MATERIALS TESTING

Why are metals tested ?

 Ensure quality
 Test properties
 Prevent failure in use
 Make informed choices in using materials

Factor of Safety is the ratio comparing the

actual stress on a material and the safe
useable stress.
Two forms of testing
 Mechanical tests – the material may be
physically tested to destruction. Will normally
specify a value for properties such as
strength, hardness, toughness, etc.

 Non-destructive tests (NDT) – samples or

finished articles are tested before being used.
HARDNESS TESTING
Hardness is the ability to withstand
indentation or scratches.
 Hardness testing machine
 The indenter is
pressed into the
metal
 Softer materials
leave a deeper
indentation
Hardness testing machine
Brinell hardness test
 Uses ball shaped indentor.

 Cannot be used for thin

materials.

 Ball may deform on very

hard materials

 Surface area of indentation

is measured.
Vickers hardness test

 Uses square shaped

pyramid indentor.

 Accurate results.

 Measures length of
diagonal on indentation.

 Usually used on very hard

materials
Rockwell hardness tests
 Gives direct reading.

 Rockwell B (ball) used for

soft materials.

 Rockwell C (cone) uses

diamond cone for hard
materials.

 Flexible, quick and easy to

use.
Impact Tests
 Toughness of metals is the ability to
withstand impact.
Izod test
 Strikes at 167 Joules.

 Test specimen is held

vertically.

 Notch faces striker.

Charpy impact test
 Strikes form higher
position with 300 Joules.

 Test specimen is held

horizontally.

 Notch faces away from

striker.
Tensile Testing
 Uses an extensometer to apply measured
force to an test specimen. The amount of
extension can be measured and graphed.

 Variables such as strain, stress, elasticity,

tensile strength, ductility and shear strength
can be gauged.

 Test specimens can be round or flat.

•Tensile loads are those that tend to pull the specimen
apart, putting the specimen in tension. They can be
performed on any specimen of known cross-sectional
area and gage length to which a uniform tensile load can
be applied.

•Tensile tests are used to determine the mechanical

behavior of materials under static, axial tensile, or
stretch loading.

•ASTM standards for common tensile tests may be

found in sections E8 (metals), D638 (plastics), D2343
(fibers), D897 (adhesives), D987 (paper), and D412
(rubber).
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Extensometer
Tensile test specimens
Test results
Cup and cone fracture A shear fracture would
signifies a ductile material indicate a brittle material
Producing graphs

Two basic graphs:

 Load / extension graph.

 Stress / strain graph.
Draw graph for this tensile
test?
Identify the straight line part of the graph.
Stress-Strain Curve

This stress-strain
curve is produced
from the tensile test.

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28
Stress Strain for Different
Materials

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 Mechanical Properties
 Ultimate Tensile Strength - The maximum tensile
stress that a material is capable of developing during
a test.

 Load- Applied force either pounds or newtons

 Stress - The intensity of the internally-distributed

forces or components of forces that resist a change
in the form of a body. The three basic types of stress
are tension, compression, and shear.

 Elastic Limit - The greatest amount of stress a

material can develop without taking a permanent set.

 Percent Elongation - The total percent strain that a

specimen develops during testing.
The engineering stress is:

P
σ =
A0
P is the load in lbs. on the specimen and A0 is the original cross-
sectional area near the center of the specimen.
On the other hand, the true stress is the load divided by the true
area, which continues to be smaller by the tensile load.
The true stress continues to increase to the point of fracture,
while the engineering stress decreases to the point of fracture
due to the increasing load and the constant cross-sectional area.
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 The engineering strain is:

l − l0
ε=
l0
l is the gage length at a given load and l0 is the
original gage length with zero load

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Youngs Modulus (E)
E = Stress
σ
E=
Strain

 Stress = Load ε
Cross section area
 Strain = Extension
Original length
Youngs Modulus for stress –
strain graph
 Select point on elastic
part of graph

 Calculate Youngs
Modulus with this point

E = Stress
Strain
Youngs Modulus for Load –
extension graph
Proof Stress
 The stress that causes a % increase in gauge
length.
 It can be found by drawing a line parallel to
the straight part of the graph.
 A value can be taken from the vertical axis.
Proof stress for Load –
Extension graph
Proof stress for Stress – Strain
graph
Tensile Strength

Tensile strength = Maximum Load

Cross section area

Maximum load is the highest point on the graph.

Often called Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)

Creep
When a weight is hung from a piece of
lead and left for a number of days the lead
will stretch. This is said to be creep.
Problems with creep increase when the
materials are subject to high temperature
or the materials themselves have low
melting points such as lead. Creep can
cause materials to fail at a stress well
below there tensile strength.
Fatigue
 Fatigue is due to the repeated loading and unloading.
 When a material is subjected to a force acting in different
directions at different times it can cause cracking. In time this
causes the material to fail at a load that is much less than its
tensile strength, this is fatigue failure. Vibration for example is a
serious cause of fatigue failure.

 Fatigue can be prevented with good design practice.

1. A smooth surface finish reduces the chance of surface cracking.
2. Sharp corners should be avoided.
3. Corrosion should be avoided as this can cause fatigue cracks.
 Compression Testing
Introduction

• Simplistically, compression testing is the opposite of

tensile testing. A compressive load tends to squeeze or
compact the specimen. The choice of a compression test
over other types of testing largely depends on the type of
loading the material will see during application or service.

• Metals and many plastics, for example, are more efficient

at resisting tensile loads. Therefore, they are more
commonly tested using tensile loading, depending on the
application, of course. Materials, such as concrete, brick,
and some ceramic products, are more often used in
applications for their compressive loading properties and
are, therefore, tested in compression.
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Compression Testing – Procedure

During a typical compression test, data are collected

regarding the applied load, resultant deformation or
deflection, and condition of the specimen. For brittle
materials, the compressive strength is relatively easy to
obtain, showing marked failure. However, for ductile
materials, the compressive strength is generally based on
an arbitrary deformation value. Ductile materials do not
exhibit the sudden fractures that brittle materials present.
They tend to buckle and "barrel out".

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Barreling or Bulging of a
Sample under Compressive
Loads

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Disk Test
 Compression test developed
for brittle materials such as
ceramics and glass.
 A disk shaped specimen is
loaded between to solid
platens. Tensile stresses build
up perpendicular to the
centerline along the disk,
fracture begins, and the disk
will split vertically.
 Tensile stress from this test
can be calculated with the
following equation: σ = 2P/πdt
P is load at fracture, d is
diameter of disk, t is thickness.
•Prior to this and any test, the dimensions of the specimen
should be measured with adequate precision using proper
instruments. Once these measurements have been taken and
recorded, the specimen should be loaded into the testing
machine.

•In compression testing, and testing in general, care should be

taken to insure that the axis of the specimen is centered and
aligned with the axis of loading.

•Loading rates should be steady and continuous. Rates vary,

but a general figure is 0.005 inches per minute strain rate.
Loading rates typically range from 500-1000 lb/min. 47
•As in most tests of mechanical properties, the loading
rate can adversely affect the results if you get carried
away. Loading continues at this rate up to approximately
one-half of the anticipated strength and, then, should be
reduced to allow for more frequent data collection. In this
way, subtle changes can be observed in the specimen's
behavior.

•As in all of these tests, please observe proper safety

procedures. Obtain and properly wear personal protective
equipment. Some of these materials exhibit violent
fractures with explosive results. 48
 Shear Testing

Introduction
•Shear testing involves an applied force or load
that acts in a direction parallel to the plane in
which the load is applied. Shear loads act
differently than, say, tensile or compressive loads
that act normal or perpendicular to the axis of
loading. Direct shear and torsional shear are
important forces used to determine shear
properties. Direct or torsional loading depends on
the forces a material is expected to be subjected to
during service. 49
 Shear Testing

Procedure
•Before testing, the specimen is accurately measured using proper
instruments and the gage length is marked. The troptometer or a suitable
replacement is attached to the specimen and zeroed out. Proper
precautions should be taken to center the specimen in the machine or
fixture. The grippers are tightened to insure against slippage, yet not so tight
as to cause deformations which would affect test results.

•In general, shear testing involves either direct or torsional loading. In direct
shear tests, the specimen is placed in the shear test fixture and a load is
applied. This can be seen in the figure below. For plate specimens, a punch
and die combination may be used. Plastics, generally, are square
specimens with holes in either end to facilitate gripping. The applied load
and resultant deformation are recorded and a suitable graph can be plotted.

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Shear Testing

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Torsion Test
 In addition to tension and compression, a work-piece
may be subjected to shear strains.
 Punching holes in sheet metal.
 Metal cutting.
 Torsion test used for determination of properties in
“shear.” Usually performed on a thin tubular specimen.
 Shear stress can be calculated with formula: T/2πr2t
 T is torque, r is average radius of tube, t is thickness of tube.
 Shear strain is calculated with formula: rФ/l
 r is radius of tube, Ф is angle of twist in radians, and l is length of
tube.
Torsion Test
 The ratio of the shear stress to the shear
strain in the elastic range is known as the
shear modulus or modulus of rigidity.
 The angle of twist, Ф, to fracture in the torsion
of solid round bars and elevated temp can
help estimate forge-ability of metals.
Bending
 Preparing specimens from brittle materials,
such as ceramics and carbides, is difficult
because of problems in shaping and
machining them to certain dimensions.
 The most common test for brittle materials is
the bend or flexure test.
Bend / Flexure Test
 Rectangular specimen
supported at its ends.
 Load is applied vertically
at 1 or 2 pts.
 The stress at fracture in
bending is known as the
modulus of rupture,
flexural strength, or
transverse rupture
strength.
Non-destructive
testing (NDT)
Why use NDT?
 Components are not destroyed
 Can test for internal flaws
 Useful for valuable components
 Can test components that are in use
Penetrant testing

 Used for surface flaws.

 The oil and chalk test is a traditional version
of this type of testing. Coloured dyes are now
used.
Magnetic particle testing
• Used for ferrous metals.
• Detects flaws close to the surface of the material.
• The component to be tested must first be
magnetized.
• Magnetic particles which can be dry or in solution
are sprinkled onto the test piece.
• The particles stick to the magnetic field and flaws
can be inspected visually by examining the pattern
to see if it has been distorted.
• The component must be demagnetized after testing.
Eddy current testing
 Used for non-ferrous metals
 A.C. current is passed through the coil.
 The test piece is passed under the coil
causing secondary currents called eddy
currents to flow through the test piece. This
causes a magnetic field to flow in the test
piece.
 The flaws are detected on an oscilloscope
by measuring a change in the magnetic
field.
 Ultrasonic testing
Ultrasonic Sound waves are bounced off the component
and back to a receiver. If there is a change in the time
taken for the wave to return this will show a flaw. This is
similar to the operation of a sonar on a ship.
Operation.
1. The ultrasonic probe sends the sound wave through the
piece.
2. The sound wave bounces off the piece and returns.
3. The results are then placed on the display screen in the
form of peaks.
4. Where the peaks fluctuate this will show a fault in the
piece.
Uses.
 This is generally used to find internal flaws in large
forgings, castings and in weld inspections.
Radiography (X-ray) Testing
1. The x-ray are released by heating the cathode.
2. They are then accelerated by the D.C. current
and directed onto the piece by the tungsten
anode.
3. The x-rays then pass through the test piece onto
an x-ray film which displays the results.
4. The x-rays cannot pass through the faults as
easily making them visible on the x-ray film.
Uses.
 This is a test generally used to find internal flaws
in materials. It is used to check the quality of
welds, for example, to find voids or cracks.