25/2/2021 Amplitude Modulation - Tutorialspoint

Amplitude Modulation

A continuous-wave goes on continuously without any intervals and it is the baseband message
signal, which contains the information. This wave has to be modulated.
According to the standard definition, “The amplitude of the carrier signal varies in accordance with
the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.” Which means, the amplitude of the carrier
signal containing no information varies as per the amplitude of the signal containing information, at
each instant. This can be well explained by the following figures.

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The first figure shows the modulating wave, which is the message signal. The next one is the
carrier wave, which is a high frequency signal and contains no information. While, the last one is
the resultant modulated wave.
It can be observed that the positive and negative peaks of the carrier wave, are interconnected with
an imaginary line. This line helps recreating the exact shape of the modulating signal. This
imaginary line on the carrier wave is called as Envelope. It is the same as that of the message
signal.

Mathematical Expressions
Following are the mathematical expressions for these waves.

Time-domain Representation of the Waves

Let the modulating signal be,

m
m((t
t)) =
= A
Am cos(2πf m t
m cos(2πfm t))

and the carrier signal be,

c
c((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t))

Where,

A
Amm
and A
Acc
are the amplitude of the modulating signal and the carrier signal respectively.

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f
fmm
and f
fcc
are the frequency of the modulating signal and the carrier signal respectively.

Then, the equation of Amplitude Modulated wave will be

s
s((t
t)) =
= [[A
Acc
+
+AAm
m
cos
cos((2
2ππf
fmm
t
t))]] cos
cos((2
2ππf
fcc
t
t)) (Equation 1)

Modulation Index

A carrier wave, after being modulated, if the modulated level is calculated, then such an attempt is
called as Modulation Index or Modulation Depth. It states the level of modulation that a carrier
wave undergoes.

Rearrange the Equation 1 as below.

A
Amm
s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Ac [1 + (
c [1 + (
)
) cos
cos((2
2ππf
fm t)] cos(2πf c t
m t)] cos(2πfc t))
A
Acc

⇒
⇒ s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Ac [1 + μ cos(2πf m t
c [1 + μ cos(2πfm t))]] cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t)
c t)
(Equation 2)

Where, μ
μ is Modulation index and it is equal to the ratio of A
Amm
and A
Acc
. Mathematically,

we can write it as

A
Am
μ
μ =
=
m
(Equation 3)
A
Acc

Hence, we can calculate the value of modulation index by using the above formula, when the
amplitudes of the message and carrier signals are known.

Now, let us derive one more formula for Modulation index by considering Equation 1. We can use
this formula for calculating modulation index value, when the maximum and minimum amplitudes of
the modulated wave are known.

Let A
Amax
max
and A
Amin
min
be the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the modulated wave.

We will get the maximum amplitude of the modulated wave, when cos
cos((2
2ππf
fm t)
m t)
is 1.

⇒
⇒ A
Amax = Ac +
max = Ac +AAm
m
(Equation 4)

We will get the minimum amplitude of the modulated wave, when cos
cos((2
2ππf
fmm
t
t)) is -1.

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⇒
⇒ A
Amin = Ac −
min = Ac −AAm
m
(Equation 5)

Add Equation 4 and Equation 5.

A
Amax + A min =
max + Amin = A
Ac + Am +
c + Am +AAc − Am =
c − Am = 2
2AAc
c

A
Amax +A min
max +Amin
⇒
⇒ A
Ac =
c = 2
2
(Equation 6)

Subtract Equation 5 from Equation 4.

A
Amax − A min =
max − Amin = A
Ac + Am −
c + Am −((A
Ac − Am )
c − Am ) =
= 2
2AAm
m

A
Amax −A min
max −Amin
⇒
⇒ A
Am =
m = 2
2
(Equation 7)

The ratio of Equation 7 and Equation 6 will be as follows.

A
Am (
(AAm −
−AAm )
)//2
2
m maax
x miin
n
=
=
A
Acc
(
(AAm +
+AAm )
)//2
2
maax
x miin
n

A −
−A
(Equation 8)
Amax
max Amin
min
⇒
⇒ μ
μ =
=
A
Amax +A min
max +Amin

Therefore, Equation 3 and Equation 8 are the two formulas for Modulation index. The modulation
index or modulation depth is often denoted in percentage called as Percentage of Modulation. We
will get the percentage of modulation, just by multiplying the modulation index value with 100.
For a perfect modulation, the value of modulation index should be 1, which implies the percentage
of modulation should be 100%.
For instance, if this value is less than 1, i.e., the modulation index is 0.5, then the modulated output
would look like the following figure. It is called as Under-modulation. Such a wave is called as an
under-modulated wave.

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If the value of the modulation index is greater than 1, i.e., 1.5 or so, then the wave will be an over-
modulated wave. It would look like the following figure.

As the value of the modulation index increases, the carrier experiences a 180o phase reversal,
which causes additional sidebands and hence, the wave gets distorted. Such an over-modulated
wave causes interference, which cannot be eliminated.

Bandwidth of AM Wave

Bandwidth (BW) is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies of the signal.
Mathematically, we can write it as

B
BWW =
= f
fmma
ax
− f miin
x − fm n

Consider the following equation of amplitude modulated wave.

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s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Ac [1 + μ cos(2πf m t
c [1 + μ cos(2πfm t))]] cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t)
c t)

⇒
⇒ s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t))+
+AAc μ cos(2πf c t
c μ cos(2πfc t)) cos
cos((2
2ππf
fm t)
m t)

A
Accμ
μ A
Accμ
μ
⇒
⇒ s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t))+
+ cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc + fm )
c + fm )tt]] +
+ cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc − fm )
c − fm )tt]]
2
2 2
2

Hence, the amplitude modulated wave has three frequencies. Those are carrier frequency f
fcc
,

upper sideband frequency f

fc + fm
c + fm
and lower sideband frequency f
fc − fm
c − fm

Here,

f
fmma
ax
= fc +
x = fc +ffm
m
and f
fmmi
in
= fc −
n = fc −ffm
m

Substitute, f
fmma
axx
and f
fmmi
inn
values in bandwidth formula.

B
BWW =
= f
fc + fm −
c + fm −((f
fc − fm )
c − fm )

⇒
⇒ B
BWW =
= 2
2ffm
m

Thus, it can be said that the bandwidth required for amplitude modulated wave is twice the
frequency of the modulating signal.

Power Calculations of AM Wave

Consider the following equation of amplitude modulated wave.

A
Accμ
μ A
Accμ
μ
  s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t))+
+ cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc + fm )
c + fm )tt]] +
+ cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc − fm )
c − fm )tt]]
2
2 2
2

Power of AM wave is equal to the sum of powers of carrier, upper sideband, and lower sideband
frequency components.

P
Ptt =
= P
Pc + P US
c + PU SB
+ P LS
B + PL SBB

We know that the standard formula for power of cos signal is

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–
– 22
2
2
v (
(vvm /
/√ 2)
√2 )
vrrm
mss m
P
P =
= =
=
R
R 2
2

Where,

v
vrrm
mss
is the rms value of cos signal.

v
vmm
is the peak value of cos signal.

First, let us find the powers of the carrier, the upper and lower sideband one by one.
Carrier power

–
– 22
2
2
(
(AAc
c/
/√
√22)) A
Acc
P
Pc =
c =
=
=
R
R 2
2RR

Upper sideband power

–
– 22 2
2 2
2
(
(AAc μ/2√
c μ/2
√22)) A
Ac μ
c μ
P
PUUS
SB
=
B =
=
=
R
R 8
8RR

Similarly, we will get the lower sideband power same as that of the upper side band power.

2
2 2
2
A
Acc μ
μ
P
PLLS
SB
=
B =
8
8RR

Now, let us add these three powers in order to get the power of AM wave.

2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2
A
Ac A
Acc μ
μ
A
Acc μ
μ
c
P
Ptt =
= +
+ +
+
2
2RR 8
8RR 8
8RR

2
2 2
2 2
2
A
Acc
μ
μ μ
μ
⇒
⇒ P
Ptt =
= (
( )
)((1
1++ +
+ )
)
2
2RR 4
4 4
4

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Numerical Problems 1

In the previous chapter, we have discussed the parameters used in Amplitude Modulation. Each
parameter has its own formula. By using those formulas, we can find the respective parameter
values. In this chapter, let us solve a few problems based on the concept of amplitude modulation.

Problem 1

A modulating signal m
m((t
t)) =
= 10
10 cos
cos((2
2ππ×
× 10
10 t
t))
3
3
is amplitude modulated with a carrier signal

c
c((t
t)) =
= 50
50 cos
cos((2
2ππ×
× 10
10 t
t))
5
5
. Find the modulation index, the carrier power, and the power

required for transmitting AM wave.

Solution

Given, the equation of modulating signal as

3
3
m
m((t
t)) =
= 10
10 cos
cos((2
2ππ×
× 10
10 t
t))

We know the standard equation of modulating signal as

m
m((t
t)) =
= A
Am cos(2πf m t
m cos(2πfm t))

By comparing the above two equations, we will get

Amplitude of modulating signal as A

Am = 10volts
m = 10volts

and Frequency of modulating signal as

3
3
f
fm = 10 H z = 1K H z
m = 10 H z = 1K H z

Given, the equation of carrier signal is

5
5
c
c((t
t)) =
= 50
50 cos
cos((2
2ππ×
× 10
10 t
t))

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The standard equation of carrier signal is

c
c((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t))

By comparing these two equations, we will get

Amplitude of carrier signal as A

Ac = 50volts
c = 50volts

and Frequency of carrier signal as f

fc
5
5
= 10 H z = 100K H z
c = 10 H z = 100K H z

We know the formula for modulation index as

A
Amm
μ
μ =
=
A
Acc

Substitute, A
Amm
and A
Acc
values in the above formula.

10
10
μ
μ =
= =
= 0.2
0.2
50
50

Therefore, the value of modulation index is 0.2 and percentage of modulation is 20%.

The formula for Carrier power, P

Pc =
c =
is

2
2
A
Acc
P
Pc =
c =
2
2RR

Assume R
R =
= 1
1ΩΩ and substitute A
Acc
value in the above formula.

2
2
(
(50
50)
)
P
Pc =
c =
=
= 1250
1250WW
2
2((1
1))

Therefore, the Carrier power, P

Pcc
is 1250 watts.

We know the formula for power required for transmitting AM wave is

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2
2
μ
μ
⇒
⇒ P
Ptt =
= P
Pc (1 +
c (1 +
)
)
2
2

Substitute P
Pcc
and μ
μ values in the above formula.

2
2
(
(0.2
0.2)
)
P
Ptt =
= 1250
1250 (
(11+
+ )
) =
= 1275
1275WW
2
2

Therefore, the power required for transmitting AM wave is 1275 watts.

Problem 2

The equation of amplitude wave is given by

. Find the carrier power, the total

3
3 5
5
s
s((t
t)) =
= 20
20 [
[11+
+ 0.8
0.8 cos
cos((2
2ππ×
× 10
10 t
t))]
] cos
cos((4
4ππ×
× 10
10 t
t))

sideband power, and the band width of AM wave.

Solution

Given, the equation of Amplitude modulated wave is

3
3 5
5
s
s((t
t)) =
= 20
20 [
[11+
+ 0.8
0.8 cos
cos((2
2ππ×
× 10
10 t
t))]
] cos
cos((4
4ππ×
× 10
10 t
t))

Re-write the above equation as

3
3 5
5
s
s((t
t)) =
= 20
20 [
[11+
+ 0.8
0.8 cos
cos((2
2ππ× 10 t
× 10 t))]
] cos
cos((2
2ππ×
×22× 10 t
× 10 t))

We know the equation of Amplitude modulated wave is

s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Ac [[1
1++μ
μ cos
cos((2
2ππf
fm t
t))]] cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t
t))
c m c

By comparing the above two equations, we will get

Amplitude of carrier signal as A

Ac = 20volts
c = 20volts

Modulation index as μ
μ =
= 0.8
0.8

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Frequency of modulating signal as f

fm
3
3
= 10 H z = 1K H z
m = 10 H z = 1K H z

Frequency of carrier signal as f

fc
5
5
= 2 × 10 H z = 200K H z
c = 2 × 10 H z = 200K H z

The formula for Carrier power, P

Pcc
is

2
2
A
Aee
P
Pc =
c =
2
2RR

Assume R
R =
= 1
1ΩΩ and substitute A
Acc
value in the above formula.

2
2
(
(20
20)
)
P
Pc =
c =
=
= 200
200WW
2
2((1
1))

Therefore, the Carrier power, P

Pcc
is 200watts.

We know the formula for total side band power is

2
2
P
Pc μ
cμ
P
PS =
B =
SB
2
2

Substitute P
Pcc
and μ
μ values in the above formula.

2
2
200
200 ×
×((0.8
0.8))
P
PS =
B =
SB
=
= 64
64WW
2
2

Therefore, the total side band power is 64 watts.

We know the formula for bandwidth of AM wave is

B
BWW =
= 2
2ffm
m

Substitute f
fmm
value in the above formula.

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B
BWW =
= 2
2((1
1KK)
) =
= 2
2KKH
Hzz

Therefore, the bandwidth of AM wave is 2 KHz.

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Analog Communication - AM Modulators

In this chapter, let us discuss about the modulators, which generate amplitude modulated wave.
The following two modulators generate AM wave.
Square law modulator
Switching modulator

Square Law Modulator

Following is the block diagram of the square law modulator

Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted as m

m((t
t)) and A
A cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t)
c t)
respectively.

These two signals are applied as inputs to the summer (adder) block. This summer block produces
an output, which is the addition of the modulating and the carrier signal. Mathematically, we can
write it as

V
V1 t
t =
= m
m((t
t))+
+AAc cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t
t))
1 c c

This signal V
V11
t
t is applied as an input to a nonlinear device like diode. The characteristics of the

diode are closely related to square law.

V
V2 t = k 1V
2 t = k1 V1 (t) + k 2V
1 (t) + k2 V
1
1
2
2
(
(tt)
) (Equation 1)

Where, k
k11
and k
k22
are constants.

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Substitute V
V1 (t)
1 (t)
in Equation 1

2
2
V
V2 (t) = k 1 [[m
2 (t) = k1 m((t
t))+
+AAc cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t))]] +
+kk2 [m (t) + A c cos
2 [m (t) + Ac cos((2
2ππf
fc t)]
c t)]

2
2
⇒
⇒ V
V2 (t) = k 1m
2 (t) = k1 m((t
t))+
+kk1 A c cos
1 Ac cos((2
2ππf
fc t) + k 2m
c t) + k2 m (
(tt)
)++

2
2 2
2
k
k2 A c cos
2 Ac cos (
(22π
πffc t) + 2k 2m
c t) + 2k2 m((t
t))A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t))

2
2 2
2 2
2
⇒
⇒ V
V2 (t) = k 1m
2 (t) = k1 m((t
t))+
+kk2
2m
m (
(tt)
)++k
k2 A c cos
2 Ac cos (
(22π
πffc t)+
c t)+

2
2kk2
2
k
k1 Ac [
1 Ac [1
1++(
( )
)mm(
(tt)
)]] cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t)
c t)
k
k11

The last term of the above equation represents the desired AM wave and the first three terms of the
above equation are unwanted. So, with the help of band pass filter, we can pass only AM wave and
eliminate the first three terms.
Therefore, the output of square law modulator is

2
2kk2
2
s
s((t
t)) =
= k
k1 Ac [[1
1++(
( )
)mm(
(tt)
)]] cos
cos((2
2ππf t
t))
1 Ac fcc
k
k11

The standard equation of AM wave is

s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Ac [1 + k a m
c [1 + ka m((t
t))]] cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t)
c t)

Where, K
Kaa
is the amplitude sensitivity

By comparing the output of the square law modulator with the standard equation of AM wave, we
2
2kk2
will get the scaling factor as k
k11
and the amplitude sensitivity k
kaa
as 2
.
k
k11

Switching Modulator

Following is the block diagram of switching modulator.

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Switching modulator is similar to the square law modulator. The only difference is that in the square
law modulator, the diode is operated in a non-linear mode, whereas, in the switching modulator, the
diode has to operate as an ideal switch.

Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted as m

m((t
t)) and c
c((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t))

respectively. These two signals are applied as inputs to the summer (adder) block. Summer block
produces an output, which is the addition of modulating and carrier signals. Mathematically, we can
write it as

V
V1 (t) = m (t) + c (t) = m (t) + A c cos
1 (t) = m (t) + c (t) = m (t) + Ac cos((2
2ππf
fc t)
c t)

This signal V
V1 (t)
1 (t)
is applied as an input of diode. Assume, the magnitude of the modulating

signal is very small when compared to the amplitude of carrier signal A

Acc
. So, the diode’s ON

and OFF action is controlled by carrier signal c

c((t
t)) . This means, the diode will be forward biased

when c
c((t
t)) >
> 0
0 and it will be reverse biased when c
c((t
t)) <
< 0
0 .

Therefore, the output of the diode is

V
V1 (t)
1 (t)
i
iff c
c((t
t)) >
> 0
0
V
V2 (t) = {
2 (t) = {
0
0 i
iff c
c((t
t)) <
< 0
0

We can approximate this as

V
V2 (t) = V 1 (
2 (t) = V1 (tt)
)xx(
(tt)
) (Equation 2)

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Where, x
x((t
t)) is a periodic pulse train with time period T
T =
=
1
1

f
fcc

The Fourier series representation of this periodic pulse train is

∞
∞ n
n
1
1 2
2 (
(−−1
1)) −
−11
x
x((t
t)) =
= +
+ ∑
∑ cos
cos((2
2ππ(
(22n
n−−1
1))f
fc t)
c t)
2
2 π
π 2
2nn−
−11
n
n==1
1

1
1 2
2 2
2
⇒
⇒ x
x((t
t)) =
= +
+ cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t) −
c t) −
cos
cos((6
6ππf
fc t)+. . . .
c t)+. . . .
2
2 π
π 3
3ππ

Substitute, V
V1 (t)
1 (t)
and x
x((t
t)) values in Equation 2.

1
1 2
2 2
2
V
V2 (t) = [m (t) + A c cos
2 (t) = [m (t) + Ac cos((2
2ππf
fc t)] [
c t)] [
+
+ cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t) −
c t) −
cos
cos((6
6ππf
fc t)+. . . . . ]
c t)+. . . . . ]
2
2 π
π 3
3ππ

m
m((t
t)) A
Acc 2
2mm(
(tt)
) 2
2AAcc 2
2
V
V2 (t) =
2 (t) =
+
+ cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t) +
c t) +
cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t) +
c t) +
cos
cos (
(22π
πffc t)−
c t)−
2
2 2
2 π
π π
π

2
2mm(
(tt)
) 2
2AAcc
cos
cos((6
6ππf
fc t) −
c t) −
cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t) cos(6πf c t
c t) cos(6πfc t))+
+.. .. .. .. ..
3
3ππ 3
3ππ

A
Acc 4 m
m((t
t)) 2
2AAcc
4 2
2
V
V2 (t) =
2 (t) =
(
(11+
+(( )
)mm(
(tt)
))) cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t) +
c t) +
+
+ cos
cos (
(22π
πffc t)−
c t)−
2
2 π
πAAcc 2
2 π
π

2
2mm(
(tt)
) 2
2AAcc
cos
cos((6
6ππf
fc t) −
c t) −
cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t) cos(6πf c t
c t) cos(6πfc t))+
+.. .. .. .. ..
3
3ππ 3
3ππ

The 1st term of the above equation represents the desired AM wave and the remaining terms are
unwanted terms. Thus, with the help of band pass filter, we can pass only AM wave and eliminate
the remaining terms.
Therefore, the output of switching modulator is

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A
Acc
4
4
s
s((t
t)) =
= (
(11+
+(( )
)mm(
(tt)
))) cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t)
c t)
2
2 π
πAAc
c

We know the standard equation of AM wave is

s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Ac [1 + k a m
c [1 + ka m((t
t))]] cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t)
c t)

Where, k
kaa
is the amplitude sensitivity.

By comparing the output of the switching modulator with the standard equation of AM wave, we will

get the scaling factor as 0.5 and amplitude sensitivity as .

4
4
k
kaa
π
πAAcc

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Analog Communication - AM Demodulators

The process of extracting an original message signal from the modulated wave is known as
detection or demodulation. The circuit, which demodulates the modulated wave is known as the
demodulator. The following demodulators (detectors) are used for demodulating AM wave.
Square Law Demodulator
Envelope Detector

Square Law Demodulator

Square law demodulator is used to demodulate low level AM wave. Following is the block diagram
of thesquare law demodulator.

This demodulator contains a square law device and low pass filter. The AM wave V
V1 (t)
1 (t)
is

applied as an input to this demodulator.

The standard form of AM wave is

V
V1 (t) = A c [[1
1 (t) = Ac 1++k
ka m (t)] cos(2πf c t
a m (t)] cos(2πfc t))

We know that the mathematical relationship between the input and the output of square law device
is

V
V2 (t) = k 1V
2 (t) = k1 V1 (t) + k 2V
1 (t) + k2 V
1
1
2
2
(
(tt)
) (Equation 1)

Where,

V
V1 (t)
1 (t)
is the input of the square law device, which is nothing but the AM wave

V
V2 (t)
2 (t)
is the output of the square law device

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k
k11
and k
k22
are constants

Substitute V
V1 (t)
1 (t)
in Equation 1

2
2
V
V2 (t) = k 1 (
2 (t) = k1 (AAc [1 + k a m
c [1 + ka m((t
t))]] cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t)) + k 2 (
c t)) + k2 (AAc [1 + k a m
c [1 + ka m((t
t))]] cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t))
c t))

⇒
⇒ V
V2 (t) = k 1A
2 (t) = k1 Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t))+
+kk1 Ac k
1 Ac ka m (t) cos(2πf c t
a m (t) cos(2πfc t))+
+

2
2 2 1
1++cos
cos((4
4ππf
fcct
t))
2 2
2
k
k2 Ac
2 Ac
[
[11+
+KKa m
a m
(
(tt)
)++2
2kka m (t)] (
a m (t)] (
)
)
2
2

2
2
K
K22A
Acc
⇒
⇒ V
V2 (t) = k 1A
2 (t) = k1 Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t))+
+kk1 Ac k
1 Ac ka m (t) cos(2πf c t
a m (t) cos(2πfc t))+
+ +
+
2
2

2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2
K
K2 Ac k
k2 Ac k
2 Ac ka m (t)
a m (t)
k
k2 Ac k
2 Ac ka m (t)
a m (t)
2 Ac
cos
cos((4
4ππf
fc t) +
c t) +
+
+ cos
cos((4
4ππf
fc t)+
c t)+
2
2 2
2 2
2

2
2 2
2
k
k2 Ac k
2 Ac ka m (t) + k 2A
a m (t) + k2 Ac kam
c ka m(
(tt)
) cos
cos((4
4ππf
fc t)
c t)

2
In the above equation, the term is the scaled version of the message signal. It
2
k
k2 Ac k
2 Ac ka m (t)
a m (t)

can be extracted by passing the above signal through a low pass filter and the DC component
2
2
k
k22A
can be eliminated with the help of a coupling capacitor.
Acc

2
2

Envelope Detector
Envelope detector is used to detect (demodulate) high level AM wave. Following is the block
diagram of the envelope detector.

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This envelope detector consists of a diode and low pass filter. Here, the diode is the main detecting
element. Hence, the envelope detector is also called as the diode detector. The low pass filter
contains a parallel combination of the resistor and the capacitor.

The AM wave s
s((t
t)) is applied as an input to this detector.

We know the standard form of AM wave is

s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Ac [[1
1++k
ka m
m((t
t))]] cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t
t))
c a c

In the positive half cycle of AM wave, the diode conducts and the capacitor charges to the peak
value of AM wave. When the value of AM wave is less than this value, the diode will be reverse
biased. Thus, the capacitor will discharge through resistor R till the next positive half cycle of AM
wave. When the value of AM wave is greater than the capacitor voltage, the diode conducts and
the process will be repeated.

We should select the component values in such a way that the capacitor charges very quickly and
discharges very slowly. As a result, we will get the capacitor voltage waveform same as that of the
envelope of AM wave, which is almost similar to the modulating signal.

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Analog Communication - DSBSC Modulation

In the process of Amplitude Modulation, the modulated wave consists of the carrier wave and two
sidebands. The modulated wave has the information only in the sidebands. Sideband is nothing
but a band of frequencies, containing power, which are the lower and higher frequencies of the
carrier frequency.
The transmission of a signal, which contains a carrier along with two sidebands can be termed as
Double Sideband Full Carrier system or simply DSBFC. It is plotted as shown in the following
figure.

However, such a transmission is inefficient. Because, two-thirds of the power is being wasted in the
carrier, which carries no information.
If this carrier is suppressed and the saved power is distributed to the two sidebands, then such a
process is called as Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier system or simply DSBSC. It is plotted
as shown in the following figure.

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Mathematical Expressions

Let us consider the same mathematical expressions for modulating and carrier signals as we have
considered in the earlier chapters.
i.e., Modulating signal

m
m((t
t)) =
= A
Am cos(2πf m t
m cos(2πfm t))

Carrier signal

c
c((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t))

Mathematically, we can represent the equation of DSBSC wave as the product of modulating and
carrier signals.

s
s((t
t)) =
= m
m((t
t))c
c((t
t))

⇒
⇒ s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Am A c cos
m Ac cos((2
2ππf
fm t) cos(2πf c t
m t) cos(2πfc t))

Bandwidth of DSBSC Wave

We know the formula for bandwidth (BW) is

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B
BWW =
= f
fmma
ax
− f miin
x − fm n

Consider the equation of DSBSC modulated wave.

s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Am A c cos
m Ac cos((2
2ππf
fm t) cos(2πf c t
m t) cos(2πfc t))

A
Am Ac
m Ac
A
Am Ac
m Ac
⇒
⇒ s
s((t
t)) =
= cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc + fm )
c + fm )tt]] +
+ cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc − fm )
c − fm )tt]]
2
2 2
2

The DSBSC modulated wave has only two frequencies. So, the maximum and minimum
frequencies are f
fc + fm
c + fm
and f
fc − fm
c − fm
respectively.

i.e.,

f
fmma
ax
= fc +
x = fc +ffm
m
and f
fmmi
in
= fc −
n = fc −ffm
m

Substitute, f
fmma
axx
and f
fmmi
inn
values in the bandwidth formula.

B
BWW =
= f
fc + fm −
c + fm −((f
fc − fm )
c − fm )

⇒
⇒ B
BWW =
= 2
2ffm
m

Thus, the bandwidth of DSBSC wave is same as that of AM wave and it is equal to twice the
frequency of the modulating signal.

Power Calculations of DSBSC Wave

Consider the following equation of DSBSC modulated wave.

A
Am Ac
m Ac
A
Am Ac
m Ac
s
s((t
t)) =
= cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc + fm )
c + fm )tt]] +
+ cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc − fm )
c − fm )tt]]
2
2 2
2

Power of DSBSC wave is equal to the sum of powers of upper sideband and lower sideband
frequency components.

Ptt =
P = P
PUUS
SBB
+
+PPL
LSSB
B

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We know the standard formula for power of cos signal is

–
– 22
2
2
v (
(vvm √
√22))
vrrm
mss m
P
P =
= =
=
R
R R
R

First, let us find the powers of upper sideband and lower sideband one by one.
Upper sideband power

–
– 22
2 2
2 2
(
(AAm Ac /
m Ac /22√
√22)) A
Am Ac
m Ac
P
PUUS
SB
=
B =
=
=
R
R 8
8RR

Similarly, we will get the lower sideband power same as that of upper sideband power.

2
2 2
2
A
Am Ac
m Ac
P
PUUS
SB
=
B =
8
8RR

Now, let us add these two sideband powers in order to get the power of DSBSC wave.

2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2
A
Am Ac
m Ac
A
Am Ac
m Ac
P
Ptt =
= +
+
8
8RR 8
8RR

2
2 2
2
A
Am Ac
m Ac
⇒
⇒ P
Ptt =
=
4
4RR

Therefore, the power required for transmitting DSBSC wave is equal to the power of both the
sidebands.

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Analog Communication - DSBSC Modulators

In this chapter, let us discuss about the modulators, which generate DSBSC wave. The following
two modulators generate DSBSC wave.
Balanced modulator
Ring modulator

Balanced Modulator

Following is the block diagram of the Balanced modulator.

Balanced modulator consists of two identical AM modulators. These two modulators are arranged
in a balanced configuration in order to suppress the carrier signal. Hence, it is called as Balanced
modulator.

The same carrier signal c

c((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t)) is applied as one of the inputs to these two AM

modulators. The modulating signal m

m((t
t)) is applied as another input to the upper AM modulator.

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Whereas, the modulating signal m

m((t
t)) with opposite polarity, i.e., −
−mm(
(tt)
) is applied as

another input to the lower AM modulator.

Output of the upper AM modulator is

s
s1 (t) = A c [[1
1 (t) = Ac 1++k
ka m (t)] cos(2πf c t
a m (t)] cos(2πfc t))

Output of the lower AM modulator is

s
s2 (t) = A c [[1
2 (t) = Ac 1−−k
ka m (t)] cos(2πf c t
a m (t)] cos(2πfc t))

We get the DSBSC wave s

s((t
t)) by subtracting s
s2 (t)
2 (t)
from s
s1 (t)
1 (t)
. The summer block is

used to perform this operation. s

s1 (t)
1 (t)
with positive sign and s
s2 (t)
2 (t)
with negative sign are

applied as inputs to summer block. Thus, the summer block produces an output s
s((t
t)) which is

the difference of s
s1 (t)
1 (t)
and s
s2 (t)
2 (t)
.

⇒
⇒ s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Ac [1 + k a m
c [1 + ka m((t
t))]] cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t) − A c [[1
c t) − Ac 1−−k
ka m (t)] cos(2πf c t
a m (t)] cos(2πfc t))

⇒
⇒ s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t))+
+AAc kam
c ka m(
(tt)
) cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t) − A c cos
c t) − Ac cos((2
2ππf
fc t)+
c t)+

A
Ac kam
c ka m(
(tt)
) cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t)
c t)

⇒
⇒ s
s((t
t)) =
= 2
2AAc kam
c ka m(
(tt)
) cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t)
c t)

We know the standard equation of DSBSC wave is

s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Ac m (t) cos(2πf c t
c m (t) cos(2πfc t))

By comparing the output of summer block with the standard equation of DSBSC wave, we will get
the scaling factor as 2
2kka
a

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Ring Modulator

Following is the block diagram of the Ring modulator.

In this diagram, the four diodes D

D11
, D
D22
, D
D33
and D
D44
are connected in the ring structure.

Hence, this modulator is called as the ring modulator. Two center tapped transformers are used in
this diagram. The message signal m
m((t
t)) is applied to the input transformer. Whereas, the carrier

signals c
c((t
t)) is applied between the two center tapped transformers.

For positive half cycle of the carrier signal, the diodes D

D11
and D
D33
are switched ON and the

other two diodes D

D22
and D
D44
are switched OFF. In this case, the message signal is multiplied

by +1.

For negative half cycle of the carrier signal, the diodes D

D22
and D
D44
are switched ON and the

other two diodes D

D11
and D
D33
are switched OFF. In this case, the message signal is multiplied

by -1. This results in phase shift in the resulting DSBSC wave.

0
0
180
180

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From the above analysis, we can say that the four diodes D
D11
, D
D22
, D
D33
and D
D44
are

controlled by the carrier signal. If the carrier is a square wave, then the Fourier series
representation of c
c((t
t)) is represented as

∞
∞ n
n−−1
1
4
4 (
(−−1
1))
c
c((t
t)) =
= ∑
∑ cos
cos[[2
2ππf
fc t (2n − 1)]
c t (2n − 1)]
π
π 2
2nn−
−11
n
n==1
1

We will get DSBSC wave s

s((t
t)) , which is just the product of the carrier signal c
c((t
t)) and the

message signal m
m((t
t)) i.e.,

∞
∞ n
n−−1
1
4
4 (
(−−1
1))
s
s((t
t)) =
= ∑
∑ cos
cos[[2
2ππf
fc t (2n − 1)]m (t)
c t (2n − 1)]m (t)
π
π 2
2nn−
−11
n
n==1
1

The above equation represents DSBSC wave, which is obtained at the output transformer of the
ring modulator.

DSBSC modulators are also called as product modulators as they produce the output, which is
the product of two input signals.

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DSBSC Demodulators

The process of extracting an original message signal from DSBSC wave is known as detection or
demodulation of DSBSC. The following demodulators (detectors) are used for demodulating
DSBSC wave.
Coherent Detector
Costas Loop

Coherent Detector

Here, the same carrier signal (which is used for generating DSBSC signal) is used to detect the
message signal. Hence, this process of detection is called as coherent or synchronous
detection. Following is the block diagram of the coherent detector.

In this process, the message signal can be extracted from DSBSC wave by multiplying it with a
carrier, having the same frequency and the phase of the carrier used in DSBSC modulation. The
resulting signal is then passed through a Low Pass Filter. Output of this filter is the desired
message signal.

Let the DSBSC wave be

s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t))m
m((t
t))

The output of the local oscillator is

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c
c((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t++ϕ
ϕ))

Where, ϕ
ϕ is the phase difference between the local oscillator signal and the carrier signal, which

is used for DSBSC modulation.

From the figure, we can write the output of product modulator as

v
v((t
t)) =
= s
s((t
t))c
c((t
t))

Substitute, s
s((t
t)) and c
c((t
t)) values in the above equation.

⇒
⇒ v
v((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t))m
m((t
t))A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t++ϕ
ϕ))

2
2
=
= A
Acc
cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t) cos(2πf c t
c t) cos(2πfc t++ϕ
ϕ))m
m((t
t))

2
2
A
Acc
=
= [[cos
cos((4
4ππf
fc t + ϕ) + cos ϕ] m (t)
c t + ϕ) + cos ϕ] m (t)
2
2

2
2 2
2
A
Acc
A
Acc
v
v((t
t)) =
= cos
cos ϕ
ϕmm(
(tt)
)++ cos
cos((4
4ππf
fc t + ϕ)m (t)
c t + ϕ)m (t)
2
2 2
2

In the above equation, the first term is the scaled version of the message signal. It can be extracted
by passing the above signal through a low pass filter.
Therefore, the output of low pass filter is

2
2
A
Acc
v
v0 t =
0t =
cos
cos ϕ
ϕmm(
(tt)
)
2
2

The demodulated signal amplitude will be maximum, when ϕ

ϕ =
= 0
0
0
0
. That’s why the local

oscillator signal and the carrier signal should be in phase, i.e., there should not be any phase
difference between these two signals.

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The demodulated signal amplitude will be zero, when ϕ

ϕ =
= ±
±90
90
0
0
. This effect is called as

quadrature null effect.

Costas Loop

Costas loop is used to make both the carrier signal (used for DSBSC modulation) and the locally
generated signal in phase. Following is the block diagram of Costas loop.

Costas loop consists of two product modulators with common input s

s((t
t)) , which is DSBSC

wave. The other input for both product modulators is taken from Voltage Controlled Oscillator

(VCO) with phase shift to one of the product modulator as shown in figure.
0
0
−
−90
90

We know that the equation of DSBSC wave is

s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t))m
m((t
t))

Let the output of VCO be

c
c1 (t) = cos(2πf c t
1 (t) = cos(2πfc t++ϕ
ϕ))

This output of VCO is applied as the carrier input of the upper product modulator.
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Hence, the output of the upper product modulator is

v
v1 (t) = s (t) c 1 (
1 (t) = s (t) c1 (tt)
)

Substitute, s
s((t
t)) and c
c1 (t)
1 (t)
values in the above equation.

⇒
⇒ v
v1 (t) = A c cos
1 (t) = Ac cos((2
2ππf
fc t)m (t) cos(2πf c t
c t)m (t) cos(2πfc t++ϕ
ϕ))

After simplifying, we will get v

v1 (t)
1 (t)
as

A
Acc
A
Acc
v
v1 (t) =
1 (t) =
cos
cos ϕ
ϕmm(
(tt)
)++ cos
cos((4
4ππf
fc t + ϕ)m (t)
c t + ϕ)m (t)
2
2 2
2

This signal is applied as an input of the upper low pass filter. The output of this low pass filter is

A
Acc
v
v01 (
(tt)
) =
= cos
cos ϕ
ϕmm(
(tt)
)
01
2
2

Therefore, the output of this low pass filter is the scaled version of the modulating signal.

The output of −
−90
90
0
0
phase shifter is

0
0
c
c2 (t) = cos (2πf c t
2 (t) = cos (2πfc t++ϕ
ϕ−− 90
90 )
) =
= sin
sin((2
2ππf
fc t + ϕ)
c t + ϕ)

This signal is applied as the carrier input of the lower product modulator.

The output of the lower product modulator is

v
v2 (t) = s (t) c 2 (
2 (t) = s (t) c2 (tt)
)

Substitute, s
s((t
t)) and c
c2 (t)
2 (t)
values in the above equation.

⇒
⇒ v
v2 (t) = A c cos
2 (t) = Ac cos((2
2ππf
fc t)m (t) sin(2πf c t
c t)m (t) sin(2πfc t++ϕ
ϕ))

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After simplifying, we will get v

v2 (t)
2 (t)
as

A
Acc
A
Acc
v
v2 (t) =
2 (t) =
sin
sin ϕ
ϕmm(
(tt)
)++ sin
sin((4
4ππf
fc t + ϕ)m (t)
c t + ϕ)m (t)
2
2 2
2

This signal is applied as an input of the lower low pass filter. The output of this low pass filter is

A
Acc
v
v02 (t) =
02 (t) =
sin
sin ϕ
ϕmm(
(tt)
)
2
2

The output of this Low pass filter has −

−90
90
0
0
phase difference with the output of the upper low

pass filter.

The outputs of these two low pass filters are applied as inputs of the phase discriminator. Based on
the phase difference between these two signals, the phase discriminator produces a DC control
signal.
This signal is applied as an input of VCO to correct the phase error in VCO output. Therefore, the
carrier signal (used for DSBSC modulation) and the locally generated signal (VCO output) are in
phase.

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Analog Communication - SSBSC Modulation

In the previous chapters, we have discussed DSBSC modulation and demodulation. The DSBSC
modulated signal has two sidebands. Since, the two sidebands carry the same information, there is
no need to transmit both sidebands. We can eliminate one sideband.
The process of suppressing one of the sidebands along with the carrier and transmitting a single
sideband is called as Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier system or simply SSBSC. It is plotted
as shown in the following figure.

In the above figure, the carrier and the lower sideband are suppressed. Hence, the upper sideband
is used for transmission. Similarly, we can suppress the carrier and the upper sideband while
transmitting the lower sideband.
This SSBSC system, which transmits a single sideband has high power, as the power allotted for
both the carrier and the other sideband is utilized in transmitting this Single Sideband.

Mathematical Expressions
Let us consider the same mathematical expressions for the modulating and the carrier signals as
we have considered in the earlier chapters.
i.e., Modulating signal

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m
m((t
t)) =
= A
Am cos(2πf m t
m cos(2πfm t))

Carrier signal

c
c((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t))

Mathematically, we can represent the equation of SSBSC wave as

A
Am Ac
m Ac
s
s((t
t)) =
=
2
2
cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc + fm )
c + fm )tt]] for the upper sideband

Or

A
Am Ac
m Ac
s
s((t
t)) =
=
2
2
cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc − fm )
c − fm )tt]] for the lower sideband

Bandwidth of SSBSC Wave

We know that the DSBSC modulated wave contains two sidebands and its bandwidth is 2
2ffm
m
.

Since the SSBSC modulated wave contains only one sideband, its bandwidth is half of the
bandwidth of DSBSC modulated wave.

2
2ffm
i.e., Bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave = 2
2
m
=
= f
fmm

Therefore, the bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave is f

fmm
and it is equal to the frequency of

the modulating signal.

Power Calculations of SSBSC Wave

Consider the following equation of SSBSC modulated wave.

A
Am Ac
m Ac
s
s((t
t)) =
=
2
2
cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc + fm )
c + fm )tt]] for the upper sideband

Or

A Ac
for the lower sideband
Amm Ac
s
s((t
t)) =
= cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc − fm )
c − fm )tt]]
2
2

Power of SSBSC wave is equal to the power of any one sideband frequency components.

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P
Ptt =
= P
PUUS
SB
= P LS
B = PL SBB

We know that the standard formula for power of cos signal is

–
– 22
2
v
vr
2 (
(vvm
m/
/√
√22))
rm
mss
P
P =
= =
=
R
R R
R

In this case, the power of the upper sideband is

–
– 22
2 2
2 2
(
(AAm Ac /
m Ac /22√
√22)) A
Am Ac
m Ac
P
PUUS
SB
=
B =
=
=
R
R 8
8RR

Similarly, we will get the lower sideband power same as that of the upper side band power.

2
2 2
2
A
Am Ac
m Ac
P
PL =
=
LS
SBB
8
8RR

Therefore, the power of SSBSC wave is

2
2 2
2
A
Am Ac
m Ac
Ptt =
P = P
PUUS
SBB
=
= P
PLLS
SBB
=
=
8
8RR

Advantages

Bandwidth or spectrum space occupied is lesser than AM and DSBSC waves.

Transmission of more number of signals is allowed.
Power is saved.
High power signal can be transmitted.
Less amount of noise is present.
Signal fading is less likely to occur.

Disadvantages

The generation and detection of SSBSC wave is a complex process.

The quality of the signal gets affected unless the SSB transmitter and receiver have an
excellent frequency stability.

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Applications

For power saving requirements and low bandwidth requirements.

In land, air, and maritime mobile communications.

In point-to-point communications.

In radio communications.
In television, telemetry, and radar communications.

In military communications, such as amateur radio, etc.

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Analog Communication - SSBSC Modulators

In this chapter, let us discuss about the modulators, which generate SSBSC wave. We can
generate SSBSC wave using the following two methods.
Frequency discrimination method
Phase discrimination method

Frequency Discrimination Method

The following figure shows the block diagram of SSBSC modulator using frequency discrimination
method.

In this method, first we will generate DSBSC wave with the help of the product modulator. Then,
apply this DSBSC wave as an input of band pass filter. This band pass filter produces an output,
which is SSBSC wave.
Select the frequency range of band pass filter as the spectrum of the desired SSBSC wave. This
means the band pass filter can be tuned to either upper sideband or lower sideband frequencies to
get the respective SSBSC wave having upper sideband or lower sideband.

Phase Discrimination Method

The following figure shows the block diagram of SSBSC modulator using phase discrimination
method.

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This block diagram consists of two product modulators, two −

−90
90
0
0
phase shifters, one local

oscillator and one summer block. The product modulator produces an output, which is the product

of two inputs. The phase shifter produces an output, which has a phase lag of
0
0 0
0
−
−90
90 −
−90
90

with respect to the input.

The local oscillator is used to generate the carrier signal. Summer block produces an output, which
is either the sum of two inputs or the difference of two inputs based on the polarity of inputs.

The modulating signal A

Am cos(2πf m t
m cos(2πfm t)) and the carrier signal A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t)) are directly

applied as inputs to the upper product modulator. So, the upper product modulator produces an
output, which is the product of these two inputs.
The output of upper product modulator is

s
s1 (t) = A m A
1 (t) = Am Ac cos(2πf m t
c cos(2πfm t)) cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t)
c t)

A
Am Ac
m Ac
⇒
⇒ s
s1 (t) =
1 (t) =
{
{cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc + fm )
c + fm )tt]] +
+ cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc − fm )
c − fm )tt]]}
}
2
2

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The modulating signal A

Am cos(2πf m t
m cos(2πfm t)) and the carrier signal A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t)) are phase

shifted by before applying as inputs to the lower product modulator. So, the lower product
0
0
−
−90
90

modulator produces an output, which is the product of these two inputs.

The output of lower product modulator is

0
0 0
0
s
s2 (t) = A m A
2 (t) = Am Ac cos(2πf m t
c cos(2πfm t−− 90
90 )
) cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t − 90 )
c t − 90 )

⇒
⇒ s
s2 (t) = A m A
2 (t) = Am Ac sin(2πf m t
c sin(2πfm t)) sin
sin((2
2ππf
fc t)
c t)

A
Am Ac
m Ac
⇒
⇒ s
s2 (t) =
2 (t) =
{
{cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc − fm )
c − fm )tt]] −
− cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc + fm )
c + fm )tt]]}
}
2
2

Add s
s1 (t)
1 (t)
and s
s2 (t)
2 (t)
in order to get the SSBSC modulated wave s
s((t
t)) having a lower

sideband.

A
Am Ac
m Ac
s
s((t
t)) =
= {
{cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc + fm )
c + fm )tt]] +
+ cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc − fm )
c − fm )tt]]}
}++
2
2

A
Am Ac
m Ac
{
{cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc − fm )
c − fm )tt]] −
− cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc + fm )
c + fm )tt]]}
}
2
2

⇒
⇒ s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Am A c cos
m Ac cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc − fm )
c − fm )tt]]

Subtract s
s2 (t)
2 (t)
from s
s1 (t)
1 (t)
in order to get the SSBSC modulated wave s
s((t
t)) having a

upper sideband.

A
Am Ac
m Ac
s
s((t
t)) =
= {
{cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc +
+ffm )
)tt]] +
+ cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc −
−ffm )
)tt]]}
}−−
2 c m c m
2

A
Am Ac
m Ac
{
{cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc − fm )
c − fm )tt]] −
− cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc + fm )
c + fm )tt]]}
}
2
2

⇒
⇒ s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Am A c cos
m Ac cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc + fm )
c + fm )tt]]

Hence, by properly choosing the polarities of inputs at summer block, we will get SSBSC wave
having a upper sideband or a lower sideband.
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SSBSC Demodulator

The process of extracting an original message signal from SSBSC wave is known as detection or
demodulation of SSBSC. Coherent detector is used for demodulating SSBSC wave.

Coherent Detector
Here, the same carrier signal (which is used for generating SSBSC wave) is used to detect the
message signal. Hence, this process of detection is called as coherent or synchronous
detection. Following is the block diagram of coherent detector.

In this process, the message signal can be extracted from SSBSC wave by multiplying it with a
carrier, having the same frequency and the phase of the carrier used in SSBSC modulation. The
resulting signal is then passed through a Low Pass Filter. The output of this filter is the desired
message signal.
Consider the following SSBSC wave having a lower sideband.

A
Am Ac
m Ac
s
s((t
t)) =
= cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc − fm )
c − fm )tt]]
2
2

The output of the local oscillator is

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c
c((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t))

From the figure, we can write the output of product modulator as

v
v((t
t)) =
= s
s((t
t))c
c((t
t))

Substitute s
s((t
t)) and c
c((t
t)) values in the above equation.

A
Am Ac
m Ac
v
v((t
t)) =
= cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc − fm )
c − fm )tt]]A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t))
2
2

2
2
A
Am Ac
m Ac
=
= cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc − fm )
c − fm )tt]] cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t)
c t)
2
2

2
2
A
Am Ac
m Ac
=
= {
{cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(22f
fc − f m)] + cos(2πf m )
c − f m)] + cos(2πfm )tt}
}
4
4

2
2 2
2
A
Am Ac
m Ac
A
Am Ac
m Ac
v
v((t
t)) =
= cos
cos((2
2ππf
fm t) +
m t) +
cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(22f
fc − fm )
c − fm )tt]]
4
4 4
4

In the above equation, the first term is the scaled version of the message signal. It can be extracted
by passing the above signal through a low pass filter.
Therefore, the output of low pass filter is

2
2
A
Am Ac
m Ac
v
v0 (t) =
0 (t) =
cos
cos((2
2ππf
fm t)
m t)
4
4

2
2
A
Acc
Here, the scaling factor is 4
.
4

We can use the same block diagram for demodulating SSBSC wave having an upper sideband.
Consider the following SSBSC wave having an upper sideband.

A
Am Ac
m Ac
s
s((t
t)) =
= cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc + fm )
c + fm )tt]]
2
2

The output of the local oscillator is

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c
c((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t))

We can write the output of the product modulator as

v
v((t
t)) =
= s
s((t
t))c
c((t
t))

Substitute s
s((t
t)) and c
c((t
t)) values in the above equation.

A
Am Ac
m Ac
⇒
⇒ v
v((t
t)) =
= cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc + fm )
c + fm )tt]]A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t))
2
2

2
2
A
Am Ac
m Ac
=
= cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc + fm )
c + fm )tt]] cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t)
c t)
2
2

2
2
A
Am Ac
m Ac
=
= {
{cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(22f
fc + fm )
c + fm )tt]] +
+ cos
cos((2
2ππf
fm t)}
m t)}
4
4

2
2 2
2
A
Am Ac
m Ac
A
Am Ac
m Ac
v
v((t
t)) =
= cos
cos((2
2ππf
fm t) +
m t) +
cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(22f
fc + fm )
c + fm )tt]]
4
4 4
4

In the above equation, the first term is the scaled version of the message signal. It can be extracted
by passing the above signal through a low pass filter.

Therefore, the output of the low pass filter is

2
2
A
Am Ac
m Ac
v
v0 (t) =
0 (t) =
cos
cos((2
2ππf
fm t)
m t)
4
4

2
2
A
Acc
Here too the scaling factor is 4
.
4

Therefore, we get the same demodulated output in both the cases by using coherent detector.

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Analog Communication - VSBSC Modulation

In the previous chapters, we have discussed SSBSC modulation and demodulation. SSBSC
modulated signal has only one sideband frequency. Theoretically, we can get one sideband
frequency component completely by using an ideal band pass filter. However, practically we may
not get the entire sideband frequency component. Due to this, some information gets lost.
To avoid this loss, a technique is chosen, which is a compromise between DSBSC and SSBSC.
This technique is known as Vestigial Side Band Suppressed Carrier (VSBSC) technique. The
word “vestige” means “a part” from which, the name is derived.
VSBSC Modulation is the process, where a part of the signal called as vestige is modulated along
with one sideband. The frequency spectrum of VSBSC wave is shown in the following figure.

Along with the upper sideband, a part of the lower sideband is also being transmitted in this
technique. Similarly, we can transmit the lower sideband along with a part of the upper sideband. A
guard band of very small width is laid on either side of VSB in order to avoid the interferences. VSB
modulation is mostly used in television transmissions.

Bandwidth of VSBSC Modulation

We know that the bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave is f

fmm
. Since the VSBSC modulated

wave contains the frequency components of one side band along with the vestige of other

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sideband, the bandwidth of it will be the sum of the bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave and
vestige frequency f
fvv
.

i.e., Bandwidth of VSBSC Modulated Wave = f

fm + fv
m + fv

Advantages

Following are the advantages of VSBSC modulation.

Highly efficient.
Reduction in bandwidth when compared to AM and DSBSC waves.
Filter design is easy, since high accuracy is not needed.
The transmission of low frequency components is possible, without any difficulty.
Possesses good phase characteristics.

Disadvantages

Following are the disadvantages of VSBSC modulation.

Bandwidth is more when compared to SSBSC wave.
Demodulation is complex.

Applications

The most prominent and standard application of VSBSC is for the transmission of television
signals. Also, this is the most convenient and efficient technique when bandwidth usage is
considered.
Now, let us discuss about the modulator which generates VSBSC wave and the demodulator which
demodulates VSBSC wave one by one.

Generation of VSBSC

Generation of VSBSC wave is similar to the generation of SSBSC wave. The VSBSC modulator is
shown in the following figure.

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In this method, first we will generate DSBSC wave with the help of the product modulator. Then,
apply this DSBSC wave as an input of sideband shaping filter. This filter produces an output, which
is VSBSC wave.

The modulating signal m

m((t
t)) and carrier signal A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t)) are applied as inputs to the

product modulator. Hence, the product modulator produces an output, which is the product of these
two inputs.
Therefore, the output of the product modulator is

p
p((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t
t))m
m((t
t))
c c

Apply Fourier transform on both sides

A
Acc
P
P (
(ff)
) =
= [[M
M (
(ff −
−ffc )
)++M
M (
(ff +
+ffc )
)]]
c c
2
2

The above equation represents the equation of DSBSC frequency spectrum.

Let the transfer function of the sideband shaping filter be H

H((f
f)) . This filter has the input p
p((t
t))

and the output is VSBSC modulated wave s

s((t
t)) . The Fourier transforms of p
p((t
t)) and s
s((t
t))

are P
P (
(tt)
) and S
S((t
t)) respectively.

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Mathematically, we can write S

S((f
f)) as

S
S((t
t)) =
= P
P (
(ff)
)HH(
(ff)
)

Substitute P
P (
(ff)
) value in the above equation.

A
Acc
S
S((f
f)) =
= [[M
M (
(ff −
−ffc ) + M (f + f c )
c ) + M (f + fc )]] H
H((f
f))
2
2

The above equation represents the equation of VSBSC frequency spectrum.

Demodulation of VSBSC

Demodulation of VSBSC wave is similar to the demodulation of SSBSC wave. Here, the same
carrier signal (which is used for generating VSBSC wave) is used to detect the message signal.
Hence, this process of detection is called as coherent or synchronous detection. The VSBSC
demodulator is shown in the following figure.

In this process, the message signal can be extracted from VSBSC wave by multiplying it with a
carrier, which is having the same frequency and the phase of the carrier used in VSBSC
modulation. The resulting signal is then passed through a Low Pass Filter. The output of this filter is
the desired message signal.

Let the VSBSC wave be s

s((t
t)) and the carrier signal is A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t)) .

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From the figure, we can write the output of the product modulator as

v
v((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t))s
s((t
t))

Apply Fourier transform on both sides

A
Acc
V
V (
(ff)
) =
= [[S
S((f
f −
−ffc ) + S (f + f c )
c ) + S (f + fc )]]
2
2

A
Acc
We know that S
S((f
f)) =
=
2
2
[[M
M (
(ff −
−ffc ) + M (f + f c )
c ) + M (f + fc )]] H
H((f
f))

From the above equation, let us find S

S((f
f −
−ffc
c)
) and S
S((f
f +
+ffc
c)
) .

A
Acc
S
S((f
f −
−ffc ) =
c) =
[[M
M (
(ff −
−ffc − fc )
c − fc )++M
M (
(ff −
−ffc + fc )
c + fc )]] H
H((f
f −
−ffc
c)
)
2
2

A
Acc
⇒
⇒ S
S((f
f −
−ffc ) =
c) =
[[M
M (
(ff −
−22f
fc ) + M (f )] H (f − f c )
c ) + M (f )] H (f − fc )
2
2

A
Acc
S
S((f
f +
+ffc ) =
c) =
[[M
M (
(ff +
+ffc − fc )
c − fc )++M
M (
(ff +
+ffc + fc )
c + fc )]] H
H((f
f +
+ffc
c)
)
2
2

A
Acc
⇒
⇒ S
S((f
f +
+ffc ) =
c) =
[[M
M (
(ff)
)++M
M (
(ff +
+22f
fc )] H (f + f c )
c )] H (f + fc )
2
2

Substitute, S
S((f
f −
−ffc
c)
) and S
S((f
f +
+ffc
c)
) values in V
V (
(ff)
) .

A
Acc A
Acc
V
V((f
f)) =
= [[ [[M
M((f
f −
−22f
fc )
)++M
M((f
f))]]H
H((f
f −
−ffc )
)++
2 2 c c
2 2

A
Acc
[[M
M((f
f))+
+MM(
(ff +
+22f
fc )]H (f + f c )
c )]H (f + fc )]]
2
2

2
2
A
Acc
⇒
⇒ V
V (
(ff)
) =
= M
M (
(ff)
) [[H
H((f
f −
−ffc ) + H (f + f c )
c ) + H (f + fc )]]
4
4

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2
2
A
Acc
+
+ [[M
M (
(ff −
−22f
fc ) H (f − f c )
c ) H (f − fc )++M
M (
(ff +
+22f
fc ) H (f + f c )
c ) H (f + fc )]]
4
4

In the above equation, the first term represents the scaled version of the desired message signal
frequency spectrum. It can be extracted by passing the above signal through a low pass filter.

2
2
A
Acc
V
V0 (f ) =
0 (f ) =
M
M (
(ff)
) [[H
H((f
f −
−ffc ) + H (f + f c )
c ) + H (f + fc )]]
4
4

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Analog Communication - Angle Modulation

The other type of modulation in continuous-wave modulation is Angle Modulation. Angle

Modulation is the process in which the frequency or the phase of the carrier signal varies according
to the message signal.
The standard equation of the angle modulated wave is

s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos θ i (
c cos θi (tt)
)

Where,

A
Acc
is the amplitude of the modulated wave, which is the same as the amplitude of the carrier

signal

θ
θii (
(tt)
) is the angle of the modulated wave

Angle modulation is further divided into frequency modulation and phase modulation.
Frequency Modulation is the process of varying the frequency of the carrier signal
linearly with the message signal.
Phase Modulation is the process of varying the phase of the carrier signal linearly with the
message signal.
Now, let us discuss these in detail.

Frequency Modulation

In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal varies. Whereas, in Frequency
Modulation (FM), the frequency of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal.
Hence, in frequency modulation, the amplitude and the phase of the carrier signal remains
constant. This can be better understood by observing the following figures.

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The frequency of the modulated wave increases, when the amplitude of the modulating or message
signal increases. Similarly, the frequency of the modulated wave decreases, when the amplitude of
the modulating signal decreases. Note that, the frequency of the modulated wave remains constant
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and it is equal to the frequency of the carrier signal, when the amplitude of the modulating signal is
zero.

Mathematical Representation

The equation for instantaneous frequency f

fii in FM modulation is

f
fii =
= f
fc + kf m
c + kf m((t
t))

Where,

f
fcc
is the carrier frequency

k
ktt is the frequency sensitivity

m
m((t
t)) is the message signal

We know the relationship between angular frequency ω

ωii and angle θ
θii (
(tt)
) as

d
dθθii (
(tt)
)
ω
ωii =
=
d
dtt

d
dθθii (
(tt)
)
⇒
⇒ 2
2ππf
fii =
=
d
dtt

⇒
⇒ θ
θii (
(tt)
) =
= 2
2ππ∫
∫ f
fii d
dtt

Substitute, f
fii value in the above equation.

θ
θii (
(tt)
) =
= 2
2ππ∫
∫ (
(ffc + kf m
c + kf m((t
t)))
)ddt
t

⇒
⇒ θ
θii (
(tt)
) =
= 2
2ππf
fc t + 2πk f ∫
c t + 2πkf ∫ m
m((t
t))d
dtt

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Substitute, θ
θii (
(tt)
) value in the standard equation of angle modulated wave.

s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t++2
2ππk
kf ∫ m (t) dt)
f ∫ m (t) dt)

This is the equation of FM wave.

If the modulating signal is m

m((t
t)) =
= A
Am cos(2πf m t
m cos(2πfm t)) , then the equation of FM wave will be

s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t++β
β sin
sin((2
2ππf
fm t))
m t))

Where,

Δ
Δff k
kf Am
f Am
β
β = modulation index =
= =
=
f
fm f
fm
m m

The difference between FM modulated frequency (instantaneous frequency) and normal carrier
frequency is termed as Frequency Deviation. It is denoted by Δ
Δff , which is equal to the

product of k
kff
and A
Amm
.

FM can be divided into Narrowband FM and Wideband FM based on the values of modulation
index β
β .

Narrowband FM

Following are the features of Narrowband FM.

This frequency modulation has a small bandwidth when compared to wideband FM.

The modulation index β

β is small, i.e., less than 1.

Its spectrum consists of the carrier, the upper sideband and the lower sideband.
This is used in mobile communications such as police wireless, ambulances, taxicabs, etc.

Wideband FM

Following are the features of Wideband FM.

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This frequency modulation has infinite bandwidth.

The modulation index β

β is large, i.e., higher than 1.

Its spectrum consists of a carrier and infinite number of sidebands, which are located
around it.

This is used in entertainment, broadcasting applications such as FM radio, TV, etc.

Phase Modulation

In frequency modulation, the frequency of the carrier varies. Whereas, in Phase Modulation (PM),
the phase of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal.
So, in phase modulation, the amplitude and the frequency of the carrier signal remains constant.
This can be better understood by observing the following figures.

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The phase of the modulated wave has got infinite points, where the phase shift in a wave can take
place. The instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal changes the phase of the carrier
signal. When the amplitude is positive, the phase changes in one direction and if the amplitude is
negative, the phase changes in the opposite direction.

Mathematical Representation

The equation for instantaneous phase ϕ

ϕii in phase modulation is

ϕ
ϕii =
= k
kp m (t)
p m (t)

Where,

k
kpp
is the phase sensitivity

m
m((t
t)) is the message signal

The standard equation of angle modulated wave is

s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t++ϕ
ϕii )
)

Substitute, ϕ
ϕii value in the above equation.

s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t++k
kp m (t))
p m (t))

This is the equation of PM wave.

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If the modulating signal, m

m((t
t)) =
= A
Am cos(2πf m t
m cos(2πfm t)) , then the equation of PM wave will be

s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t++β
β cos
cos((2
2ππf
fm t))
m t))

Where,

β
β = modulation index = Δ
Δϕϕ =
= k
kp Am
p Am

Δ
Δϕϕ is phase deviation

Phase modulation is used in mobile communication systems, while frequency modulation is used
mainly for FM broadcasting.

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Numerical Problems 2

In the previous chapter, we have discussed the parameters used in Angle modulation. Each
parameter has its own formula. By using those formulas, we can find the respective parameter
values. In this chapter, let us solve a few problems based on the concept of Frequency Modulation.

Problem 1

A sinusoidal modulating waveform of amplitude 5 V and a frequency of 2 KHz is applied to FM

generator, which has a frequency sensitivity of 40 Hz/volt. Calculate the frequency deviation,
modulation index, and bandwidth.

Solution

Given, the amplitude of modulating signal, A

Am = 5V
m = 5V

Frequency of modulating signal, f

fm = 2K H z
m = 2K H z

Frequency sensitivity, k
kf = 40H z/volt
f = 40H z/volt

We know the formula for Frequency deviation as

Δ
Δff =
= k
kf Am
f Am

Substitute k
kff
and A
Amm
values in the above formula.

Δ
Δff =
= 40
40 ×
×55 =
= 200
200HHz
z

Therefore, frequency deviation, Δ

Δff is 200
200HHz
z

The formula for modulation index is

Δ
Δff
β
β =
=
f
fmm

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Substitute Δ
Δff and f
fmm
values in the above formula.

200
200
β
β =
= =
= 0.1
0.1
2
2×× 1000
1000

Here, the value of modulation index, β

β is 0.1, which is less than one. Hence, it is Narrow Band

FM.

The formula for Bandwidth of Narrow Band FM is the same as that of AM wave.

B
BWW =
= 2
2ffm
m

Substitute f
fmm
value in the above formula.

B
BWW =
= 2
2××2
2KK =
= 4
4KKH
Hzz

Therefore, the bandwidth of Narrow Band FM wave is 4

4KKH
Hzz .

Problem 2

An FM wave is given by s
s((t
t)) =
= 20
20 cos
cos((8
8ππ×
× 10
10 t
t++9
9 sin
sin((2
6
6
2ππ×
× 10
10 t
t)))
)
3
3
. Calculate the

frequency deviation, bandwidth, and power of FM wave.

Solution

Given, the equation of an FM wave as

6
6 3
3
s
s((t
t)) =
= 20
20 cos
cos((8
8ππ×
× 10
10 t
t++9
9 sin
sin((2
2ππ×
× 10
10 t
t)))
)

We know the standard equation of an FM wave as

s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t++β
β sin
sin((2
2ππf
fm t))
m t))

We will get the following values by comparing the above two equations.

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Amplitude of the carrier signal, A

Ac = 20V
c = 20V

Frequency of the carrier signal, f

fc
6
6
= 4 × 10 H z = 4M H z
c = 4 × 10 H z = 4M H z

Frequency of the message signal, f

fm
3
3
= 1 × 10 H z = 1K H z
m = 1 × 10 H z = 1K H z

Modulation index, β
β =
= 9
9

Here, the value of modulation index is greater than one. Hence, it is Wide Band FM.
We know the formula for modulation index as

Δ
Δff
β
β =
=
f
fmm

Rearrange the above equation as follows.

Δ
Δ =
= β
βffm
m

Substitute β
β and f
fmm
values in the above equation.

Δ
Δ =
= 9
9××1
1KK =
= 9
9KKH
Hzz

Therefore, frequency deviation, Δ

Δff is 9
9KKH
Hzz .

The formula for Bandwidth of Wide Band FM wave is

B
BWW =
= 2
2((β
β++1
1))f
fmm

Substitute β
β and f
fmm
values in the above formula.

B
BWW =
= 2
2((9
9++1
1))1
1KK =
= 20
20KKH
Hzz

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Therefore, the bandwidth of Wide Band FM wave is 20

20KKH
Hzz

Formula for power of FM wave is

2
2
A
Acc
P
Pc =
c =
2
2RR

Assume, R
R =
= 1
1ΩΩ and substitute A
Acc
value in the above equation.

2
2
(
(20
20)
)
P
P =
= =
= 200
200WW
2
2((1
1))

Therefore, the power of FM wave is 200

200 watts.

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Analog Communication - FM Modulators

In this chapter, let us discuss about the modulators which generate NBFM and WBFM waves. First,
let us discuss about the generation of NBFM.

Generation of NBFM
We know that the standard equation of FM wave is

s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t++2
2ππk
kf ∫ m (t) dt)
f ∫ m (t) dt)

⇒
⇒ s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t)) cos
cos((2
2ππk
kf ∫ m (t) dt)−
f ∫ m (t) dt)−

A
Ac sin(2πf c t
c sin(2πfc t)) sin
sin((2
2ππk
kf ∫ m (t) dt)
f ∫ m (t) dt)

For NBFM,

∣∣ ∣∣
∣∣2
2ππk
kf ∫
∫ m
m((t
t))d
dtt∣∣ <
<<< 1
1
f
∣∣ ∣∣

We know that cos

cos θ
θ ≈
≈ 1
1 and sin
sin θ
θ ≈
≈ 1
1 when θ
θ is very small.

By using the above relations, we will get the NBFM equation as

s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t))−
−AAc sin(2πf c t
c sin(2πfc t))2
2ππk
kf ∫ m (t) dt
f ∫ m (t) dt

The block diagram of NBFM modulator is shown in the following figure.

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Here, the integrator is used to integrate the modulating signal m

m((t
t)) . The carrier signal

A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t)) is the phase shifted by −
−90
90
0
0
to get A
Ac sin(2πf c t
c sin(2πfc t)) with the help of

phase shifter. The product modulator has two inputs and

0
0
−
−90
90 ∫
∫ m
m((t
t))d
dtt

A
Ac sin(2πf c t
c sin(2πfc t)) . It produces an output, which is the product of these two inputs.

This is further multiplied with 2

2ππk
kff
by placing a block 2
2ππk
kff
in the forward path. The summer

block has two inputs, which are nothing but the two terms of NBFM equation. Positive and negative
signs are assigned for the carrier signal and the other term at the input of the summer block.
Finally, the summer block produces NBFM wave.

Generation of WBFM
The following two methods generate WBFM wave.
Direct method
Indirect method

Direct Method

This method is called as the Direct Method because we are generating a wide band FM wave
directly. In this method, Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) is used to generate WBFM. VCO
produces an output signal, whose frequency is proportional to the input signal voltage. This is

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similar to the definition of FM wave. The block diagram of the generation of WBFM wave is shown
in the following figure.

Here, the modulating signal m

m((t
t)) is applied as an input of Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO).

VCO produces an output, which is nothing but the WBFM.

f
fii α
αmm(
(tt)
)

⇒
⇒ f
fii =
= f
fc + kf m
c + kf m((t
t))

Where,

f
fii is the instantaneous frequency of WBFM wave.

Indirect Method

This method is called as Indirect Method because we are generating a wide band FM wave
indirectly. This means, first we will generate NBFM wave and then with the help of frequency
multipliers we will get WBFM wave. The block diagram of generation of WBFM wave is shown in
the following figure.

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This block diagram contains mainly two stages. In the first stage, the NBFM wave will be generated
using NBFM modulator. We have seen the block diagram of NBFM modulator at the beginning of
this chapter. We know that the modulation index of NBFM wave is less than one. Hence, in order to
get the required modulation index (greater than one) of FM wave, choose the frequency multiplier
value properly.

Frequency multiplier is a non-linear device, which produces an output signal whose frequency is
‘n’ times the input signal frequency. Where, ‘n’ is the multiplication factor.

If NBFM wave whose modulation index β

β is less than 1 is applied as the input of frequency

multiplier, then the frequency multiplier produces an output signal, whose modulation index is ‘n’
times β
β and the frequency also ‘n’ times the frequency of WBFM wave.

Sometimes, we may require multiple stages of frequency multiplier and mixers in order to increase
the frequency deviation and modulation index of FM wave.

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Analog Communication - FM Demodulators

In this chapter, let us discuss about the demodulators which demodulate the FM wave. The
following two methods demodulate FM wave.
Frequency discrimination method
Phase discrimination method

Frequency Discrimination Method

We know that the equation of FM wave is

s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t++2
2ππk
kf ∫ m (t) dt)
f ∫ m (t) dt)

Differentiate the above equation with respect to 't'.

d
dss(
(tt)
)
=
= −
−AAc (2πf c +
c (2πfc +22π
πkkf m (t)) sin(2πf c t
f m (t)) sin(2πfc t++2
2ππk
kf ∫ m (t) dt)
f ∫ m (t) dt)
d
dtt

We can write, as .
0
0
−
− sin
sin θ
θ sin
sin((θ
θ−− 180
180 )
)

d
dss(
(tt)
)
0
0
⇒
⇒ =
= A
Ac (2πf c +
c (2πfc +22π
πkkf m (t)) sin(2πf c t
f m (t)) sin(2πfc t++2
2ππk
kf ∫ m (t) dt − 180 )
f ∫ m (t) dt − 180 )
d
dtt

d
dss(
(tt)
) k
kff 0
0
⇒
⇒ =
= A
Ac (2πf c )
c (2πfc )[[1
1++(
( )
)mm(
(tt)
)]] sin
sin((2
2ππf
fc t + 2πk f ∫
c t + 2πkf ∫ m
m((t
t))d
dtt−
− 180
180 )
)
d
dtt k
kcc

In the above equation, the amplitude term resembles the envelope of AM wave and the angle term
resembles the angle of FM wave. Here, our requirement is the modulating signal m
m((t
t)) . Hence,

we can recover it from the envelope of AM wave.

The following figure shows the block diagram of FM demodulator using frequency discrimination
method.
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This block diagram consists of the differentiator and the envelope detector. Differentiator is used to
convert the FM wave into a combination of AM wave and FM wave. This means, it converts the
frequency variations of FM wave into the corresponding voltage (amplitude) variations of AM wave.
We know the operation of the envelope detector. It produces the demodulated output of AM wave,
which is nothing but the modulating signal.

Phase Discrimination Method

The following figure shows the block diagram of FM demodulator using phase discrimination
method.

This block diagram consists of the multiplier, the low pass filter, and the Voltage Controlled
Oscillator (VCO). VCO produces an output signal v
v((t
t)) , whose frequency is proportional to the

input signal voltage d

d((t
t)) . Initially, when the signal d
d((t
t)) is zero, adjust the VCO to produce

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an output signal v
v((t
t)) , having a carrier frequency and −
−90
90
0
0
phase shift with respect to the

carrier signal.

FM wave s
s((t
t)) and the VCO output v
v((t
t)) are applied as inputs of the multiplier. The multiplier

produces an output, having a high frequency component and a low frequency component. Low
pass filter eliminates the high frequency component and produces only the low frequency
component as its output.
This low frequency component contains only the term-related phase difference. Hence, we get the
modulating signal m
m((t
t)) from this output of the low pass filter.

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Analog Communication - SNR Calculations

In this chapter, let us calculate Signal to Noise Ratios and Figure of Merits of various modulated
waves, which are demodulated at the receiver.

Signal to Noise Ratio

Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) is the ratio of the signal power to noise power. The higher the value
of SNR, the greater will be the quality of the received output.

Signal-to-Noise Ratio at different points can be calculated using the following formulas.

A
Avve
erra
agge
e p
poow
weer
r o
off m
mood
duulla
atti
inng
g s
siig
gnna
all
Input SNR = (
(SSN
NRR)
)
I
I
=
=
A
Avve
erra
agge
e p
poow
weer
r o
off n
nooi
isse
e a
att i
innp
puut
t

A
Avve
erra
agge
e p
poow
weer
r o
off d
deem
mood
duulla
atte
edd s
siig
gnna
all
Output SNR = (
(SSN
NRR)
)O =
=
O A
Avve
erra
agge
e p
poow
weer
r o
off n
nooi
isse
e a
att o
ouut
tppu
utt

A
Avve
erra
agge
e p
poow
weer
r o
off m
mood
duulla
atte
edd s
siig
gnna
all
Channel SNR = (
(SSN
NRR)
)C =
=
C A
Avve
erra
agge
e p
poow
weer
r o
off n
nooi
isse
e i
inn m
mees
sssa
agge
e b
baan
nddw
wiid
dtth
h

Figure of Merit

The ratio of output SNR and input SNR can be termed as Figure of Merit. It is denoted by F. It
describes the performance of a device.

(
(SSN
NRR)
)O
O
F
F =
=
(
(SSN
NRR)
)I
I

Figure of merit of a receiver is

(
(SSN
NRR)
)O
O
F
F =
=
(
(SSN
NRR)
)C
C

It is so because for a receiver, the channel is the input.

SNR Calculations in AM System

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Consider the following receiver model of AM system to analyze noise.

We know that the Amplitude Modulated (AM) wave is

s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Ac [1 + k a m
c [1 + ka m((t
t))]] cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t)
c t)

⇒
⇒ s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Ac cos(2πf c t
c cos(2πfc t))+
+AAc kam
c ka m(
(tt)
) cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t)
c t)

Average power of AM wave is

2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2
A
Ac A
Ac kam
c ka m(
(tt)
) A
Ac A
Ac ka P
c c c ka P
P
Ps = (
s = (
)
) +
+(( )
) =
= +
+
–
– –
–
√
√22 √
√22 2
2 2
2

2
2 2
2
A
Acc
(
(11+
+kka P)
a P)
⇒
⇒ P
Ps =
s =
2
2

Average power of noise in the message bandwidth is

P
Pn = W N0
c = W N0
nc

Substitute, these values in channel SNR formula

A
Avve
erra
agge
e P
Poow
weer
r o
off A
AMM W
Waav
vee
(
(SSN
NRR)
)C ,AM =
=
C ,AM
A
Avve
erra
agge
e P
Poow
weer
r o
off n
nooi
isse
e i
inn m
mees
sssa
agge
e b
baan
nddw
wiid
dtth
h

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2
2 2
2
A
Ac (
(11+
+kka )
)PP
c a
⇒
⇒ (
(SSN
NRR)
)C ,AM =
=
C ,AM
2
2WWN
N00

Where,

2
2
A
Am
P is the power of the message signal= m

2
2

W is the message bandwidth

Assume the band pass noise is mixed with AM wave in the channel as shown in the above figure.
This combination is applied at the input of AM demodulator. Hence, the input of AM demodulator is.

v
v((t
t)) =
= s
s((t
t))+
+nn(
(tt)
)

⇒
⇒ v
v((t
t)) =
= A
Ac [1 + k a m
c [1 + ka m((t
t))]] cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t)+
c t)+

[[n
n1 (t) cos(2πf c t
1 (t) cos(2πfc t))−
−nnQ (t) sin(2πf c t
Q (t) sin(2πfc t))]]

⇒
⇒ v
v((t
t)) =
= [[A
Ac +
+AAc kamm(
(tt)
)++n (
(tt)
)]] cos
cos((2
2ππf t
t))−
−n (
(tt)
) sin
sin((2
2ππf t
t))
c c ka n11 fcc nQ
Q fcc

Where n
nI (t)
I (t)
and n
nQ (t)
Q (t)
are in phase and quadrature phase components of noise.

The output of AM demodulator is nothing but the envelope of the above signal.

−
−−
−−
−−
−−
−−
−−
−−
−−
−−
−−
−−
−−
−−
−−
−−
−−
−−
−−
−−
−−
−−
−−
−−
−−
−−
−−
−−
−−
−−
−
2
2 2
2
d
d((t
t) = √
) = √[[A
Ac + Ac K
c + Ac Ka m (t) + n I (
a m (t) + nI (tt)
)]] +
+((n
nQ (t))
Q (t))

⇒
⇒ d
d((t
t)) ≈
≈ A
Ac + Ac k
c + Ac ka m (t) + n 1 (
a m (t) + n1 (tt)
)

Average power of the demodulated signal is

2
2 2
2 2
2
A
Ac kam
c ka m(
(tt)
) A
Ac ka P
c ka P
P
Pm = (
m = (
)
) =
=
–
–
√
√22 2
2

Average power of noise at the output is

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P
Pn o = W N0
n o = W N0

Substitute, these values in output SNR formula.

A
Avve
erra
agge
e P
Poow
weer
r o
off d
deem
mood
duulla
atte
edd s
siig
gnna
all
(
(SSN
NRR)
)O,AM =
=
O,AM
A
Avve
erra
agge
e P
Poow
weer
r o
off n
nooi
isse
e a
att O
Ouut
tppu
utt

2
2 2
2
A
Ac ka P
c ka
P
⇒
⇒ (
(SSN
NRR)
)O,AM =
=
O,AM
2
2WWN
N00

Substitute, the values in Figure of merit of AM receiver formula.

(
(SSN
NRR)
)O,AM
O,AM
F
F =
=
(
(SSN
NRR)
)C ,AM
C ,AM

2
2 2
2
2
2 2
2
A
Ac kaP A
Ac (
(11+
+kka )P
a ) P
c ka P c
⇒
⇒ F
F =
= (
( )
)//(
( )
)
2
2WWN
N00
2
2WWN
N00

2
2
K
Ka P
a P
⇒
⇒ F
F =
=
2
2
1
1++K
Ka P
a P

Therefore, the Figure of merit of AM receiver is less than one.

SNR Calculations in DSBSC System

Consider the following receiver model of DSBSC system to analyze noise.

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We know that the DSBSC modulated wave is

s
s((t
t)) =
= A
Ac m (t) cos(2πf c t
c m (t) cos(2πfc t))

Average power of DSBSC modulated wave is

2
2 2
2
A
Ac m
m((t
t)) A
Ac P
P
c c
P
Ps = (
s = (
)
) =
=
–
–
√
√2 2
2
2

Average power of noise in the message bandwidth is

P
Pn = W N0
c = W N0
nc

Substitute, these values in channel SNR formula.

A
Avve
erra
agge
e P
Poow
weer
r o
off D
DSSB
BSSC
C m
mood
duulla
atte
edd w
waav
vee
(
(SSN
NR )C ,DSBSC =
R) =
C ,DSBSC
A
Avve
erra
agge
e P
Poow
weer
r o
off n
nooi
isse
e i
inn m
mees
sssa
agge
e b
baan
nddw
wiid
dtth
h

2
2
A
Ac P
c P
⇒
⇒ (
(SSN
NR )C ,DSBSC =
R) =
C ,DSBSC
2
2WWN
N00

Assume the band pass noise is mixed with DSBSC modulated wave in the channel as shown in the
above figure. This combination is applied as one of the input to the product modulator. Hence, the
input of this product modulator is

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v
v1 (t) = s (t) + n (t)
1 (t) = s (t) + n (t)

⇒
⇒ v
v1 (t) = A c m
1 (t) = Ac m((t
t)) cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t) + [n I (
c t) + [nI (tt)
) cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t) − n Q (
c t) − nQ (tt)
) sin
sin((2
2ππf
fc t)]
c t)]

⇒
⇒ v
v1 (t) = [A c m
1 (t) = [Ac m((t
t))+
+nnI (t)] cos(2πf c t
I (t)] cos(2πfc t))−
−nnQ (t) sin(2πf c t
Q (t) sin(2πfc t))

Local oscillator generates the carrier signal c

c((t
t)) =
= cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t)
c t)
. This signal is applied as

another input to the product modulator. Therefore, the product modulator produces an output,
which is the product of v
v1 (t)
1 (t)
and c
c((t
t)) .

v
v2 (
(tt)
) =
= v
v1 (
(tt)
)cc(
(tt)
)
2 1

Substitute, v
v11
(
(tt)
) and c
c((t
t)) values in the above equation.

⇒
⇒ v
v2 (t) = ([A c m
2 (t) = ([Ac m((t
t))+
+nnI (t)] cos(2πf c t
I (t)] cos(2πfc t))−
−nnQ (t) sin(2πf c t
Q (t) sin(2πfc t)))
) cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t)
c t)

2
2
⇒
⇒ v
v2 (t) = [A c m
2 (t) = [Ac m((t
t))+
+nnI (t)] cos (2πf c t
I (t)] cos (2πfc t))−
−nnQ (t) sin(2πf c t
Q (t) sin(2πfc t)) cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t)
c t)

1
1++ cos
cos((4
4ππf
fc t)
c t)
sin
sin((4
4ππf
fc t)
c t)
⇒
⇒ v
v2 (t) = [A c m
2 (t) = [Ac m((t
t))+
+nnI (t)] (
I (t)] (
)
)−−n
nQ (t)
Q (t)
2
2 2
2

When the above signal is applied as an input to low pass filter, we will get the output of low pass
filter as

[[A
Ac m (t) + n I (
c m (t) + nI (tt)
)]]
d
d((t
t)) =
=
2
2

Average power of the demodulated signal is

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2
2 2
2
A
Ac m
m((t
t)) A
Ac P
P
c c
P
Pm = (
m = (
)
) =
=
–
–
2
2√√2 8
8
2

Average power of noise at the output is

W
WNN0
0
P
Pn =
o =
no
4
4

Substitute, these values in output SNR formula.

A
Avve
erra
agge
e P
Poow
weer
r o
off d
deem
mood
duulla
atte
edd s
siig
gnna
all
(
(SSN
NRR)
)O,DSBSC =
=
O,DSBSC
A
Avve
erra
agge
e P
Poow
weer
r o
off n
nooi
isse
e a
att O
Ouut
tppu
utt

2
2 2
2
A
Ac P
P W
WNN0 A
Ac P
P
c 0 c
⇒
⇒ (
(SSN
NRR)
)O,DSBSC =
= (
( )
)//(
( )
) =
=
O,DSBSC
8
8 4
4 2
2WWN
N00

Substitute, the values in Figure of merit of DSBSC receiver formula.

(
(SSN
NRR)
)O,DSBSC
O,DSBSC
F
F =
=
(
(SSN
NRR)
)C ,DSBSC
C ,DSBSC

2
2 2
2
A
Ac P
c P
A
Ac P
c P
⇒
⇒ F
F =
= (
( )
)//(
( )
)
2
2WWN
N00
2
2WWN
N00

⇒
⇒ F
F =
= 1
1

Therefore, the Figure of merit of DSBSC receiver is 1.

SNR Calculations in SSBSC System

Consider the following receiver model of SSBSC system to analyze noise.

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We know that the SSBSC modulated wave having lower sideband is

A
Am Ac
m Ac
s
s((t
t)) =
= cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc − fm )
c − fm )tt]]
2
2

Average power of SSBSC modulated wave is

2
2 2
2 2
2
A
Am Ac
m Ac
A
Am Ac
m Ac
P
Ps = (
s = (
)
) =
=
–
–
2
2√√2 8
8
2

Average power of noise in the message bandwidth is

P
Pn = W N0
c = W N0
nc

Substitute, these values in channel SNR formula.

A
Avve
erra
agge
e P
Poow
weer
r o
off S
SSSB
BSSC
C m
mood
duulla
atte
edd w
waav
vee
(
(SSN
NR )C ,SSBSC =
R) =
C ,SSBSC
A
Avve
erra
agge
e P
Poow
weer
r o
off n
nooi
isse
e i
inn m
mees
sssa
agge
e b
baan
nddw
wiid
dtth
h

2
2 2
2
A
Am Ac
m Ac
⇒
⇒ (
(SSN
NR )C ,SSBSC =
R) =
C ,SSBSC
8
8WWN
N00

Assume the band pass noise is mixed with SSBSC modulated wave in the channel as shown in the
above figure. This combination is applied as one of the input to the product modulator. Hence, the
input of this product modulator is

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v
v1 (t) = s (t) + n (t)
1 (t) = s (t) + n (t)

A
Am Ac
m Ac
v
v1 (t) =
1 (t) =
cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc − fm )
c − fm )tt]] +
+nnI (t) cos(2πf c t
I (t) cos(2πfc t))−
−nnQ (t) sin(2πf c t
Q (t) sin(2πfc t))
2
2

The local oscillator generates the carrier signal c

c((t
t)) =
= cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t)
c t)
. This signal is applied as

another input to the product modulator. Therefore, the product modulator produces an output,
which is the product of v
v1 (t)
1 (t)
and c
c((t
t)) .

v
v2 (t) = v 1 (
2 (t) = v1 (tt)
)cc(
(tt)
)

Substitute, v
v11
(
(tt)
) and c
c((t
t)) values in the above equation.

A
Am Ac
m Ac
⇒
⇒ v
v2 (t) = (
2 (t) = (
cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc − fm )
c − fm )tt]] +
+nnI (t) cos(2πf c t
I (t) cos(2πfc t))−
−
2
2

n
nQ (t) sin(2πf c t
Q (t) sin(2πfc t)))
) cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t)
c t)

A
Am Ac
m Ac
⇒
⇒ v
v2 (t) =
2 (t) =
cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(ffc − fm )
c − fm )tt]] cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t)+
c t)+
2
2

2
2
n
nI (t) cos (2πf c t
I (t) cos (2πfc t))−
−nnQ (t) sin(2πf c t
Q (t) sin(2πfc t)) cos
cos((2
2ππf
fc t)
c t)

A
Am Ac
m Ac
⇒
⇒ v
v2 (t) =
2 (t) =
{
{cos
cos[[2
2ππ(
(22f
fc − fm )
c − fm )tt]] +
+ cos
cos((2
2ππf
fm t)} +
m t)} +
4
4

1
1++cos
cos((4
4ππf
fcct
t)) sin
sin((4
4ππf
fcct
t))
n
nI (t) (
I (t) (
)
)−−n
nQ (t)
Q (t)
2
2 2
2

When the above signal is applied as an input to low pass filter, we will get the output of low pass
filter as

A
Am Ac n
nI (t)
I (t)
m Ac
d
d((t
t)) =
= cos
cos((2
2ππf
fm t) +
m t) +
2
2 2
2

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Average power of the demodulated signal is

2
2 2
2 2
2
A
Am Ac
m Ac
A
Am Ac
m Ac
P
Pm = (
m = (
)
) =
=
–
–
4
4√√2 32
32
2

Average power of noise at the output is

W
WNN0
0
P
Pn =
o =
no
4
4

Substitute, these values in output SNR formula

A
Avve
erra
agge
e P
Poow
weer
r o
off d
deem
mood
duulla
atte
edd s
siig
gnna
all
(
(SSN
NRR)
)O,SSBSC =
=
O,SSBSC
A
Avve
erra
agge
e P
Poow
weer
r o
off n
nooi
isse
e a
att o
ouut
tppu
utt

2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2
A
Am Ac W
WN A Ac
m Ac N0
0 Amm Ac
⇒
⇒ (
(SSN
NRR)
)O,SSBSC =
= (
( )
)//(
( )
) =
=
O,SSBSC
32
32 4
4 8
8WWN
N00

Substitute, the values in Figure of merit of SSBSC receiver formula

(
(SSN
NRR)
)O,SSBSC
O,SSBSC
F
F =
=
(
(SSN
NRR)
)C ,SSBSC
C ,SSBSC

2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2
A
Am Ac
m Ac
A
Am Ac
m Ac
F
F =
= (
( )
)//(
( )
)
8
8WWN
N00
8
8WWN
N00

F
F =
= 1
1

Therefore, the Figure of merit of SSBSC receiver is 1.

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2
2
μ
μ
⇒
⇒ P
Ptt =
= P
Pc (1 +
c (1 +
)
)
2
2

We can use the above formula to calculate the power of AM wave, when the carrier power and the
modulation index are known.

If the modulation index μ

μ =
= 1
1 then the power of AM wave is equal to 1.5 times the carrier

power. So, the power required for transmitting an AM wave is 1.5 times the carrier power for a
perfect modulation.

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