UNIT 12

GRAMMAR

Modal verbs.

1. Modal verbs of probability, present and future.

The main modal verbs that express probability are described here in order of
certainty. Will is the most certain, and might/could are the least certain.
1) Will.
a) Will and won’t are used to predict a future action. The truth or certainty of
what is asserted is more or less taken for granted.
e.g. His latest book will be out next month.
b) Will and won’t are also used to express what we believe or guess to be true
about the present. They indicate an assumption based on our knowledge of
people and things, their routines, character and qualities.
e.g. Leave the meat in the oven. It won’t be cooked yet.
It’s Monday morning, so I guess right now Sarah will be taking the children to
school.
2) Must and can’t.
a) Must is used to assert what we infer or conclude to be the most logical or
rational interpretation of the situation. We do not have all the facts, so it is less
certain than will. Must in this meaning is not used to speak about the future.
e.g. You say he walked across the Sahara Desert! He must be mad!
You must be joking! I simply don’t believe you!
b) The negative of this use is can’t.
e.g. She can’t have a ten-year-old daughter! She’s only twenty-one herself!
3) Should.
a) Should expresses what may reasonably be expected to happen. Expectation
means believing that things are or will be as we want them to be. This use of
should has the idea of if everything has gone according to plan.
e.g. Our guests should be here soon (if they haven’t got lost).
This homework shouldn’t take you too long (if you’ve understood what you have
to do).
We should be moving into our new house soon (as long as nothing goes wrong).
b) Should in this use has the idea that we want the action to happen. It is not
used to express negative or unpleasant ideas.
e.g. You should pass the exam. You’ve worked hard (NOT You should fail the
exam).
4) May, might and could.
a) May expresses the possibility that an event will happen or is happening.
e.g. We may go to Greece this year. We haven’t decided yet.
“Where’s Ann?” “She may be having a bath, I don’t know”.
b) Might and could are slightly more tentative and slightly less certain than may.
e.g. It might rain. Take your umbrella.
You could be right. I’m not sure.
c) Couldn’t is not used to express a future possibility. The negative of could in
this use is might not.
e.g. You might not be right.
d) Couldn’t has a similar meaning to can’t above, only slightly weaker.
e.g. She couldn’t have a ten-year-old daughter! She’s only twenty-one herself!

2. Modal verbs of probability in the past.

All the modal verbs above can be used with the perfect infinitive to speak about
probability in the past. They express the same varying degrees of certainty.
Again, will have done is the most certain, and might/ could have done is the
least certain.
e.g. “I met a tall girl at your party. Very attractive.” “That’ll have been my
sister, Patsy.”
It must have been a good party. Everyone stayed till dawn.
The music can’t have been any good. Nobody danced.
Where’s Pete? He should’ve been here ages ago.
He may have got lost.
He might have decided not to come.
He could have had an accident.

3. Other uses of modal verbs.

1) Obligation and advice.

a) Must expresses strong obligation. Other verb forms are provided by have to.
e.g. You must try harder.
You’ll have to do this exercise again.
I hate having to get up early.
b) Must expresses the opinion of the speaker.
e.g. I must get my hair cut.
You must do this again. (Teacher to student)
Have to expresses a general obligation based on a law or rule, or based on the
authority of another person.
e.g. Children have to go to school until they’re sixteen.
Mum says you have to tidy you room.
c) Mustn’t expresses negative obligation. Don’t have to expresses the absence
of obligation.
e.g. You mustn’t steal. It’s very naughty.
You don’t have to go to England if you want to learn English.
d) Should and ought to express mild obligation or advice. Should is much
more common. Ought to is not used in questions.
e.g. You should go to bed. You look very tired.
You ought to take things easier.
e) Should (ought to) + the perfect infinitive is used to refer to a desirable
action in the past that didn’t happen.
e.g. You should’ve listened to my advice. I was right all the time.
Shouldn’t (oughtn’t to) + the perfect infinitive is used to refer to an undesirable
action in the past that did happen.
e.g. You shouldn’t have told him he was a loser. It was callous.
f) Need is a modal verb, with no 3rd person form. It is used mainly in questions
and negatives. The meaning is similar to have to.
e.g. Need you ask? The Prime Minister need not worry.
Need to is a normal verb.
e.g. Sarah needs to be more careful. You don't need to worry. Do I need to fill in
this form?
g) Didn't need to describes a past situation, where something was not necessary,
so it was not done.
e.g. Kate looked after the children, so we didn't need to take them to the nursery.
Needn't have done describes a past situation, where something happened or was
done, but it was not necessary.
e.g. I needn't have gone so early to the office. The meeting was cancelled.
2) Permission.
a) May, can and could are used to ask for permission.
e.g. May I use your phone?
Can/could I go home?
b) May is used to give permission, but it sounds very formal. Can and can’t are
more common.
e.g. You can use a dictionary in this exam.
You can’t stay up till midnight.
c) To talk about permission generally, or permission in the past, we use can,
could or be able to.
e.g. Children can (are allowed) to do what they want these days.
3) Ability.
a) Can expresses ability. The past is expressed by could. Other forms are provided
by be able to.
e.g. I can speak three languages.
I could swim when I was three.
I’ve never been able to understand her.
b) To express a fulfilled ability on one particular occasion in the past, could is not
used. Instead we use was able to or managed to.
e.g. She was able to survive by clinging onto the wrecked boat.
The prisoner managed to escape by climbing onto the roof.
c) Could + the perfect infinitive is used to speak about an unrealized past ability.
Someone was able to do something in the past, but didn’t try to.
e.g. I could have gone to university, but I didn’t want to.
d) Could (and might) can be used to criticize people for not doing things.
e.g. You could (might) have helped me instead of just sitting there!
4) Request.
Several modal verbs express a request.
e.g. Can/could/will/would you help me?
5) Willingness and refusal.
a) Will expresses willingness. Won’t expresses a refusal by either people or things.
e.g. I’ll help you.
She says she won’t get up until she’s had breakfast in bed.
The car won’t start.
b) The past is expressed by wouldn’t.
e.g. My mum said she wouldn’t give me any more money.

I. Modal verbs of probability.

1. Choose the best continuation a to i for sentences 1 to 9.

1 You must have met some fascinating people

2 You must know Tokyo is expensive
3 You can't have lived in Tunisia for ten years
4 You can't be tired
5 You must be exhausted
6 You may find it difficult to settle down
7 You couldn't have gone on holiday
8 You might think about going to Spain
9 You could take a taxi

a after all your hard work.

b after touring the world for years.
с if you've lived there.
d during your trip to Africa.
e when you've just had a holiday.
f without learning some Arabic.
g to the airport tomorrow.
h because you had a broken leg.
i for your next holiday.

2. Choose the best continuation a to j for sentences 1 to 10.

1 I'm still waiting for the money the bank is supposed to have sent me.
2 There's still no sign of Alex.
3 It's getting rather late to deal with this now.
4 I wish you wouldn't leave your bag near the door like that.
5 You'd better take your umbrella with you.
6 This piece is the right shape, but it doesn't fit.
7 There should be a filling station here.
8 It's a very long book.
9 Oh sorry, yes, these are your keys.
10 Leave yourself plenty of time for the journey.
a. You're bound to need it if you don't.
b. Surely you can't have finished it already!
c. It should have got here by now.
d. It can take quite a long time in the rush hour.
e. It can't be the right one after all.
f. That's strange! I can't see one anywhere!
g. You could always come back tomorrow.
h. He may have missed the train I suppose.
i. I must have picked them up by mistake.
j. Someone could easily fall over it and hurt themselves.

3. Choose the correct alternative.

1 You must be / can't be very proud of your son winning so many prizes.
1 We thought our cousins would visit us when they were in town last week, but
they didn't even phone. I suppose they must be / must have been too busy.
2 The film's been such a big success. I guess it must be / can't be easy to get
tickets to see it.
3 I'm sure you could mend this if you really tried. You must be using / can't be
using the right tools.
2 I've just rung the garage to check whether they've fixed my car, but I can't get
an answer. I suppose they may have / may be having a tea-break out in the yard.
3 I don't know why you wanted to stay at that party. You might have enjoyed /
can't have enjoyed talking to all those boring people.
4 I can't go out this morning. We're getting a new sofa and the store may be
delivering / must be delivering it today.
5 Please check these figures again. They're not accurate. You might have been
concentrating / can't have been concentrating when you added them up.
4 You must be / must have been thirsty after carrying those heavy boxes. Shall I
make some tea?

4. Choose the correct form. А, В or C, to complete the sentence.

1 Why don't you phone Katie now? She … yet.

2 Take some sun-block and wear a hat, as it … get very hot in the middle of the
day.
3 There's no point waiting here any longer. We … go and have something to eat.
4 Lucky you managed to hang on to that tree. You …down the cliff.
5 'What am I going to do about a present for Carol?' 'You … some flowers.'
6 I don't know what time I'll be home. I … be quite late, I'm afraid.
7 Don't worry about your driving test. You … to pass.
8 There's no sign of the dog anywhere. Someone … it out.
9 Why don't you ask Nick about it? He … know the answer, I suppose.
10There must be some kind of technical problem. The film … by now.
1 A can't have left В must have left С might have left
2 A must В can С could have
3 A can hardly В are bound to С might as well
4 A could have fallen В must have fallen С may have fallen
5 A might have sent her В must have sent her С could always send her
6 A must В can С may
7 A may В must С are bound to
8 A is bound to have let В must have let С can let
9 A can В may as well С might
10A should have started В must have started С might have started

5. Complete the email with the words below.

may be seeing may have left could be coming

may not have done couldn't have left may have found
could have fallen may be visiting

From: Robin Nicholas

To: Helena Shakespeare
Subject: Seeing you again
Helena

It was good to see you last week and to get your email yesterday.
Sorry to hear you lost your rap CD on the journey home. I've looked for it, but it
definitely isn't in our car. I think you (1) it on the train. Why not phone the lost
property office? It (2) down the side of your seat. Someone (3) it and handed it in.
Of course, if they like rap music, they (4)! Anyway, as far as I remember, you (5)
it here, because you were listening to it on the way to the station.

And now my news. Guess what? I (6) to your part of the world next month!
There is a conference in your town which my boss wanted to attend, but now he's
heard that some important clients (7) our office at that time.

So, we (8) each other sooner than we expected. Let's hope so. Of course it's not
settled yet. I'll email as soon as I know for certain.

See you,
Robin

6. Complete the text using one of the phrases a-j in each gap.

a) can't have set off b) could easily be c) could expect d) must have been
e) can't have been f) could easily sail g) might have h) must have made
i) should have reached j) might involve
16th-century explorers

Imagine what it (1) like to have sailed around the world in a small wooden ship,
as Drake and his men did in 1577-1580. On a ship only some 35 metres long, it
(2) easy for the 80 or so crew to live comfortably. Exploration was part of war
and rivalry with other nations, so these voyages (3) attacks on other ships and
towns, and had to make a profit. There were all the usual dangers too. A ship (4)
destroyed by a storm or run out of food and water, and the captain (5) little idea
of where the ship was or where it was going. Explorers (6) many wrong
decisions in an age when there were only basic maps and navigation equipment,
and in unknown parts of ocean where a ship (7) for weeks without reaching land.
Very often places they thought they (8) turned out to be much further on, or in a
different direction. However, they (9) on such long voyages without some
general idea of the places they (10) to reach along the way, and as knowledge of
navigation improved, voyages became more and more successful.

7. Complete the answers with must, can't or might and any other words you
need.

1. GERALD: Can that be James phoning at this hour? It's gone midnight!
HILDA: It…him. He said he'd phone if he passed his exam.

2. JIM: There's a light on in that office block. Do you think it's a thief?
HARRY: It…the cleaners. They always work at night.
3. ELINOR: Where did Adam get that new guitar? He hasn't got any money
KATE: It … a present. After all, it was his birthday last week.

4. NICKY: Why did Mina ignore me at the party last night?

RYAN: She …you. She wasn't wearing her glasses.

5. EMMA: Do you think Cindy told the boss I left work early yesterday?
NEIL: She's away this week, so she … him.

6. JILL: What's making me feel so ill?

PAT: It … ate. Did you have seafood last night? That sometimes makes
people ill.

8. Re-word the following sentences using can, may or must.

1. I don't think he did it all by himself.

2. Perhaps, you're right.
3. It is possible that they forgot it in the car.
4. Is it really true?
5. I don't believe he has been meaning to do it.
6. It is impossible that he should have refused your request.
7. Evidently he has not read the book.
8. I'm certain that he has heard the gong.
9. It was some special occasion, I'm sure.
10.He looks wet and muddy. I'm sure he has been fishing.
11.No doubt, she is out shopping.
12.It's possible that he doesn't know we are here.
13.Is it possible that he is giving a course on the Renaissance at the
University?
14.It is possible that the news is being broadcast on all the channels.
15.I'm certain they didn't take notes of the meeting.
16.Is it possible that we are out of wrapping paper?
17.It is possible he will again forget to rule a margin down the left side.
18.Then the firing began again. This time it was impossible for it to be more
than a mile away.
19.Let's give her a call again. It is possible that she was asleep and didn't hear
the telephone.
20.You have used up all the money I gave you, I suppose.
21.I'm sure she's at home.
22.I'm certain you're crazy.
23.I know that isn't Janet - she's in America.
24.I'm sure she thinks I'm stupid.
25.I bet I look silly in this coat.
26.They're always buying new cars - I'm certain they make a lot of money.
27.I'm sure he's not a teacher - he's too well dressed.
28.You're an architect? I'm sure that's an interesting job.
29.I'm sure you're not serious. I know you're joking.
30.I'm sure he's got another woman: he keeps coming home late.

9. Write a new sentence with the same meaning, beginning as shown.

1. Running is not allowed on the stairs. There is a danger of accidents.

Running is not allowed on the stairs. You .................................................
2. You'd better not use this ladder. Look at it! I'm sure it's not safe.
You'd better not use this ladder. Look at it! It...................................................
3. I think I know how this window got broken. I'm sure someone kicked a
ball against it.
I think I know how this window got broken. Someone.....................................
4. Unless you follow instructions, it's possible for a gymnasium to be a
dangerous place.
Unless you follow instructions, a gymnasium...................................................
5. I've turned off the electricity. I'm sure it's safe to touch these wires now.
I've turned off the electricity. It..........................................................................
6. Ouch! Why didn't you tell me that piece of metal was hot!
Ouch! You........................................................................................................!
7. Where are the fire fighters? I expected them to have arrived by now.
Where are the fire fighters? They......................................................................
8. I'm sure you didn't clean this bowl properly.
You.......................................................................................... I can see stains
on it.

10. Read these three short texts about missing people. Then speculate about
what you think happened in each case. Use must, might and can’t.

1. Linda Peyton has bee missing for three weeks. It is known that
she was staying in a hostel near Exeter until quite recently and it
is thought that she has a boyfriend in Bristol, over 50 miles away.
Linda is only 16 years old and should have been attending
school. Her family are worried about her and would like her to
get in touch and let them know she’s OK. Linda had been living
with her grandparents. According to her grandfather, Linda
enjoys shopping, is very creative and had hoped to become a
beautician.
2. Richard Withers, 43, went missing from his home in Eastbourne
last October, leaving behind his glasses, credit cards and various
personal documents. Richard was due to report to work at a local
factory, but never turned up. His mother claims that he left the
house that day ‘in a distressed condition’ because he had recently
been beaten up in a street fight and had also been having some
 serious personal problems. Richard is a keen football supporter
who often went to watch Brighton & Hove Albion play. His
mother described him as ‘a lovely, helpful man who wouldn’t
hurt a fly’.
3. Skip Hudson disappeared on Christmas Eve last year. That day,
he was due to fly to Almeria in Spain with his fiancée and had
gone to the bank in Cleethorpes to withdraw some money. He
never came back and has not been seen since. Skip had
apparently bee looking forward to the holiday, despite his fear of
flying. He had never flown before. There was a reported sighting
of him on Boxing Day in a nearby town. Skip used to work as a
mechanic in a local garage and was also a keen fisherman.
.

II. Other uses of modal verbs.

1. Can, could, able to. Choose the correct alternative.

1 Why did you walk all the way from the station? You could рhone / could
have phoned for a lift.
2 I loved staying with my grandparents when I was a child. They let me read
all the books in the house and told me I could go / was able to go to bed as
late as I wanted.
3 This carpet was priced at £500, but I could get / was able to get a discount
because of this little mark in the corner.
4 I couldn't have found / haven't been able to find my diary for days. It's
terribly inconvenient.
5 I've no idea where my brother is living now. He can be / could be at the
North Pole for all I know.
6 It's difficult to understand how explorers survive the conditions they
encounter in the Antarctic. I'm sure I can't / couldn't.
7 I wish I'd had your opportunities. With a proper education I can be / could
have been a rich man now.
8 The day started off misty, but the sun had appeared by the time we reached
the mountain and we could climb / were able to climb it quite quickly.
9 Our holiday flat had a kitchen. We could cook / could have cooked our own
meals, but we preferred to go to local restaurants.
10 Why did I listen to you? I can be / could
have been at home now instead of sitting here in the cold!

2. Use can, could or able to in the following sentences.

1 . . . you stand on your head? - I . . . when I was at school but I . . . now. (2nd
verb negative)
2 When I've passed my driving test I . . . hire a car from our local garage.
3 At the end of the month the Post Office will send him an enormous
telephone bill which he . . . pay. (negative)
4 I ... remember the address, (negative) — . . . you even remember the street?
(negative)
5 When the fog lifts we . . . see where we are.
6 You've put too much in your rucksack; you never . . . carry all that.
7 When I was a child I . . . understand adults, and now that I am an adult I . . .
understand children, (negative, negative)
8 When you have taken your degree you . . . put letters after your name?
9 Don't try to look at all the pictures in the gallery. Otherwise when you get
home you . . . remember any of them, (negative)
10 When I first went to Spain I. . . read Spanish but I . . . speak it. (2nd verb
negative)
11 . . . you type?- Yes, I . . . type but I ... do shorthand. (2nd verb negative)
12 I'm locked in. I . . . get out! (negative) - . . . you squeeze between the bars?
(negative) -No! I . . .; I'm too fat. (negative)
13 ... I speak to Mr Pitt, please?- I'm afraid he's out at the moment. . . . you
ring back later?
14 If you stood on my shoulders . . . you reach the top of the wall? ~ No, I'm
afraid I . . . (negative)
15 If I sang . . . you accompany me on the piano? -No, I. . ., I . . . play the
piano! (negative, negative)
16 If a letter comes for me . . . you please forward it to this address?
17 She made the wall very high so that boys . . . climb over it. (negative)
18 They took his passport so that he . . . leave the country, (negative)
19 . . . you tell me the time, please? — I'm afraid I. ... I haven't got a watch,
(negative)
20 If you had to, . . . you go without food for a week? — I suppose I ... if I had
plenty of water.
21 . . . you lend me £5? -No, I . . . (negative)
22 They used to chain valuable books to library desks so that people . . . take
them away, (negative)
23 He says that he saw Clementine drowning but. . . help her as he . . . swim,
(negative, negative)
24 If you had had the right tools . . . you have repaired the engine?

3. Complete the sentences with could(n't) and was(n't) able to. Sometimes
there is more than one answer.

1. Eddie broke his leg last summer, so he … swim.

2. Emily's handbag was stolen when she was out yesterday afternoon. Luckily
she met a friend, so she … use his mobile to call home.
3. I didn't enjoy the play because I forgot my glasses. I … see the stage
properly.
4. Marion's meeting was cancelled at the last moment, so she … come to the
sports club with us after all.
5. Robert … speak any Dutch when he moved to Amsterdam last year, but
he's almost fluent now.
5 I thought I'd have to get a taxi home from the party, but luckily I … have a
lift with Kate.
6. We really wanted to buy a house last year, but we just … afford it.
7. My brother … read well by the age of seven, but he's always had problems
with maths.
8. Last night we heard a noise outside our window. When we turned off the
light, we … see a deer in the garden.
9. One day last week I locked my husband out of the house by mistake, but
luckily he … get in through an open window.
10. He was very strong; he . . . ski all day and dance all night.
11. The car plunged into the river. The driver . . . get out but the passengers
were drowned.
12. We . . . borrow umbrellas; so we didn't get wet.
13. . . . you walk or did they have to carry you?
14. I had no key so I . . . lock the door, (negative)
15. I knew the town so I . . . advise him where to go.
16. When the garage had repaired our car we . . . continue our journey.
17. At five years old he . . . read quite well.
18. When I arrived everyone was asleep. Fortunately I . . . wake my sister and
she let me in.
19. The swimmer was very tired but he . . . reach the shore before he
collapsed.
20. The police were suspicious at first but I . . . convince them that we were
innocent.

4. Fill the spaces in the following sentences by inserting must or the

present, future, or past form of have to.

1 She . . . leave home at eight every morning at present.

2 Notice in a picture gallery: Cameras, sticks and umbrellas ... be left at the
desk.
3 He sees very badly; he . . . wear glasses all the time.
4 I ... do all the typing at my office.
5 You . . . read this book. It's really excellent.
6 The children . . . play in the streets till their mothers get home from work.
7 She felt ill and . . . leave early.
8 Mr Pitt . . . cook his own meals. His wife is away.
9 I hadn't enough money and I. . . pay by cheque.
10 I never remember his address; I always . . . look it up.
11 Employer: You . . . come to work in time.
12 If you go to a dentist with a private practice you . . . pay him quite a lot of
money.
13 Father to small son: You ... do what Mummy says.
14 My neighbour's child . . . practise the piano for three hours a day.
15 Doctor: I can't come now.
Caller: You . . . come; he's terribly ill.
16 English children . . . stay at school till the age of 16.
17 In my district there is no gas laid on. People . . . use electricity for
everything.
18 Notice above petrol pump: All engines ... be switched off.
19 Mother to daughter: You . . . come in earlier at night.
20 The shops here don't deliver. We . . . carry everything home ourselves.
21 The buses were all full; I . . . get a taxi.
22 Notice beside escalators: Dogs and push chairs ... be carried.
23 'Au pair' girls usually ... do quite a lot of housework.
24 Tell her that she ... be here by six. I insist on it.
25 When a tyre is punctured the driver . . . change the wheel.
26 Park notice: All dogs ... be kept on leads.
27 She . . . learn how to drive when her local railway station is closed.
28 Railway notice: Passengers . . . cross the line by the footbridge.
29 I got lost and . . . ask a policeman the way.
30 Farmers . . . get up early.

5. Use the required form of the infinitive after ought to and should.

1.But we ought (to have) your brother here, to tell us exactly how far we can
go.
2.Tea is between half past five and six, and it should (to be) ready now.
3.He couldn't see anything. He thought that he ought (to bring) a torch.
4.Should the baby (to play) with a box of matches?
5.If you're in love it ought (to make) you happy. You ought (to laugh).
6.The doctor said it was appendicitis and she ought (to operate) on.
7.You should (to see) him yesterday on horseback.
8.One day the headmaster came on Jack, who should (to sweat) on the sports
ground, sitting comfortably in a gardener's shed reading a book and eating a
large piece of cocoa-nut ice.
9."Your father and I should (to arrange) everything before I came here," he
said.
10.Oughtn't you (to answer) that letter now?
11.Where is his car? He shouldn't (to leave) it unattended.
12.He drove at great speed. He knew that about this hour the guests should (to
arrive) at his house.
13."Well, I'm very glad to know at last what it was all about." "You ought (to
tell) before."
14.Then he should (to laugh), but instead he heard himself saying:
"Everything you say is quite true."
15.Anything we can do to clear up this miserable affair ought (to do).
16."I don't think he had the least idea of what I meant." "You should (to be)
more explicit, my dear."

III. Consolidation.

1. Fill in the blanks with can (be able), may or must:

1. "Will you know where to go?" "Yes, thank you. I ... always ask my
brother."
2. "Didn't she hear our shouting?" "She says she heard nothing." "She ... have
wandered a long way."
3. What ... he have meant when he said it?
4. He hesitated and said, "I ... go to South America. As a tea planter." I
said,"I ... be wrong, Jason, but I don't think they grow tea in South America."
5. He ... have flown off after he dropped us. He ... not land here. Not in a
plane with wheels.
6. "I'd give anything to meet that fellow." "We ... see what ... be done."
7. Cindy ... have laughed aloud. Instead, she nodded.
8. You ... hardly have been more surprised than I was.
9. The old man cupped his ear in his palm. "I think I ... be getting deaf. I ...
not hear you."
10. "There was someone on the phone for you," he said. "Oh, who?" "I don't
know, he didn't say. Some man." "It ... have been Mike." "I know Mike. It
wasn't Mike." "Oh. Then I ... not think who it ... have been."
11. I went straight from the station to the club and played billiards. It ... have
been after eleven when I reached the flat.
12. She was beginning to want to ask him in but she knew that she ... not do it
yet.
13. It's a most interesting story. He ... not possibly have invented it. You ...
have told him something.
14. I've other things to attend to which ... be put through immediately.
15. I admire your mother's looks. She ... have been a lovely girl.
16. The apples are very good. You ... eat them all.
17. My wife ... leave the hospital in a week's time.
18. My wife ... to leave the hospital a few days ago.
19. I'm trying to think where he ... have gone.
20. Of course it occurred to me that if he had found the watch as he said, it ...
have been lying in the garden for more than a year.
21. He began absently to eat one of the buttered biscuits. He'd lose his
appetite if his wife didn't hurry up. She ... be talking to Frau Schmidt.
22. A day or two later Mrs Strickland sent me a note asking if I ... go and see
her that evening after dinner.
23. "I don't know why he did it." "It ... have amused him."
24. "You know, I'm a bit of a writer myself in a small way." "What are you
writing? A novel?" "Oh, come off it. I ... not write a novel. No, it's a sort of
history of the regiment, as a matter of fact."
25. "He's up in Barbie's room. He's decorating it with shells. He ... have
brought in a ton."
26. "She's gone out. Something awful ... have happened." "How ... she have
got out? The door is locked."
27. I'm going to tell him that he ... not do any building here.
28. They say the driver .,. have been going fifty miles round that blind corner
for the body to have been thrown and injured like it was.
29. She looked unusually pale and gloomy. I wondered what ... have upset
her.
30. "... you drive a car, Mooey?" "Yes, indeed I ... ," he answered.
31. You ... be very prosperous, Eustace, to own a car like that,
32. Obviously Haviland had worked late the night before, as he ... have done
for several nights in a row, because he looked drawn and pale.
33. The water of the pool ... have been heated for it steamed gently in the
beams of the lamps.
34. Mr Hardy takes a lot of aspirin. He ... have had at least twelve tablets
during the day.
35. The man danced very well. He ... have spent hours taking lessons, Jack
thought.

2. Must(n't), need(n't)f should(n't) and don't have to

Match the beginning of each sentence with the most suitable ending.

1 Lucy should be having breakfast,

2 Patsy shouldn't go clubbing all night
3 Jenny shouldn't have gone out
4 Megan mustn't oversleep
5 Nicky doesn't have to get up yet
6 Natalie didn't need to hurry
7 Sharon needn't have set the alarm clock

a when she was supposed to be studying.

b because she woke up early anyway.
c but she’s too nervous to eat.
d when she has an exam the next day.
e if she's not going to work today.
f or she'll be late for her interview
g because she wasn't late.

3. Choose the correct alternative.

Thursday
NEIL: I'm doing a training session after work next Monday. Can you
email these people?
ROBBIE: (1) Must I do / Should I do it now?
NEIL: Well, we (2) must have sent / should have sent them earlier really.
ROBBIE: Oh, all right then.

Friday
NAOMI: I've had an email about a training day on Monday. Do you think I
(3) must / ought to take my laptop?
ELLIE: Well, you (4) mustn't / don't have to. But I always take mine, just in
case I need it.

Monday
NAOMI: Hi, Neil. I've brought my laptop.
NEIL: Oh, you (5) needn't bother / needn't have bothered. There are
There are plenty of computers. But why isn't Ellie with you? Is she away?
NAOMI: She wasn't asked to come. She's gone home.
NEIL: Oh, dear. The email (6) must go / must have gone to the wrong
address. And I don't know where Robbie is. He (7) must be / should be here.
NAOMI: Well, he had to go out earlier. He (8) must have missed / should
have missed the bus back. I expect he'll be here soon

4. Choose the correct form.

4. You mustn't / don't have to conduct any chemistry experiments
unless you are wearing safety glasses.
5. There are a lot of books which Anna did not have to read / need not
have read as part of her university course, but which she decided to read out of
interest.
6. We don't have to / We'd better not talk for too long. These calls are
expensive.
7. I went to see the dentist yesterday, but luckily / didn't need to have /1
needn't have had any painful treatment!
8. You didn't have to tell me /shouldn't have told me about the party.
Now it's not a surprise!
9. Some people believe that the government does not have to / should
not allow genetically modified crops to be grown on a large scale, as they could
spread out of control.
10. These books are on the wrong shelf. They shouldn't/ mustn't be here.
11. The report concluded that the rescuers should not have attempted /
didn't have to attempt to move the injured passengers before medical help arrived.
12. Please put the paper cups and plates in the bin. We mustn't / don't
have to leave the room in a mess.
13. There is plenty of time. We mustn't be /don't have to be at the cinema
until 8.00.

5. Complete the sentences with must(n't), needn't or should(n't).

1 We've run out of soap. I … get some more in the morning.

2 You … finish that report tonight if you're too tired. Midday tomorrow is
the deadline.
3 What are you doing here? … you be at college?
4 He really … have told his brother about this present. It was supposed to
be a secret.
5 You … bring your mobile because I've got mine with me.
6 You … make so much noise. We'll be asked to leave if you don't stop it.
7 I'm going to be in trouble. I … have emailed my brother yesterday
afternoon and I completely forgot.
8 You … have written a letter - a text message would have been OK.

6. Complete the sentence using one word in each gap.

1. In the early years of motoring, drivers didn't … to take a driving test.

2. You … sign the application form at the end of the page, or it will not be
accepted.
3. Hurry up. We … to get to the airport by 9.30.
4. I think we had … stop and ask someone the way.
5. This bus is going to take ages. We … have taken a taxi.
6. Important notice. All new arrivals … to report to the reception desk.
7. Thanks for coming. I'm glad you … make it.
8. You look really tired. You … take a few days off and have a holiday.
9. Sorry I'm a bit late. I … to pick up the children from school.
10. You … not decide immediately whether to join the class.

7. Write a new sentence with the same meaning, beginning as shown.

1. If I were you, I'd take an umbrella.

I think you'd……………………………………………………………………..
2. Is Saturday morning school compulsory in your country?
Do students...........................................................................................................
3. In the third week, students must hand in a typed copy of their first lab report.
In the third week, students are..............................................................................
4. Sheila changed the battery in her camera, but it wasn't necessary.
Sheila...................................................................................the battery in her
camera.
5. You look really ill. If I were you, I'd stay at home today.
You look really ill. I..................................................................to stay at home
today.
6. It was a bad idea to leave the windows open while it was raining.
You........................................................................................................................
7. The theatre tickets were free, so there was no need for us to pay.
The theatre tickets were free, so we................................................................
8. I can stay here until 10.00.
I................................................................................................leave until 10.00.
9. Helen managed to stop the car before it crashed into a wall.
Helen was........................................................................................................
10. Steve's laptop had a wireless Internet connection, so there was no need for
him to connect it to a phone line.
Steve's laptop had a wireless Internet connection, so he.................................

8. Complete the second sentence with must(n't), need(n't), should(n't) or

(don't) have to so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence.

1 It is vital to wear a helmet when you ride a motorbike.

You......……………………………………………….
2 I expect we'll get the contract because we offered the best price.
We offered the best price, so we..............................................................................
3 It isn't necessary for us to spend a long time in the museum if it's not
interesting.
We...............................................:............................................................................
4 It was wrong of you to speak to my mother like that.
You...........................................................................................................................
5 She promised to phone me before lunch. It's seven o'clock now.
She.................................................................................................................by
now.
6 I made far more sandwiches than we needed.
I....................................................................................................so many
sandwiches.
7 It's essential that my father doesn't find out what I've done.
My father..................................................................................................................
8 In my opinion it would be wrong for them to move house now.
I don't think they.......................................................................................................
9 My sister offered me a lift, so it wasn't necessary for me to call a taxi.
As my sister offered me a lift, I...............................................................................
10 1 think it's a good idea to check the timetable before we leave.
We............................................................................................................................

9. Complete the text with one word in each gap.

Rubbish - or refuse as we (1) really call it - is big news at the moment. For many
years, people in Britain (2) had to pay a local tax (council tax) which includes a
charge for refuse collection. In many parts of the country people have also been
(3) to ask their local council to remove unwanted household items, such as
furniture and electrical appliances. However, in recent years, as a result of EU
legislation, councils have (4) to reconsider how they collect rubbish, and what
they do with it. In the past, householders simply (5) to put out their dustbins once
a week, and the council collected the rubbish. Now the emphasis is on recycling,
and householders (6) to separate recyclable waste (paper, plastic, cans and
bottles) from organic waste (food and garden waste) and other items. 'Really we
(7) have started doing this years ago,' explained Karen Graham from recycling
consultants WasteNot. 'We (8) to stop filling up holes in the ground with rubbish
and look at what other countries have (9) able to do.' One likely change is that
soon householders (10) have to pay for their rubbish collections. 'People (11) pay
according to how much rubbish they produce, and we (12) to reward people who
recycle and consume less. People in Belgium, for example, (13) had to get used
to this system - and it seems to have worked.' And if you think that weighing
your rubbish is a strange idea, you had (14) get used to it. Before long, an
electronic chip in your dustbin will be weighing the bin and calculating how
much you (15) to pay.

10. Use the perfect infinitive of the verbs in brackets with a suitable modal
verb.

1. Jack: I've finished.

Ann: But you were only half way through when I went to bed. You (work) all
night!
2 The instructions were in French. I translated them into English for
him.-
You (not translate) them. He knows French.
3 Tom: What's happened to Jack? We said 7.30 and now it's 8.00 and
there's no sign of him.
Ann: He (forget) that we invited him. He is rather forgetful. I (telephone) him
yesterday to remind him. (It was foolish of me not to telephone.)
4 Tom: Or he (get) lost. He hasn't been to this house before. I (give)
him directions. (I didn't give him directions, which was stupid of me.)
Ann: Or he (have) a breakdown or a puncture.
Tom: A puncture (not delay) him so long.
5 Ann: Or he (stop) for a drink and (get) involved in an argument.
Jack's arguments go on for hours!
Tom: Or he (run) out of petrol. Perhaps we'd better go and look for him.
6 You (not feed) the bears! (It was foolish of you to feed them.) Now they'll be
angry if the next campers don't feed them too.
6 Nobody has been in this house for a month. ~
Nonsense! Here's last Monday's paper in the wastepaper basket; somebody (be)
here quite recently.
8 Two of the players spent the night before the big match at a
party. ~
That was very foolish of them. They (go) to bed early.
9 He says that when walking across Kensington Gardens he was
attacked by wolves. ~
He (not be attacked) by wolves. There aren't any wolves in Kensington. He (see)
some Alsatian dogs and (think) they were wolves.
10I waited from 8.00 to 8.30 under the clock and he says he waited from 8.00 to
8.30 under the clock, and we didn't see each other! -You (wait) under different
clocks! There are two in the station, you know.
11He set off alone a month ago and hasn't been heard of since. ~ He (fall) into a
river and (be eaten) by crocodiles. ~
Or (be kidnapped) by tribesmen. ~ Or (catch) fever and (die) of it.
12We (start) yesterday (this was the plan); but the flight was cancelled because
of the fog, so we're still here, as you see.
13Mary to Ann, who has just toiled up six flights of stairs: You (not walk) up!
You (come) up in the lift. It's working now.
14 I left my car here under the No Parking sign; and now it's gone. It (be) stolen!
- Not necessarily. The police (drive) it away.
15He had two bottles of Coke and got frightfully drunk. -He (not get) drunk on
Coke. He (drink) gin with it.
16He was riding a bicycle along the motorway when he was hit by the trailer of
a lorry. These big lorries are very dangerous. ~ Perhaps, but Paul (not ride) a
bicycle along the motorway; bicycles are not allowed.
17I've lost one of my gloves! -
The puppy (take) it. I saw him running by just now with something in his mouth.
It (be) your glove.
18 We've run out of petrol! -
I'm not surprised. I noticed that the tank was nearly empty when we left home. ~
You (tell) me! We (get) petrol at the last village. Now we've got a 10-mile walk!
19If the ground hadn't been so soft the horse I backed (win) instead of coming in
second. He never does very well on soft ground.
20I've written to Paul. ~
You (not write). He's coming here tomorrow. You'll see him before he gets your
letter.
21They (build) a two-storey house (this was the original plan), but money ran
out so they built a bungalow instead.
22If the dog hadn't woken us we (not notice) the fire for several hours, and by
that time it (spread) the house next door.
23Why didn't you wait for me yesterday? ~
I waited five minutes. ~
You (wait) a little longer!
24 How did Peter get here? -
He (come) on a motorcycle. (This is a possibility.)-He (not come) on a
motorcycle. He doesn't ride one. — He (come) as a pillion passenger.
25 (Alice, staying at a hotel for the first time, carefully washes up the
early morning tea things.)
Mother: You (not do) that. The hotel staff do the washing up.
26Why are you so late? You (be) here two hours ago!
27Mrs Smith: I've cooked scrambled eggs for Mr Jones, because of his diet, and
steak and onions for everyone else.
Mr Jones: You (not cook) anything special for me, Mrs Smith; I'm not on a diet
any longer.
28If I'd known we'd have to wait so long I (bring) a book. ~ If I'd known it was
going to be so cold I (not come) at all!
29Tom (looking out of the window): Fortunately that teapot didn't hit anyone,
but you (not throw) it out of the window, Ann! You (kill) someone.
30Look at this beautiful painting! Only a very great artist (paint) such a picture!
-
Nonsense! A child of five (paint) it with his eyes shut.
31 I wonder how the fire started. ~
Oh, someone (drop) a lighted cigarette. Or it (be) an electrical fault. ~
32 You don't think it (be started) deliberately?-
Well, I suppose it (be). (It is possible.) But who would do a thing like that?
33 There is only one set of footprints, so the kidnapper (carry) his prisoner out.
He not (do) it in daylight or he (be) seen. He (wait) till dark.
34 I went with him to show him the way. -
You (not do) that. (That wasn't necessary.) He knows the way.
35Then an enormous man, ten feet tall, came into the ring. -He (not be) ten feet
tall really. He (walk) on stilts.
36He jumped out of a sixth-floor window and broke his neck. ~ You say
'jumped'. It (not be) an accident? —
No. The window was too small. It (be) deliberate.

11. Read the description of the following situations and say what the people
should/must/could … (not) have done and what may/must … happen in
future.

a) It was Sunday yesterday and Mike took his father’s car without
permission to go to a disco. At the disco he had too much beer and on the way
home he skidded as he was driving too fast and had a minor accident.
However, he managed to return home unnoticed. Naturally, he didn’t tell
anybody at home about what had happened. Now it is Monday evening.
Mike’s father has just returned home and he looks very angry.

b) Oscar took his friends for a drive in his car. They went about 30
miles along a highway and stopped at a service station. Oscar entered a fast-
food restaurant which was nearby to get some food. When he came out his car
wasn’t there. His friends had disappeared too.

12. Fill in the blanks in the following texts with suitable modal verbs.

1. "Hallo, Tim. What have you been doing?" Mary called to the boy.
"I've been up at the station," Tim said, "watching the trains. You ... learn a lot
there. You ... go up there more often. And I've got a message for you."
"For me?"
"Yes. From Mike. I saw him off back to London. He said he was called away
unexpectedly and ... (not) to see you again. He also said if you were in London
he'd like you to call on him but he didn't give me his address, so I ... (not) tell it
to you."
"But he ... (not) have gone," Mary cried out.
"Why not?" Tim looked puzzled. "I've just seen him go."
2. "Granddad says he'll be glad when you get out of the house," the little girl said
after she had been sitting still for nearly a minute.
"Does he?" said Ted.
"Yes. He says he ... (not) trust you round the corner."
"Oh?"
"What ... you do round the corner?"
"I ... do a lot of things."
"What sort of things?"
"All sorts of things."
The girl occupied herself for a short time with her own thoughts. Then she said:
"Mummy says you're a cheat. What is a cheat?"
"I don't know," said Ted rather bitterly.
"But ... you be a cheat if you don't know what it is?"
"I ... (not), of course. I am not one."
"Is Grandad a cheat?"
"I shouldn't be surprised."
"... I ask him if he is a cheat?"
"I don't think you ... ."
"Why not?"
"He ... (not) like it."
"Why not?"
"I don't know," said Ted. "I don't, really know anything about cheats, Ann. And I
think you ... have made a mistake about the word altogether."
3. "The house is absolutely full of gas. Whatever have you been doing?" I asked,
the maid, entering her bedroom.
"I have done nothing," she said, weakly.
"Oh, then, who was it?" I said, trying to open the windows. "You ... have been
dead. I ... (not) think what you ... have been doing. The gas oven was on. I
suppose it ... have been Flora. Was she playing in the kitchen?"
"Yes. She ... have done it. What a naughty girl, trying to kill us all."
"Do you mean," I said, "that you didn't even notice? That since seven o'clock you
haven't noticed a thing?"
"I did not notice anything, no."
"You ... be an idiot," I said. "What if I had stayed out all night, you'd probably all
have been dead by the morning."

13. Supply the necessary modal verbs for the following sentences, noticing
carefully the Russian equivalents given in brackets.

l.He ... not and ... not believe her. (не мог; не хотел)
2. Не sat, thinking unhappily of his talk with Jimmy. He wondered if he ... have
stayed with him. He felt he ... have said something at least, to warn Jimmy
against Smith. But what ... he have said? And Jimmy ... not have listened, (надо
было бы; следовало бы; мог бы; не стал бы)
3."By the way," I asked, "what's Bill doing now?" "How in the world ... I know?"
Arthur looked pained. "I thought he ... have been bothering you for money."
(откуда мне знать; может быть)
4.Не came out of the water, smiling. "You ... have come earlier," he said. "We ...
have swum together. The water is great." (зря не пришел; могли бы)
5."Last night, you know, Hugh suddenly began to speak to me about what my
future was going to be like." "What ... it have meant?" "How ... I know?" (и что
это могло значить; откуда мне знать)
6.There was an old apple tree beside the path. I said, "I bet I ... climb that." "No,
you ... not," said Jack, (могу; не надо)
7."Well, then, ... you hold the line while I find the letter?" "I ... not, I'm in a
telephone box." "Then ... I ring you back?" "I'm not on the telephone." "Then I
think perhaps you ... ring me back in half an hour. By then I ... have some idea
what this is all about." (можешь ли; не могу; можно мне; тебе лучше;
может быть)
8.Не knows he ... read classics. He ... change to something else. (не нужно; мог
бы)
9."Monday will be my last day in London," Hudson said. "I stay down here
fairly late." (может быть, придется)
10. In any case, I ... not hang about outside indefinitely while the sisters finished
their quarrel. They ... continue for hours, (не мог же; может быть)
11.It's too bad she ... not have a drink with us. We ... have learned a great deal
about the theatre tonight, (не могла; могли бы)
12.If you help me now I ..... help you later, (может быть, смогу)
13."I shall wait to hear what Lily has to say about it." "You … wait a long time."
(может быть, придется)
14.1 think you ... certainly have told us the truth, and we ... have decided what
was the best thing to do. (следовало бы; могли бы)
15.If your mother calls, tell her I. .be a little late, (возможно, придется)
16.On Saturday Charles broke the news to his father. Mr March began to
grumble: "You ... have chosen a more suitable time to tell me. You ... have
known that hearing this would put me out of step for the day." (следовало бы;
мог бы)