V´(r) for Attractive r-2 Forces

• Will analyze orbits in detail later. Will find:

• Energy E1 > 0: Hyperbolic Orbit
• Energy E2 = 0: Parabolic Orbit
• Energy E3 < 0: Elliptic Orbit
• Energy E4 = [V´(r)]min: Circular Orbit
 Other Attractive Forces
• For other types of Forces: Orbits aren’t so simple.

• For any attractive V(r) still have the same qualitative

division into open, bounded, & circular orbits if:
1. V(r) falls off slower than r-2 as r → ∞
Ensures that V(r) > (½)[2⁄(mr2)] as r → ∞
⇒ V(r) dominates the Centrifugal Potential at large
r.
2. V(r) → ∞ slower than r-2 as r → 0
Ensures that V(r) < (½)[2⁄(mr2)] as r → 0
⇒ The centrifugal Potential dominates V(r) at small r.
• If the attractive potential V(r) doesn’t satisfy
these conditions, the qualitative nature of the
orbits will be altered from our discussion.
• However, we can still use same method to
examine the orbits.
• Example: V(r) = -(a/r3) (a = constant)

⇒ Force: f(r) = - (∂V/∂r) = -(3a/r4).

 V´(r) for Attractive r-4 Forces
• Example: V(r) = -(a/r3); ⇒ f(r) = -(3a/r4).
(Fig): Eff. potential: V´(r) = -(a/r3) + (½)[2⁄(mr2)]
• Energy E, 2 motion types,
depending on r:
• r < r1, bounded orbit.
r < r1 always. Particle passes
through center of force (r = 0).
• r > r2, unbounded orbit.
r > r2 always. Particle can
never get to the center force (r = 0).
• r1 < r < r2: Not possible physically, since would require
E -V´(r) = (½)mr2 < 0 ⇒ Unphysical! ⇒ r imaginary!
 V´(r): Isotropic Simple Harmonic Oscillator
• Example: Isotropic Simple Harmonic Oscillator:
f(r) = - kr, V(r) = (½)kr2
Effective potential: V´(r) = (½)kr2 +
(½)[2⁄(mr2)]
•  = 0 ⇒ V´(r) = V(r) = (½)kr2 (figure):
Any E >0: Motion is straight
line in “r” direction. Simple
harmonic. Passes through
r = 0. Turning point at r1 =
motion amplitude.

E -V(r) = (½)mr2 > 0 ⇒ Speeds up as heads towards r = 0,

slows down as heads away from r = 0. Stops at r1, turns around.
• Isotropic Simple Harmonic Oscillator:
f(r) = - kr, V´(r) = (½)kr2 + (½)[2⁄(mr2)]
•  ≠ 0 ⇒ (fig):
All E: Bounded
orbit. Turning
points r1 & r2.
E -V´(r) = (½) mr2 > 0
Does not pass
through r = 0
⇒ Oscillates in r between r1 & r2. Motion in plane (r(θ))
is elliptic. Proof: Take x & y components of force: fx = -kx,
fy = -ky. r(θ) = Superposition of 2, 1d SHO’s, same frequency,
moving at right angles to each other
 Sect. 3.4: The Virial Theorem
• Skim discussion. Read details on your own!
• Many particle system. Positions ri, momenta pi.
Bounded. Define G ≡ ∑iri∙pi
• Time derivative of G:
(dG/dt) = ∑i(ri∙pi + ri∙pi) (1)
• Time average: (dG/dt) in interval τ:
〈(dG/dt)〉 ≡ τ-1∫(dG/dt)dt (2)
(limits 0 < t < τ)
〈(dG/dt)〉 = [G(τ) - G(0)]/τ (3)
• Periodic motion ⇒ G(τ) = G(0):
(3) ⇒ 〈(dG/dt)〉 = 0
 〈(dG/dt)〉 = [G(τ) - G(0)]/τ (3)
• If motion isn’t periodic, still make 〈(dG/dt)〉 = 〈G〉
as small as we want if τ is very large. ⇒ For a
periodic system or for a non-periodic system with
large τ can (in principle) make 〈G〉 = 0
• When 〈G〉 = 0, (long time average) (1) & (2) combine:
〈∑i(pi∙ri)〉 = - 〈∑i(pi∙ri)〉 (4)
• Left side of (4): pi∙ri = 2Ti
or 〈∑i(pi∙ri)〉 = 〈2∑iTi〉 = 2〈T〉 (5)
Ti = KE of particle i; T = total KE of system
• Newton’s 2nd Law: ⇒ pi = F i = force on particle i
⇒ Right side of (4) : 〈∑i(pi∙ri)〉 = 〈∑i(Fi∙ri)〉 (6)
 Combine (5) & (6):

⇒ 〈T〉 = - (½)〈∑i(Fi∙ri)〉 (7)

- (½)〈∑i(Fi∙ri)〉 ≡ The Virial (of Clausius)
≡ The Virial Theorem:
The time average kinetic energy of a
system is equal to its virial.

• Application to Stat Mech (ideal gas): Pages 84-85

 〈T〉 = - (½)〈∑i(Fi∙ri)〉 ≡ The Virial Theorem:
• Application to classical dynamics:
• For a conservative system in which a PE can be
defined: Fi ≡ -ΔVi ⇒ 〈T〉 = (½)〈∑i(ΔVi∙ri)〉
• Special case: Central Force, which (for each particle i):
|F| ∝ rn, n any power (r = distance between particles) ⇒
V = krn+1
⇒ ΔV∙r = (dV/dr)r =k(n+1)rn+1
or: V∙r = (n+1)V
⇒ Virial Theorem gives:
〈T〉 = (½)(n+1)〈V〉 (8)
(Central forces ONLY!)
• Virial Theorem, Central Forces:
(F(r)= krn , V(r) = krn+1)
〈T〉 = (½)(n+1)〈V〉 (8)
• Case 1: Gravitational (or electrostatic!) Potential:
n=-2 ⇒ 〈T〉 = - (½)〈V〉
• Case 2: Isotropic Simple Harmonic Oscillator Potential:
n = + 1 ⇒ 〈T〉 = 〈V〉
• Case 3: n = -1 ⇒ 〈T〉 = 0
• Case 4: n ≠ integer (real power x):
n=x ⇒ 〈T〉 = (½)(x+1) 〈V〉
 Sect. 3.5: Orbit Eqtn
• We had:
(dθ/dr) = ± (/r2)(2m)-½[E - V(r) -{2⁄(2mr2)}]-½
• Integrating this gives:
θ(r) = ± ∫(/r2)(2m)-½[E - V(r) - {2⁄(2mr2)}]-½ dr
• Once the central force is specified, we know V(r)
& we can, in principle, do the integral & get the
orbit θ(r), or, (if this can be inverted!) r(θ). Quite
remarkable! Assuming only a central force law & nothing else
We have reduced the original 6d problem of 2
particles to a 2d problem with only 1 degree of
freedom. The solution can be obtained simply by
doing the above (1d) integral! (Not necessarily a closed
form function, but integral can always be done. Usually numerically.)
• General Eqtn for orbit (any Central Potential V(r)) is:
(2m)½θ(r) = ± ∫(/r2)dr⁄D(r) (1)
D(r) ≡ [E - V(r) - {2⁄(2mr2)}]½

• In general, (1) must be evaluated numerically. True

even for most power law forces:
f(r) = krn ; V(r) = krn+1

• For a few integer & fractional values of n, can

express (1) in terms of certain elliptic integrals.
• Will discuss some soon.
 Sect. 3.5: Orbits
(2m)½θ(r) = ± ∫(/r2)dr⁄D(r) (1)
D(r) ≡ [E - V(r) - {2⁄(2mr2)}]½
• Can prove that only for n = 1, -2, and -3 can (1) be
integrated to give trigonometric functions. Also, results
for n=5,3,0,-4,-5,-7 can be expressed as elliptic integrals.
Interesting academically & mathematically, but most of these
are uninteresting physically!
n = 1, f(r) = kr: Isotropic, 3d simple harmonic oscillator.
n = -2, f(r) = kr-2: Inverse square law force:
Gravitation, Coulomb, …will treat in detail this chapter!
– Other cases: Homework Problems!
• Recap: Have solved problem for r(t) & orbit θ(r)
or r(θ) using conservation laws exclusively:
– Combined conservation of angular momentum with
conservation of energy into a single result which gives
the orbit θ(r) in terms of a single integral.
• Useful to take another (equivalent, of course!) approach
which will result in a differential eqtn for the orbit!

• Go back to Lagrangian for relative coordinate

(before using conservation of angular momentum):
L ≡ (½)m |r|2 - V(r)
Or: L = (½)m(r2 + r2θ2) - V(r)
 L = (½)m(r2 + r2θ2) - V(r)
• Lagrange eqtn for r (again):
(∂L/∂r) - (d/dt)(∂L/∂r) = 0
(∂L/∂r) = mrθ2 - (∂V/∂r)
(d/dt)(∂L/∂r) = mr;
- (∂V/∂r) = f(r)
⇒ Differential Eqtn of motion for “particle” of
mass m subject to Central Force f(r) :
m(r- rθ2) = f(r) (2)
As we’ve already seen: Newton’s 2nd Law in plane polar
coordinates!
• Diff Eqtn of motion: m(r- rθ2) = f(r) (2)
(2) is a 2nd order differential equation.
• Most convenient to solve by making a change of variables:
• Let u ≡ (1/r) ⇒ (du/dr) = -(1/r2) (≡ -u2)
• More interested in orbit θ(r) or r(θ) than in r(t).
Manipulation (repeated use of chain rule):
(du/dθ) = (du/dr)(dr/dθ) = -(1/r2)(dr/dθ)
= -(1/r2)(dr/dt)(dt/dθ) = -(1/r2)(dr/dt)⁄(dθ/dt) = -(1/r2)(r/θ)
⇒ (du/dθ) = -(1/r2)(r/θ) (3)
• Conservation of angular momentum:
 ≡ mr2θ = const ⇒ θ = [/(mr2)]
(4)
• Combine (3) & (4): ⇒ (du/dθ) = -(m/)r (5)
• Similar manipulation for: (d2u/dθ2) = (d/dθ)[-(m/)r]
= -(m/)(dt/dθ)(dr/dt) = -(m/)(r/θ)
Again substitute θ = [/(mr2)] (d2u/dθ2) = - (m2/2)(r2r)
(6)
• Solving (6) for r (& using u2 = (1/r2)) :
⇒ r = - (2/m2)u2(d2u/dθ2) (7)
 ≡ mr2θ = const; θ = [/(mr2)] (but u = (1/r))
⇒ rθ2 = (2/m2) u3 (8)
• Eqtn of motion:
m(r- rθ2) = f(r) (2)
• Putting (7) & (8) into (2) gives (on simplifying):
(d2u/dθ2) + u = - (m/2)u-2f(1/u)
(9)
• Differential eqtn which gives the orbit is (u = (1/r))
(d2u/dθ2) + u = - (m/2)u-2 f(1/u) (9)
In terms of potential V(r) = V(1/u) this is:
(d2u/dθ2) + u = - (m/2)[dV(1/u)/du] (9′)
Alternatively, could write:
(d2[1/r]/dθ2) + (1/r) = - (m2)r2 f(r) (9′′)
• Note: Because of right hand side, (9), (9′), (9′′) are
nonlinear differential equations in general.
– Exception: When f(r) ∝ r-2 (Inverse Square Law), for
which right side = constant.
• (9), (9′), (9′′) could, in principle be used to solve for orbit
r(θ) or θ(r) given the force law f(r).
– The result, of course will be same as if integral version of θ(r) is
evaluated. Can show integral for θ(r) is solution to (9), (9′), (9′′)
• Differential eqtn which gives the orbit (With u = (1/r))
(d2u/dθ2) + u = - (m/2)u-2 f(1/u) (9)
(d2u/dθ2) + u = - (m/2)[dV(1/u)/du] (9′)
(d2[1/r]/dθ2) + (1/r) = - (m/2)r2 f(r) (9′′)
• Usually, rather than solve these for the orbit, given
f(r), we usually use the integral formulation.
• However, where these are most useful is for
The Inverse Problem:
≡ Given a known orbit r(θ) or θ(r),
determine the force law f(r).
 Examples

1: Find the force law for a central force field

that allows a particle to move in a
logarithmic spiral orbit given by r = keαθ,
where k and α are constants.
2: Find r(t) and θ(t) for the same case.
3: What is the total energy of the orbit for the
same case?