stress, then the
complex is known as Reinforced Concrete. • Proper mixing, placing, compaction of freshly
placed concreteProperties of fresh concrete-
workability, uniformity, segregation, bleeding.
• Segregation and bleeding should be avoided
• Properties of hardened concrete – Strength and
durability
• Proper curing of concrete
• Engineered concrete [cement, graded coarse
aggregates, graded fine aggregates, mineral
admixtures , chemical admixtures (use of water
Fig.2 Progress of corrosion in concrete and eventual spalling reducing admixtures or super plasticisers), water]
[2]
5. Time Dependent States of Reinforcement Corrosion
Anodic and cathodic reactions are broadly referred to Corrosion process has three distinct stages:
as “Half- Cell reactions”. The anodic reaction is the • De-passivation (process of de-passivation takes an
oxidation process, which results in the loss of metal, while initiation period)
the ‘cathodic reaction’ is the reduction process which • Propagation (propagation phase starts from the time of
results in reduction of dissolved oxygen forming Hydroxyl de-passivation to the final state)
Ions [3]. De-passivation around rebar would bring down • Final State
the pH value and would result to corrosion in rebar.
Corrosion rate is affected by the following factors (i) The
pH of the electrolyte in concrete which is affected mainly
by the carbonation, (ii) The availability of oxygen and
capillary water and (iii) The concentration of Fe2+ in
concrete near the reinforcement [4].

3. Factors affecting Corrosion of Steel in Concrete

Structures [5]
• Availability of oxygen and moisture at the rebar level
• Relative humidity and temperature
• Carbonation and entry of acidic gaseous pollutants to
rebar level Fig.3 Stages of Rebar Corrosion
• Chloride ions reaching to the rebar level either through
the concrete ingredients or from the external Critical tcr is the time of unacceptable corrosion
environment. damage and this critical time can be the service life. For
• Aggregate Size and grading the reinforced concrete it is assumed to equate the
• Construction Practice unacceptable corrosion damage to the onset of spalling of
concrete. Corrosion-induced deterioration of reinforced
• Cover over reinforcing steel concrete can be modelled in terms of these components:
• Cement composition 1. Time for corrosion initiation (Ti)
• Impurities in aggregate 2. Time, subsequent to corrosion initiation, for
• Impurities in mixing and curing water appearance of a crack on the external concrete surface
(crack propogation, Tp); and
 9th International Symposium on Advanced Science and Technology in Experimental Mechanics, 1-6 November, 2014, New Delhi, India

3. Time for surface cracks to progress into further moisture to the steel surface but restrict oxygen
damage and develop into spalls (Td) to the point where penetration.
the functional service life(Tf) is reached. 3. Stainless steel can be used in lieu of conventional
reinforcements.
Figure 3 shown illustrates this schematically as a plot of
cumulative damage versus time. 4. Use of fly ash concrete with low permeability which
would delay the arrival of carbonation and chlorites at
6. Reasons of Corrosion the level of the rebar. They form a calcium silica
The two most common causes of reinforcement hydrate (CSH) compound that over time effectively
corrosion are: reduces concrete diffusivity to oxygen, carbon dioxide,
1. Localised breakdown of the passive film on steel by water and chloride ions.
chloride ions and
5. Electro chemical injection of organic base corrosion
2. General breakdown of passivity by neutralization of
the concrete, predominantly by reaction with inhibitors into carbonated concrete.
atmospheric CO2. 6. Physical properties of durable concrete would improve
Durable concrete (alkaline with pH~13.5) is an ideal the extent of carbonation decline.
environment for steel but the increased use of salts and the 7. Installation of physical barrier system such as coatings,
increase concentration of Carbon dioxide in modern sealers, membrane.
environment due to industrial pollution has resulted in 8. The zinc surface layer applied either hot dipped or
corrosion of the rebar becoming the primary cause of
electrode deposition would result on a low corrosion
failure of this material.
Loss of alkalinity due to carbonation – due to rate for zinc, thereby providing galvanic cathodic
depassivation alkalinity is lost as a result of protection.
1. Reaction with acidic gases (such as CO2) in the 9. Concrete mix design modification involves such
atmosphere factors as reduced water cement ratio including use of
2. Leaching by water from the surface water reducing admixtures or super plasticisers, type
of cement, permeability reducing admixtures such as
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 --------à CaCO3 + H2O
fly ash, silica fumes, blast furnace slag, and corrosion
It consumes alkalinity and reduces pore water pH to inhibiting admixtures.
8.9 range, where steel is no longer passive. 10. Remedies for corrosion-damaged concrete include
removal of all delaminated concrete, cleaning of the
6.1 Loss of alkalinity due to chlorides [6] reinforcement by abrasive blast cleaning.
The chloride ion locally de-passivates the metal and
promotes active metal dissolution. Chloride reacts with the 8. Strategies for Investigation of a Corroded RC
calcium aluminate and calcium alumino ferrate in the Structure
concrete to form insoluble calcium chloro aluminates and A visual survey, whether the corrosion of rebar is
calcium chloro ferrates in which the chlorite is bound in really a cause of distress. The survey consists of a careful
non active form; it is the chlorite in solution the is free to investigation of the structure for any sign of distress such
promote corrosion of steel. as cracking, spalling and rust staining.

6.2 Cracks due to mechanical loading 8.1 Reinforcement Corrosion Monitoring Techniques
If the cracks penetrate to the steel, protection can be • Half – Cell potential, E corrosion
lost. This is especially under tensile loading, for de- • Concrete resistivity (P)
bonding of steel and concrete occurs, thus removing the
• Corrosion current density ( I corrosion)
alkaline environment and so destroying the protection in
the vicinity of the de-bonding. Corrosion of steel
9. Service Life Prediction Models [8]
reinforcement also can be due to atmospheric pollution.
9.1Bazant’s Model
7. Prevention [7]
This model predicts the corrosion damage based on
1. Keep concrete always dry, so that there is no moisture
volume expansion due to the formation of hydrated red rust
to form rust. If concrete is always wet, then there is no over the residual rebar core. This rust is expansive in
oxygen to form rust. nature and occupies four times the volume of parent steel
2. Epoxy coating to rebar to protect them from moisture that creates a pressure on the concrete to produce cracks on
and aggressive agents. The embedded epoxy coating its surface.
on steel bars provide a certain degree of protection to
the steel bars and thereby, delay the initiation of 9.2Morinaga’s Model
An empirical model to predict the service life of
corrosion. These coatings prevent movement of
corroded rebars based on the instance of concrete cover
crack by means of rust formation on rebar surface.
 9th International Symposium on Advanced Science and Technology in Experimental Mechanics, 1-6 November, 2014, New Delhi, India

9.3Wang and Zhao’s Model

The analysis of a large number of rebar corrosion data
collected from laboratory and their comparision with finite 11. CONCLUSIONS
element analysis, the authors (Wang and Zhao) have The most common causes of reinforcement corrosion
established an empirical expression to determine the ratio are chlorite ions and carbonation by atmospheric carbon
of thickness of corrosion product,∆ , to the depth of rebar dioxide. In wet and cold climates, reinforced concrete for
penetration, H, corresponding to the cracks in cover roads, bridges, parking structures and other structures that
concrete. may be exposed to deicing salt may benefit from the use of
epoxy coating, hot dip galvanized or stainless steel rebar.
9.4 Dagher and Kulendran’s Model A good structural design, detailing and a well-chosen
In the context of service life prediction of RC cement mix that makes durable concrete may provide
structures subjected to rebar corrosion, this model can be sufficient protection for many applications. Use of fly ash
used more reliably to determine the radial bar expansion at also delays the effect of chlorite and carbon dioxide.
which cracks in cover concrete occurs.
References
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