XFdtd Reference Manual

Release 7.3.0

Remcom Inc.
315 S. Allen St., Suite 416
State College, PA 16801
+1.888.7.REMCOM
+1.814.861.1299
+1.814.861.1308 fax
www.remcom.com

Copyright c Remcom, Inc. All rights reserved.

Remcom and all other trademarks and logos for the company’s products and services are the exclusive property of Remcom Inc.
XFdtd is versioned with four numbers as major.minor.feature.bugfix. A change in any number except the bugfix number indicates that
new features have been added to the software.

This document has been updated for, prepared and delivered with XFdtd 7.3.0.3, October 2012.
Contents

List of Figures ix

List of Tables xvii

1 Introduction to XFdtd R
Release 7 1
1.1 How to Read This Manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Important Changes for Users of Previous Versions of XFdtd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 A Guide to the Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 The Finite-Difference Time-Domain Method 5

2.1 Why Use FDTD? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 A Brief Summary - FDTD Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4 Near-Zone Versus Far-Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.5 Broadband vs. Single-Frequency Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.6 Outer Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.7 Computer Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3 An Overview of XFdtd 13

4 The XFdtd Interface 19

4.1 Application Menu Bar and Toolbar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.1.1 File Drop-Down Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.1.2 Edit Drop-Down Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.1.3 View Drop-Down Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.1.4 Macros Drop-Down Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.1.5 Help Drop-Down Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.2 The Project Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2.1 The Branches of the Project Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.2.2 Customizing the Display of the Project Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.3 Workspace Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.3.1 Summary of Workspace Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.3.2 Organizing Project Workspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.3.3 Tabbed Workspace Window Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.4 Troubleshooting Invalid Operations within the XFdtd Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

5 Creating Geometry 45

iii
iv

5.1 Geometry Workspace Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

5.2 View Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.3 Geometry Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.3.1 Creating New Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.3.2 Modifying Existing Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.3.3 Boolean Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.4 Importing CAD, Voxel, Mesh and PCB Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.4.1 CAD files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.4.2 Voxel Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.4.3 Mesh Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.4.4 PCB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.5 Orienting Objects in the Simulation Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.5.1 Overview of Global, Reference and Local Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.5.2 Basic Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.5.3 Alignment Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.5.4 Advanced Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.5.5 Orienting 2-D Sketches on the Sketching Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.5.6 Using Locators to Orient Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

6 Creating Materials 93
6.1 Adding a New Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.1.1 Free Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6.1.2 Perfect Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.1.3 Electric Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.1.4 Magnetic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.1.5 Thin Wire Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.2 Appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.3 Physical Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.4 Material Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

7 Circuit Components, Waveguides, External Excitations and Voltage Points 107

7.1 Component Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
7.1.1 Adding a New Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
7.1.2 Adding a Component Using an Existing Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
7.1.3 Component Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
7.2 Circuit Component Definition Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
7.2.1 Passive Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
7.2.2 Feed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
7.2.3 Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.2.4 Nonlinear Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.2.5 Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
7.3 Waveguide Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.3.1 Waveguide Properties Tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7.3.2 Waveguide Geometry Tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.3.3 Waveguide Boundaries Tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.3.4 Waveguide Port Specification Tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.4 Discrete Ports or Waveguide Ports? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
7.5 Plane Wave Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

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7.6 Gaussian Beam Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

7.7 Waveform Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
7.7.1 Automatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
7.7.2 Broadband . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
7.7.3 Gaussian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.7.4 Gaussian Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
7.7.5 Modulated Gaussian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
7.7.6 Sinusoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.7.7 User Defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
7.7.8 Notes on Choosing Waveform Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
7.8 Static Voltage Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

8 Defining the Grid and Creating a Mesh 151

8.1 Grid Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
8.1.1 Size Tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
8.1.2 Fixed Points Tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
8.1.3 Grid Regions Tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
8.1.4 Limits Tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
8.2 Gridding Properties Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
8.2.1 Automatic Grid Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
8.2.2 Automatic Fixed Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
8.3 Meshing Properties Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
8.3.1 Meshing Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
8.3.2 Meshing Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
8.3.3 Include in Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
8.3.4 XACT: Accurate Cell Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
8.3.5 Solid Meshing Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
8.3.6 Volume Meshing Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
8.4 Touching Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
8.4.1 Test Objects in CAD Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
8.4.2 Separate Objects in Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

9 Defining Outer Boundary Conditions 177

9.1 Absorbing Boundaries vs Reflecting Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
9.2 Liao Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
9.3 PML Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
9.4 PEC Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
9.5 PMC Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
9.6 Periodic Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

10 Saving Output Data with Sensors 181

10.1 Sensor Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
10.2 Near Field Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
10.2.1 Field Retrieval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
10.2.2 Hearing Aid Compatibility Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
10.3 Far Zone Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
10.4 System Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
10.5 Port Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
10.5.1 S-Parameter, Group Delay, VSWR and Reflection Coefficient Calculations . . . . . 196

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10.6 SAR Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

10.7 Sensor Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

11 Running Calculations 201

11.1 Simulations Workspace Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
11.1.1 Creating a New Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
11.1.2 Queueing and Running Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
11.1.3 Creating Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
11.2 Starting the XFsolver Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
11.2.1 Running XFsolver Within the XFdtd Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
11.2.2 Running XFsolver From the Command Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
11.2.3 Running the Calculation Remotely . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
11.3 Calculation Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
11.3.1 Computer Resources Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
11.3.2 Multi-Processing Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
11.3.3 XStream Hardware Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
11.3.4 Monitoring Simulation Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
11.3.5 Calculation Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

12 Viewing Output 227

12.1 Results Workspace Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
12.1.1 Filtering Data Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
12.2 Viewing Numerical Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
12.2.1 Numerical Data Collected by XFdtd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
12.2.2 Power, Impedance, and Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
12.2.3 TDR / TDT Impedance Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
12.2.4 S-Parameter Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
12.2.5 Power Scaling Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
12.3 Viewing 2-D Plotted Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
12.3.1 Plotted Data Collected by XFdtd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
12.3.2 Customizing Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
12.4 3-D Field Displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
12.4.1 Data Collected With Near-Field Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
12.4.2 Data Collected by Far Zone Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
12.4.3 Viewing 3-D Field Displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
12.5 Post-Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
12.5.1 Far Zone Post-Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
12.5.2 SAR Averaging Post-Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
12.5.3 SAR Combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

13 Additional Tools for Customizing and Organizing Projects 265

13.1 Parameters Workspace Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
13.1.1 Defining Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
13.1.2 Parameters Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
13.2 Scripting Workspace Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
13.2.1 The XFdtd Scripting Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
13.3 Libraries Workspace Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
13.3.1 Creating a New Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
13.3.2 Accessing Existing Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

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13.3.3 Adding Objects and/or Definitions to a Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

Appendices 273

A Appendix of Geometric Modeling 275

A.1 Basic Geometric Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
A.2 Editing Cross-Sections for 2-D and 3-D Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
A.2.1 Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
A.2.2 Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
A.2.3 Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
A.2.4 Snapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
A.3 2-D Modeling Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
A.4 3-D Solid Modeling Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
A.5 Advanced 3-D Solid Modeling Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
A.6 Modifying Existing Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
A.7 Boolean Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
A.8 3-D Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
A.9 Geometric Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
A.10 Flattening a Modeling Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320

B Grid Appendix 323

B.1 Grid Concepts Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
B.2 Choosing an Appropriate Cell Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
B.3 Grid Regions vs. Fixed Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
B.4 Debugging the Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

C Transitioning From Previous Versions 333

C.1 Informational Videos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
C.2 Importing Files From XFdtd Version 6.X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334

D Output File Formats 335

D.1 Point Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
D.2 Multi-point Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
D.3 system.ssout Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
D.3.1 Power Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
D.3.2 Efficiency Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
D.3.3 Port Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
D.3.4 S-Parameter Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
D.4 Transient Voltage and Current Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
D.5 SAR Sensor Statistics Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
D.6 Volumetric SAR Data Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
D.7 Far Zone Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
D.8 Geometry.input File Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
D.9 Mesh.input File Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
D.10 Miscellaneous XFsolver Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
D.11 UAN File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

E Application Change Log 353

7.3.x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
7.3.0.x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353

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7.2.x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
7.2.3.x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
7.2.2.x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
7.2.1.x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
7.2.0.x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
7.1.x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
7.1.2.x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
7.1.1.x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
7.1.0.x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

Glossary 401

Bibliography 409

Index 411

XFdtd 7.3.0 Reference Manual

List of Figures

2.1 The Yee cell with labeled field components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2.2 A dielectric sphere as meshed in an FDTD grid. The individual cell edges (electric field
locations) are displayed as the overlapping grid lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 The coordinate system used in XFdtd for far-zone and incident plane wave directions . . 9
2.4 The coordinate system for Alpha, Epsilon far-zone patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.5 The coordinate system for Azimuth, Elevation far-zone patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3.1 The XFdtd GUI with several expanded menus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

3.2 Zooming in to the Geometry Tools option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3 Zooming in to the Definitions branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.4 Zooming in to the Circuit Components and External Excitations branches . . . . . . . . 15
3.5 Zooming in to the Grid Tools and Gridding Properties menu options . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.6 Zooming in to the meshing options dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.7 Zooming in to the Outer Boundary branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.8 Zooming in to the Sensor menu options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.9 Zooming in to the Simulations and Results workspace windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

4.1 The XFdtd 7 workspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

4.2 The Frequency Range of Interest tab in the Project Properties Editor . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.3 The Display Units tab in the Project Properties Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.4 The Advanced tab in the Project Properties Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.5 The General tab under Application Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.6 The Interface tab under Application Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.7 The Modeling tab under Application Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.8 The Graphs tab under Application Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.9 The Compatibility tab under Application Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.10 The About XFdtd Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.11 The Project Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.12 Adding a new Part or Assembly from the Project Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.13 Viewing the Parts List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.14 Defining a new Circuit Component from the Project Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.15 Creating a new External Excitation from the Project Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.16 Defining a new Static Voltage Point from the Project Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.17 Adding a Near-Zone Sensor from the Project Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.18 Accessing a Definition Editor from the Project Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.19 Viewing the FDTD branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

ix
x

4.20 Accessing Scripting tools in the Project Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

4.21 Adding a Group within the Project Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.22 Toggling the branches of the Project Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.23 Expanding and collapsing individual branches in the Project Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.24 Expanding and collapsing all branches in the Project Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.25 Workspace windows toolbar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.26 Project workspace view modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.27 The tabbed workspace, displaying only Geometry and Scripting workspace tabs . . . . 43

5.1 The Geometry workspace window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

5.2 The View Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.3 Using the Measure Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.4 Viewing XFdtd mesh information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.5 Viewing the XFdtd mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.6 Viewing a 3-D mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.7 The Automatic Remeshing dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.8 The Create menu of the Geometry workspace window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.9 Accessing the Create menu from the Project Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.10 The Edit Cross Section tab of the Geometry workspace window . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.11 Locking or editing a vertex’s position with the Select/Manipulate tool . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.12 Editing the Construction Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.13 The Extrude tab of the Geometry workspace window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.14 CAD import options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.15 CAD file before modification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.16 CAD file after modification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.17 The import dialog for MMF voxel data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.18 The import report for the 5 mm VariPose man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.19 The result of importing the 5 mm VariPose man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.20 The import dialog for the ICRP Reference Phantoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.21 The import dialog for NICT Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.22 The import dialog for Virtual Population Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.23 Assigning tissue materials to voxel objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.24 The head of an imported human body mesh object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.25 The Project Tree with imported mesh object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.26 ODB++ Layers Tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.27 ODB++ Nets Tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.28 ODB++ Log Tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.29 The Orientation Triad governs the location and orientation of the Local Coordinate System. 80
5.30 The Specify Orientation tab in Basic Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.31 Customizing the orientation of the simulation space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.32 Aligning a new object with an existing reference plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.33 Twisting an object about the origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.34 Rotating an object about a user-defined axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.35 The hotkeys menu appears when a direction picking tool hovers over an object. . . . . . 84
5.36 Using Match Directions to align two objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.37 Aligning points on objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.38 Modifying the location and orientation of the anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.39 Modifying the orientation of the axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

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5.40 Twist dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

5.41 Orienting a 2-D cross section about an axis of revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.42 Cross section revolved about the V 0 -axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.43 Cross section revolved about the U 0 - and V 0 -axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.44 Using (A.) open (hollow) and (B.) closed (solid) cross sections to (C.) create a sphere with
the Revolution operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

6.1 Adding a New Material Definition to the project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

6.2 Defining a Free Space material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.3 Defining an Electric material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.4 Defining a Nondispersive material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.5 Defining a Debye/Drude material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.6 Defining a Lorentz material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.7 Defining a Sampled material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.8 Defining a Nonlinear material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.9 Defining an Anisotropic material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.10 Defining a Magnetic material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.11 Defining an Magnetized Ferrite material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.12 Thin Wire dialog window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.13 Setting the visibility of a material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

7.1 Adding a new component with Component Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

7.2 Accessing the Component Tools dialog from the Project Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.3 Editing component connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.4 Editing component properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
7.5 Setting the visibility of a component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
7.6 The Circuit Component Definition Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
7.7 Editing a normal load within the Circuit Component Definition Editor . . . . . . . . . . . 113
7.8 Editing a sampled load within the Circuit Component Definition Editor . . . . . . . . . . 114
7.9 Feed schematic, including FDTD mesh edge voltage, V, and current, I . . . . . . . . . . 115
7.10 Editing a diode within the Circuit Component Definition Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.11 Editing a nonlinear capacitor within the Circuit Component Definition Editor . . . . . . . 118
7.12 Editing a switch within the Circuit Component Definition Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.13 Some Guided Wave Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.14 Magic Tee and Waveguide Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.15 The Waveguide Tools Dialog with Properties Tab Selected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7.16 The Waveguide Geometry Tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.17 Interface Rectangle with Local (u, v) Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.18 Geometry of Interface for Rectangular Waveguide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.19 Quasi-TEM Mode E -Field around a Microstrip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.20 Interface Size Guidelines for Microstrip and Stripline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.21 Interface Size Guidelines for Co-planar Waveguide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
7.22 The Waveguide Boundaries Tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
7.23 Quasi-TEM Mode E -Field around a Microstrip with Proposed Waveguide Interface . . . 126
7.24 The Waveguide Port Specification Tab without a Defined Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.25 Short Straight Rectangular Waveguide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.26 S-Parameters for Rectangular Waveguide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.27 Time-domain E Field in Rectangular Waveguide with Off-center Metal Post . . . . . . . 128

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7.28 S-Parameters for Rectangular Waveguide with Post . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

7.29 The Wavegude Port Specification Tab with Some Regions Marked . . . . . . . . . . . 129
7.30 Port Information Area (Region 3) for a Transmission Line, including Zline . . . . . . . . 129
7.31 TE11 mode E field in a waveguide port of a circular waveguide . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
7.32 Integration line used to orient the TE11 mode of a circular waveguide . . . . . . . . . . 132
7.33 A Discrete Port and a Waveguide Port Feeds with a Microstrip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
7.34 A bowtie antenna fed directly by a resistive voltage source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
7.35 TE21 mode E field in a waveguide port of a circular waveguide . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
7.36 S Parameters for a Microstrip with a Waveguide Port at Each End . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
7.37 A Triple-Band Slot Antenna Near the SAM Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
7.38 SAR Statistics for Triple-Band Slot Antenna Near the SAM Head with a Waveguide Port . 135
7.39 SAR Statistics for Triple-Band Slot Antenna Near the SAM Head with a Discrete Port . . 136
7.40 Far-zone Pattern for Triple-Band Slot Antenna Near the SAM Head with a Waveguide Port 136
7.41 Far-zone Pattern for Triple-Band Slot Antenna Near the SAM Head with a Discrete Port . 137
7.42 The Location Tab of the Plane Wave Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
7.43 The Properties Tab of the Plane Wave Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
7.44 The Location Tab of the Gaussian Beam Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.45 The Properties Tab of the Gaussian Beam Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
7.46 Defining a Broadband waveform in the Waveform Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.47 Defining a Gaussian pulse in the Waveform Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
7.48 Defining a Gaussian Derivative waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
7.49 Defining a Modulated Gaussian waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.50 Defining a Sinusoid waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
7.51 Defining a User Defined waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.52 A User Defined waveform file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
7.53 Defining a static voltage point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

8.1 An illustration of an object surrounded by the grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

8.2 An illustration of the grid (black lines) and the electic mesh (light green lines) . . . . . . 151
8.3 An illustration of the grid (black lines) and the magnetic mesh (light green lines). The
magnetic mesh is offset from the electric mesh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
8.4 An illustration of the grid (black lines) and the electic and magnetic meshes (light green
lines) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
8.5 The Basic mode enables XFdtd to define cell size and placement . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
8.6 The Advanced mode enables users to define cell size and placement . . . . . . . . . . 154
8.7 Defining a project’s boundaries by cell padding within the Size tab . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
8.8 Defining a project’s boundaries by a bounding box within the Size tab . . . . . . . . . . 156
8.9 Defining Fixed Points within Grid Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
8.10 Defining Grid Regions within Grid Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
8.11 Defining Grid Regions within Grid Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
8.12 Accessing the Gridding Properties Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
8.13 The Gridding Properties Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
8.14 Fixed points placed at wire endpoints and edge corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
8.15 Fixed points placed at axis-aligned straight edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
8.16 Fixed points placed at edges of loops (minimum size = 0) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
8.17 Fixed points placed at the center of open ellipses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
8.18 The Meshing Properties Editor for a model part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
8.19 Assigning meshing modes within the Project Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

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8.20 Assigning meshing priority in the Project Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

8.21 Parts included in and excluded from the mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
8.22 Meshed spheres with a conventional mesh (left) and XACT mesh (right) . . . . . . . . . 169
8.23 The blue plate’s conventional mesh has edges on both sides of the red plate’s XACT mesh 171
8.24 The Meshing Properties Editor for a solid model part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
8.25 The Meshing Properties Editor for a volumetric part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
8.26 The Touching Objects menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
8.27 The Touching Object Test dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
8.28 The Separate Objects in Mesh dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
8.29 Touching objects geometry (left) and mesh view (right) with a 2-cell mesh separation
applied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

9.1 Outer Boundary Branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

9.2 The Outer Boundary Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

10.1 The Sensor Tools menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

10.2 Point Sensor properties dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
10.3 Point Sensor Definition Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
10.4 Sensor on Model Surface properties dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
10.5 Rectangular Sensor properties dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
10.6 Planar Sensor properties dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
10.7 Surface Sensor Definition Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
10.8 Solid Part Sensor properties dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
10.9 Solid Box Sensor properties dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
10.10 Solid Sensor Definition Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
10.11 HAC Sensor properties dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
10.12 Several Far Zone sensor geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
10.13 Defining a Far Zone sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
10.14 The Specific Anthropomorphic Mannequin (SAM) head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
10.15 Requesting averaged SAR statistics in a boxed region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
10.16 Requesting averaged SAR statistics in an automatic subregion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
10.17 Setting the visibility of a sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

11.1 The Simulations workspace window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

11.2 Choosing a source for a simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
11.3 Setting up a parameter sweep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
11.4 Parameter sequences tree interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
11.5 Parameter sweep entry methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
11.6 Setting up S-Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
11.7 Setting up Frequencies of Interest under the Frequencies and Data Storage tabs . . . . 207
11.8 Total E-field of a Pure Scattered-Field (Left) vs. Total-Field/Scattered-Field (right) Plane
Wave Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
11.9 Incorrect results due to an object crossing the interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
11.10 Incorrect results when a field propagates within the “Shadow Region” of the geometry . 209
11.11 Setting up Total/Scattered Field Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
11.12 The interface may be turned off for problems using periodic boundary conditions. . . . . 211
11.13 Selecting iteration and threshold criteria within the Simulations workspace window . . . 212
11.14 Selecting termination criteria within the Simulations workspace window . . . . . . . . . 213

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11.15 Use Project Contents Termination Criteria Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

11.16 Running a calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
11.17 Specifying the number of CPU cores to use for a simulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
11.18 Monitoring simulation progress in the Output tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

12.1 The Results workspace window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

12.2 Active and Inactive Port schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
12.3 Results right-click menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
12.4 Create graph dialog for XY, Polar, and Smith plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
12.5 Tabs available for editing graph properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
12.6 Editing the axes of graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
12.7 Marker properties dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
12.8 Marker drop-down menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
12.9 2-D XY graph with Crosshair and Point markers (highlighted in red) . . . . . . . . . . . 242
12.10 Polar graph with Crosshair marker (highlighted in red) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
12.11 Smith graph with Crosshair markers (highlighted in red) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
12.12 2-D XY graph with Vertical and Horizontal markers (highlighted in red) . . . . . . . . . 245
12.13 Exporting UAN far-zone data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
12.14 The Scale Bar Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
12.15 The Field Reader tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
12.16 System Sensor Output dialog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
12.17 The results drop-down list of the field editing toolbar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
12.18 The Setup tab for a solid sensor configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
12.19 The Setup tab for a far-zone sensor configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
12.20 The Sequence tab of the field editing toolbar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
12.21 The Rotations tab of the field editing toolbar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
12.22 The XPD Tab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
12.23 The PDF tab in Gaussian mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
12.24 The Statistics tab for a Far-Zone sensor, showing Power/Efficiency and Other statistics . 258
12.25 The Statistics tab for an SAR sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
12.26 The complete list of SAR statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
12.27 The Diversity tab of the field editing toolbar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
12.28 The Hearing Aid Compatibility tab of the field editing toolbar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
12.29 Far Zone post processing engine options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

13.1 The Parameters workspace window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

13.2 The Scripting workspace window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
13.3 The Libraries workspace window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

A.1 Interactive vectors for editing a cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

A.2 Interactive vectors for editing a cuboid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
A.3 Interactive vectors for editing a cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
A.4 Interactive vectors for editing a frustum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
A.5 Interactive vectors for editing a helix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
A.6 Interactive vectors for editing a prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
A.7 Interactive vectors for editing a pyramid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
A.8 Interactive vectors for editing a sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
A.9 Interactive vectors for editing a torus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

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A.10 The Edge Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

A.11 The Closed Polygon tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
A.12 The Arc tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
A.13 The Circle Center, Radius and Ellipse tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
A.14 Select/Manipulate tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
A.15 The Trim Edges tool, used to combine two shapes into one . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
A.16 Insert Vertex tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
A.17 Fillet Vertex tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
A.18 Copy Cross Section Edges tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
A.19 Polygon before (left) and after (right) two sides are constrained horizontally . . . . . . . 291
A.20 Polygon before (left) and after (right) two sides are vertically constrained . . . . . . . . 291
A.21 Polygon before (left) and after (right) after two sides are constrained to be collinear . . . 292
A.22 Polygon before (left) and after (right) two sides are constrained in parallel . . . . . . . . 292
A.23 Polygon before (left) and after (right) two sides are constrained perpendicularly . . . . . 293
A.24 Circle and polygon before (left) and after (right) a side of the polygon is constrained tan-
gentially in reference to the circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
A.25 Two circles before (left) and after (right) they are made concentric . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
A.26 Polygon before (left) and after (right) an angle has been constrained to a user-defined
value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
A.27 Polygon (A) before line has been constrained, (B) with a parallel distance constraint, (C)
with a vertical distance constraint and (D) with a horizontal distance constraint. . . . . . 295
A.28 Polygon before (left) and after (right) two sides are made equal length to one another . . 296
A.29 Polygon before (left) and after (right) two sides are made equal distance from each other 296
A.30 Two Circles before (left) and after (right) their radii are made equal . . . . . . . . . . . 297
A.31 Snap to Grid Line Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
A.32 Snap to Grid/Edge Intersections Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
A.33 Snap to Vertices Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
A.34 Snap to Edges Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
A.35 Snap to Edge/Edge Intersection Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
A.36 Snap to Part Cross Sections Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
A.37 Extrusion Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
A.38 Revolution Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
A.39 Creating a sphere with the Revolution Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
A.40 Twist Tool defined by A) Angle (90 degrees) and B) Law (0.8x2 ). . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
A.41 A cylinder sweep with Draft By Angle (10 degrees) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
A.42 A cylinder sweep with Draft By Law (.5sin(2x)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
A.43 A cylinder sweep with Draft By End Distance (1 mm) and Start Distance (1 mm) . . . . . 305
A.44 Hole with no Draft (left) and a defined Draft Angle (right) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
A.45 Hole with Draft Angle against (left) and with the Periphery (right) . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
A.46 2-D Illustration of gap types, showing A) the original gap, B) Natural, C) Rounded and D)
Extended . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
A.47 3-D Illustration of the Natural gap type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
A.48 3-D Illustration of the Rounded gap type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
A.49 3-D Illustration of the Extended gap type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
A.50 Original Model (Left) and Model After Cut Off End (Right) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
A.51 A Chamfer operation applied to a cylinder edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
A.52 A Blend operation applied to a cylinder edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
A.53 A Shell operation applied to a cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

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A.54 An octagon with an edge offset in the positive direction (left) and the negative direction
(right) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
A.55 The Thicken Sheet operation applied to an octagonal sheet body . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
A.56 Two objects within a geometry with faces selected (left) and later connected by a Loft
(right) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
A.57 An object with a twist applied, before (left) and after (right) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
A.58 An object with a stretch applied, before (left) and after (right) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
A.59 An object (left) with several faces removed. With open gaps (center) and with closed gaps
(right) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
A.60 A cylinder with an applied negative offset (left) and positive offset (right) . . . . . . . . . 314
A.61 Original objects (Upper Left), selection of the Blank (Upper Middle), objects after Boolean
Subtraction (Upper Right), objects after Boolean Intersection (Lower Left), objects after
Boolean Union (Lower Middle), and objects after Boolean Chop (Lower Right) . . . . . . 315
A.62 A boolean extrude operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
A.63 A boolean revolve operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
A.64 A linear pattern applied to a cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
A.65 An elliptical pattern applied to a small cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
A.66 Scaling an imported CAD cube to 50% of its original size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
A.67 Translating an imported CAD cube closer to the cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
A.68 Rotating an imported CAD cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
A.69 Reflecting an imported CAD cube across the U’ axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
A.70 Shearing an imported CAD cube at a 0.8 ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
A.71 Flattening a modeling sequence into a CAD object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321

B.1 Intersecting planes with lines (in yellow) and sample cell edges in the upper-left corner of
the XY -plane (in red) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
B.2 Intersecting planes with fixed points (in red), grid lines (in blue) and a grid region (in green) 325
B.3 Editing the grid with the Specify Padding option chosen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
B.4 Adding a grid region with a smaller cell size than the main grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
B.5 The Maximum Cell Step Factor shown is never exceeded by adjacent cell size ratios . . 327
B.6 Simple extrusion with uniform grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
B.7 Simple extrusion with applied grid regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
B.8 Simple extrusion with applied fixed points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
B.9 Simple extrusion with a manual grid region defined in Grid Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

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List of Tables

5.1 Direction and Location Picking Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

6.1 Thin Wire Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

8.1 Mesh Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

11.1 Command Line Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

12.1 Data Filtering Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

12.2 Results Displayed as Numerical Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
12.3 Results Displayed as Plotted Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
12.4 Results Plots Available For Each Sensor Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

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XFdtd 7.3.0 Reference Manual

Chapter 1

Introduction to XFdtd Release 7

R

XFdtd 7, also known as XF7, is a three-dimensional full-wave electromagnetic solver based on the Finite-
Difference Time-Domain method. Since 1994, Remcom has provided powerful yet affordable electromag-
netic simulation software to academia, industry and government users. XFdtd 7 is an exceptional addition
to our software product line with many new features. While XFdtd has its roots in the simulation of cellular
telephones, current uses for the software have reached markets as diverse as chemistry, optics, ground-
penetrating radar, and biomedical devices, in addition to wireless, microwave circuit and radar scattering
applications.

1.1 How to Read This Manual

This reference manual is intended to give detailed explanations of the software features and menus. For
typical usage examples, refer to the XFdtd Users Guide. The chapters of this manual are intended to
introduce the important concepts that govern the use of the software. While there is no single “correct” way
to create and execute a calculation from start to finish, the organization of this manual is intended to guide
a new user through various steps of the simulation process.

While every effort has been made to make the software intuitive and easy to use, XFdtd does require some
general knowledge of the concepts of the simulation technique on which it is based. Chapter 2 contains a
brief summary of the Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) method for electromagnetic simulation.

Chapters 3 through 9 outline the step-by-step process of preparing a project for simulation. Chapters 3
and 4 provide a general overview of XFdtd and the graphical interface in order to familiarize the user
with the software. Chapter 5 details the process of creating new geometry, applying materials, importing
geometry from external files and the various tools that facilitate this process. Chapter ?? outlines how to
add discrete components, external excitations, waveforms and voltage points, and also provides some of
the characteristics and governing equations associated with these features. Chapter 8 details the process
of defining an effective grid and mesh that will provide the desired level of detail without allocating excessive
memory usage and calculation time. XFdtd provides several tools for customizing the grid based on specific
features and regions in the geometry that are explained in this chapter. Lastly, Chapter 9 provides the
guidelines for properly considering how the calculation engine treats the outer bounds of the project.

1
2 Introduction

Chapters 10, 11 and 12 detail the procedure for requesting results, running the calculation engine and
viewing the requested results. XFdtd 7 has greatly improved from previous major versions with the intro-
duction of sensors, which function to collect results. Chapter 10 provides a full-description of sensors, their
improvement over the former methods for data collection in earlier versions and the data that each type
collects. Users interested in the biological features of XFdtd such as the human body meshes, Specific Ab-
sorption Rate (SAR) and temperature rise calculations should reference this chapter for information about
biological sensors.

During the calculation process (described in Chapter 11), results are derived by means of R ESULTS
objects that are generated from their corresponding sensors. Chapter 12 documents the various ways of
viewing these output results.

Finally, Chapter 13 details several “extras” that have been incorporated for customizing and organizing
projects. These include three powerful tools that have been added since previous major versions that
greatly facilitate and shorten the simulation process for current projects as well as future projects.

Several appendices are available to provide users with additional information about the features of XFdtd.
Appendix A details and gives examples of the various G EOMETRY TOOLS including the 2-D shape tools,
constraint tools, snapping tools, 3-D modeling operations, advanced 3-D modeling operations, modification
operations and 3-D patterns. Appendix B provides important supplementary information about choosing
an appropriate cell size, as well as a discussion of fixed points and grid regions, two powerful tools for
customizing the grid. Finally, Appendix C offers several resources and reference points for previous users
of XFdtd.

1.2 Important Changes for Users of Previous Versions of XFdtd

XFdtd 7 is a significant improvement over previous major versions of XFdtd. It was designed to increase
the productivity of the user with a more intuitive interface, cross-platform functionality, and added speed
and flexibility. With advanced meshing, parameterization, scripting and a number of other ground-breaking
new features, XFdtd is now a more accessible and productive tool than other comparable products in the
market thus far.

Below is a summary of the highlights of this latest release of XFdtd:

• A Cross-Platform User Interface. You now have the flexibility to use XFdtd on the platform of your
choice. The software will run natively and in its entirety on Linux, MacOS and Windows.

• Scripts and Macros. These new additions to XFdtd allow you to customize and perform more
complicated tasks than previous major versions.

• Improved Parameterization. Adjust and fine-tune your designs to a greater degree with extensive
parameterization features.

• Modeler Enhancements. XFdtd now offers more powerful CAD modeling.

• Improved Meshing Accuracy and Speed. XFdtd creates a more accurate and memory-efficient
representation of your model.

• XACT: Accurate Cell Technology. Improves simulation speed and accuracy by representing geo-
metric features at sub-cell resolution in the mesh (see Chapter 8.3.4).

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Introduction 3

• Imported CAD File Editing. Modify CAD files on your own and eliminate down time waiting for
others to do it for you.

• ODB++ Printed Circuit Board (PCB) Import. XFdtd imports PCB geometry from circuit layout
design tools, using the PCB industry’s standard file format for data exchange.

• User Interface Refinements. The more sophisticated and powerful GUI simplifies the learning
curve for new users and increases efficiencies for all users.

• Comprehensive Output Control. XFdtd offers greatly expanded data-saving and displaying fea-
tures interfaced through a more powerful browser.

• Copy and Paste. XFdtd now enables users to copy and paste, as well as drag-and-drop, items in
the project tree (both within an instance and across multiple instances).

Refer to Appendix C to see additional resources for users of previous major versions of XFdtd.

1.3 A Guide to the Graphics

In an attempt to make this manual as easy to read as possible, we’ve used several key icons to help
organize the material.

→ At the beginning of each chapter, there is a summarized list of topics you will find
within. This symbol marks each topic.
Wherever there is a reference to another section with additional information on
the topic being discussed, this symbol will lead you there.
This symbol marks a “smart tip,” which offers a helpful way to think about a topic
or complete a task.
There are times when the user must be careful to remember something or espe-
cially cautious. This symbol will warn you to pay attention!
• Lists are marked by the classic bullet point. Sub-topics within the list are marked
with a dash (-).

Given XFdtd’s support of multiple platforms, keep in mind that the interface you see on your computer
screen may appear slightly different from what is shown throughout this manual. Minor interface changes,
such as button locations and menu layouts, have been individually configured for maximum performance
within each platform. In some cases, figures have also been modified slightly from their original version to
fit this manual. All screen shots within this manual were taken on a computer running Windows XP.

XFdtd 7.3.0 Reference Manual

4 Introduction

XFdtd 7.3.0 Reference Manual

Chapter 2

The Finite-Difference Time-Domain

Method

In this chapter, you will learn...

→ the benefits of using FDTD to perform your electromagnetic simulation

→ an (abridged) explanation of the theory behind FDTD
→ several main factors to consider as you prepare to set up an electromagnetic calculation in XFdtd

This chapter provides an introduction to the concepts of the Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) method.
The approach has existed since the 1960’s but has gained popularity in recent years as computer perfor-
mance has increased.

For more detailed information on FDTD, refer to the text The Finite Difference Time Domain Method
for Electromagnetics by Kunz and Luebbers[1], and Computational Electrodynamics: The Finite-
Difference Time-Domain Method, Third Edition by Taflove and Hagness[2].

2.1 Why Use FDTD?

While many electromagnetic simulation techniques are applied in the frequency-domain, FDTD solves
Maxwell’s equations in the time domain. This means that the calculation of the electromagnetic field values
progresses at discrete steps in time. One benefit of the time domain approach is that it gives broadband
output from a single execution of the program; however, the main reason for using the FDTD approach is
the excellent scaling performance of the method as the problem size grows. As the number of unknowns
increases, the FDTD approach quickly outpaces other methods in efficiency.

FDTD has also been identified as the preferred method for performing electromagnetic simulations for
biological effects from wireless devices. Researchers have shown the FDTD method to be the most efficient
approach in providing accurate results of the field penetration into biological tissues.

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6 The Finite-Difference Time-Domain Method

See IEEE publication C95.3 Recommended Practice for Measurements and Computations with Re-
spect to Human Exposure to Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields, 100 kHz to 300 GHz [3], and
the Toflove and Hagness text [2].

2.2 A Brief Summary - FDTD Basics

In the FDTD approach, both space and time are divided into discrete segments. Space is segmented into
box-shaped cells, which are small compared to the wavelength. The electric fields are centered on the
edges of the box and the magnetic fields are centered on the faces as shown in Figure 2.1. This orientation
of the fields is known as the Yee cell, and is the basis for FDTD.

For a description of the Yee cell, see IEEE publication Numerical solution of initial boundary value
problems involving Maxwell’s equations in isotropic media [4].

Figure 2.1: The Yee cell with labeled field components

Time is quantized into small steps where each step represents the time required for the field to travel from
one cell to the next. We refer to this as the “timestep”. Given the offset in space of the magnetic fields from
the electric fields, the values of the field with respect to time are also offset. The electric and magnetic
fields are updated using a leapfrog scheme where the electric fields and then the magnetic are computed
at each step in time.

See Section 2.7 for a description of how the timestep is calculated.

When many FDTD cells are combined together to form a three-dimensional volume, the result is an FDTD
grid. Each FDTD cell will overlap edges and faces with its neighbors, so by convention each cell will have
three electric fields that begin at a common node associated with it. The electric fields at the other nine

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The Finite-Difference Time-Domain Method 7

edges of the FDTD cell will belong to other, adjacent cells. Each cell will also have three magnetic fields
originating on the faces of the cell adjacent to the common node of the electric fields, as shown in Figure
2.1.

Within the mesh, materials such as conductors or dielectrics can be added by changing the equations for
computing the fields at given locations. For example, to add a perfectly conducting wire segment to a cell
edge, the equation for computing the electric field can be replaced by simply setting the field to zero since
the electric field in a perfect conductor is always zero. By joining numerous end-to-end cell edges defined as
perfectly conducting material, a wire can be formed. Introducing other materials or other configurations is
handled in a similar manner and each may be applied to either the electric or magnetic fields depending on
the characteristics of the material. By associating many cell edges with materials, a geometrical structure
can be formed within the FDTD grid such as the dielectric sphere shown in Figure 2.2. Each small box
shown in the figure represents one FDTD cell.

Figure 2.2: A dielectric sphere as meshed in an FDTD grid. The individual cell edges (electric field loca-
tions) are displayed as the overlapping grid lines.

The cell size, the dimensions of the box, is the most important constraint in any FDTD simulation since it
determines not only the step size in time, but also the upper frequency limit for the calculation. A general
rule of thumb sets the minimum resolution, and thus the upper frequency limit, at ten cells per wavelength.
In practice the cell size will often be set by dimensions and features of the structure to be simulated such
as the thickness of a substrate or the length of a wire.

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8 The Finite-Difference Time-Domain Method

An excitation may be applied to an FDTD simulation by applying a sampled waveform to the field update
equation at one or several locations. At each step in time, the value of the waveform over that time period
is added into the field value. The surrounding fields will propagate the introduced waveform throughout
the FDTD grid appropriately, depending on the characteristics of each cell. A calculation must continue
until a state of convergence has been reached. This typically means that all field values have decayed to
essentially zero (at least 60 dB down from the peak) or a steady-state condition has been reached.

2.3 Materials

FDTD is capable of simulating a wide variety of electric and magnetic materials. The most basic material
is free space. All FDTD cells are initialized as free space and the fields at all cell edges are updated using
the free space equations unless another material is added to replace the free space.

Perfectly conducting electric and magnetic materials are simulated by setting the electric or magnetic field
to zero for any cell edges located within these materials. Because of the simplicity of the calculation for
these materials, it is better to use a perfect conductor rather than a real conductor whenever feasible.
Conductors such as copper can be simulated in FDTD, but since the equations for computing the fields in
copper material are more complicated than those for a perfect conductor, the calculation will take longer.
For cases where only a small percentage of the FDTD cells are defined as a conductor, the difference in
execution time will hardly be noticeable.

Frequency-independent dielectric and magnetic materials, considered normal materials by XFdtd, are de-
fined by their constitutive parameters of relative permittivity and conductivity for the electrical material or
relative permeability and magnetic conductivity for the magnetic material. In most cases, even when per-
forming a broadband calculation, these materials are appropriate since the parameters do not vary signifi-
cantly over the frequency range.

In some cases a frequency-independent material is not appropriate and instead a frequency-dependent,

or dispersive, material should be substituted. Some common examples of frequency-dependent materi-
als are high water content materials such as human tissues and metals when excited at optical frequen-
cies. Included in XFdtd is the capability to simulate electric and magnetic Debye and Drude materials
such as plasmas, Lorentz materials, and anisotropic magnetic ferrites, as well as frequency-independent
anisotropic dielectrics, and nonlinear diagonally anisotropic dielectrics.

2.4 Near-Zone Versus Far-Zone

For any given calculation, the geometry of the structure being simulated is defined by setting the cell edges
at specific locations to certain materials. The entire FDTD geometry space, commonly called the grid
(without applied materials) or the mesh (with applied materials), is composed of a three-dimensional block
of these cells.

This three-dimensional volume is considered to be the near-zone region in XFdtd in terms of data storage.
The field value at any edge in the FDTD grid may be observed as a function of time by saving a near-
zone point over a range of timesteps. Other types of data such as steady-state field magnitudes, specific
absorption rates, S-Parameters, or impedance also may be stored as near-zone (within the grid) values.

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The Finite-Difference Time-Domain Method 9

It is possible to make an FDTD grid that is large enough to allow sampling of points in the far-field of a
geometry. In general, this will be extremely costly in terms of computer memory and calculation time since
the number of unknowns (cells) will most likely be large. Note that each FDTD cell has a maximum size of
one-tenth of a wavelength, so moving several wavelengths away from a structure will require many cells. In
most cases, this is not an appropriate method of monitoring far-field results.

A more practical method for computing far-zone radiation gain or radar scattering patterns is to use a math-
ematical transformation to convert the near-zone values in the FDTD grid into far-field values at locations
away from the grid. In XFdtd, this transformation is based on near-zone fields stored on the six faces of
an imaginary box enclosing the geometry. The faces of the box are located five FDTD cells from each
outer edge of the FDTD grid. For the transformation to be valid, all parts of the XFdtd geometry must be
contained within the box.

The coordinate system used in XFdtd is defined with the azimuthal (phi) angle referenced from the X -axis
and the elevation (theta) angle referenced from the Z -axis, as shown in Figure 2.3. This coordinate system
is used for locating far-zone positions and for defining the incident plane wave direction in XFdtd.

Figure 2.3: The coordinate system used in XFdtd for far-zone and incident plane wave directions

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10 The Finite-Difference Time-Domain Method

Figure 2.4: The coordinate system for Alpha, Epsilon far-zone patterns

Figure 2.5: The coordinate system for Azimuth, Elevation far-zone patterns

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The Finite-Difference Time-Domain Method 11

2.5 Broadband vs. Single-Frequency Calculations

As mentioned in the introduction, XFdtd uses a time-domain solver, which enables results for a single-
frequency calculation or a multiple-frequency (broadband) calculation for which there is sufficient input
excitation. In other words, one computation provides results for the frequency range of the excitation pulse.
For example, a properly-defined Gaussian pulse can provide excitation from DC to the maximum frequency
supported by the mesh, which is limited only by computer resources.

Many results are automatically available for all excitation frequencies. Certain data, such as SAR, may
require significant computation time and memory for each frequency, so the user is given the ability to
specify the individual frequencies for which they are interested in this data.

2.6 Outer Boundaries

A three-dimensional grid of cells forms the XFdtd geometry and the fields updated at every cell location are
dependent on the neighboring fields. However, due to memory limitations the grid must end at some point
and because of this, the fields on the outer edges of the grid cannot be updated correctly. To correct this
situation, outer radiation boundary conditions are applied at the edges of the XFdtd grid.

The outer boundary is a method for absorbing fields propagating from the XFdtd grid toward the boundary.
By absorbing these fields, the grid appears to extend forever. The performance of the outer boundaries
is an important factor in the accuracy of the XFdtd calculation, and care should be taken to correctly use
them.

In some cases a reflecting boundary rather than an absorbing one is preferred. A perfectly conducting
boundary (either electric or magnetic) may be used to image the fields in an XFdtd calculation.

2.7 Computer Resources

The XFdtd software estimates computer memory resources needed for simulation. The information
in this section is presented to explain the basis for this estimate.

FDTD is a computationally intensive method and most reasonable calculations will need a fast computer
and several hundred megabytes of computer memory. For most applications, it is fairly simple to estimate
the amount of computer memory required for a calculation. The most important factor for the memory
usage, and in large part the run time, is the number of FDTD cells used to represent the structure under
test. Each FDTD cell has six field values associated with it: three electric fields and three magnetic fields.
Additionally each cell has six flags associated with it to indicate the material type present at each of the six
field locations. The field values are real numbers, each four bytes in length, while the flags are each one
byte. This gives a memory usage per FDTD cell of 24 bytes for fields and 6 bytes for flags, for a total of
30 bytes.

To estimate the total memory required, in bytes, simply multiply the number of FDTD cells by the
30 bytes per cell value. There is some overhead in the calculation, but it is generally quite small.
Three notable exceptions are: broadband far-zone directions that allocate six one-dimensional real
value arrays per direction; the use of DFT frequencies, i.e. collecting steady-state data when using
a broadband pulse for excitation; and the use of the PML outer boundary.

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12 The Finite-Difference Time-Domain Method

Estimating the execution time of an XFdtd calculation is more complicated since computer processor per-
formance varies.

One method of estimating is to compute the total number of operations to be performed. There
are about 80 operations per cell, per timestep during the XFdtd calculations. The total number of
operations is found by multiplying the number of cells, the number of timesteps, and the factor of
80 operations per cell, per timestep.

If the value of the floating-point performance of the processor is known, it is possible to compute a value
for execution time. In general, however, a better estimation method is to determine the execution time of
a simple problem on a given computer, and then scale the time by the ratio of the number of operations
between the desired calculation and the simple one.

The timestep size and number of required timesteps are problem-dependent. The size of the timestep is
determined by the size of the cells in the problem space. The maximum timestep allowed is:
 −1/2
1 1 1 1
4t = 2
+ 2
+
c 4x 4y 4z 2
where

c is the speed of light

4x, 4y , and 4z are the lengths of the cell sides, in meters
The timestep used for computation must be no longer than the smallest timestep limit for each of the cells
in the problem space.

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Chapter 3

An Overview of XFdtd

In this chapter, you will learn...

→ how to categorize the major components of the XFdtd interface

The XFdtd interface has been redesigned from earlier versions to give users a great deal of freedom and
functionality while creating their projects. Consequently, there is no single “correct” way to set up and run
a calculation. This chapter provides a general overview of the process of creating a project.

Figure 3.1 shows the XFdtd Graphical User Interface (GUI) with several key menus expanded.

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14 An Overview of XFdtd

Figure 3.1: The XFdtd GUI with several expanded menus

Typically, an XFdtd project will begin with the creation of the physical geometry. Geometric modeling takes
place within the G EOMETRY TOOLS dialog of the G EOMETRY workspace window in the XFdtd GUI.
Here, objects can be created from scratch or imported from external files. The S PECIFY O RIENTATION
tab within this dialog contains flexible tools used to position physical parts in the geometry.

Figure 3.2 shows the location of the G EOMETRY TOOLS dialog.

Figure 3.2: Zooming in to the Geometry Tools option

The P ROJECT T REE has a D EFINITION branch containing four nodes: 1) Materials, 2) Circuit Compo-
nent Definitions, 3) Waveforms and 4) Sensor Data Definitions. Add all new materials under the Materials
node, and so forth for the other defintion types. Once a definition has been created, for example a material
definition, it can be assigned to geometry objects by dragging the definition and dropping it on the object.
Many objects can be assigned to a given definition. Select a group of objects before the drag-and-drop, or
perform more than one drag-and-drop. All objects referencing a given definition always see the definition’s

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An Overview of XFdtd 15

current value, so a change to a single definition immediately is reflected in every object referencing that
definition.

Material definitions are created as D EFINITION objects in the M ATERIAL E DITOR and stored in the
P ROJECT T REE so that they can be easily applied to geometry objects by drag-and-drop.

Figure 3.3 shows the location of XFdtd project D EFINITIONS.

Figure 3.3: Zooming in to the Definitions branch

After geometry objects are created and given valid material definitions, discrete circuit components may be
added within the C OMPONENT TOOLS dialog of the G EOMETRY workspace window. Circuit component
definitions are created within the C IRCUIT C OMPONENT D EFINITION E DITOR and stored as D EFINITION
objects in the P ROJECT T REE. A definition can be applied easily to the appropriate components by drag-
and-drop.

In addition to discrete sources, external excitation sources can be added using the P LANE WAVE E DI -
TOR and G AUSSIAN B EAM E DITOR. Waveform definitions are created in the WAVEFORM E DITOR as
D EFINITION objects within the P ROJECT T REE and are applied by drag-and-drop to objects that require
waveform definitions.

Figure 3.4 shows the locations of XFdtd project C IRCUIT C OMPONENTS and E XTERNAL E XCITATIONS.

Figure 3.4: Zooming in to the Circuit Components and External Excitations branches

Next, the grid (which provides the “blueprint” for the meshing operation) is defined within the G RID TOOLS
dialog. This dialog is accessed within the G EOMETRY workspace window or by double-clicking on the
G RID icon in the P ROJECT T REE. General characteristics such as limits and cell, bounding box and
padding sizes are defined in this dialog. Additionally, customized regions may be defined by adding fixed
points and grid regions so that more important regions of the project can be meshed more finely, while less-
important regions can be meshed with larger cells. Object-specific grid definitions may be applied within
the G RIDDING P ROPERTIES E DITOR, accessed by right-clicking a geometry object in the P ROJECT
T REE. This editor provides options for adding fixed points and grid regions to specific objects based on its
characteristics, which in some cases may be more convenient than defining them within the general grid
definitions provided in the G RID TOOLS dialog.

Figure 3.5 shows the location of XFdtd project G RID TOOLS and G RIDDING P ROPERTIES E DITOR.

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16 An Overview of XFdtd

Figure 3.5: Zooming in to the Grid Tools and Gridding Properties menu options

Once the grid is defined, the location of every cell edge is known, and the project can be meshed. During
the meshing operation, materials are applied to the appropriate cell edges. Meshing occurs automatically
in XFdtd as soon as the project is viewed within M ESH V IEW. Subsequent meshes are generated by
manually pressing the R EMESH N OW button or by selecting the AUTOMATIC R EMESHING feature, which
will generate a mesh after every change to the geometry is made. AUTOMATIC R EMESHING is the default.
Both of these options are found by right-clicking on the M ESH icon in the P ROJECT T REE. Meshing
considerations such as M ESHING P RIORITY and T YPE (magnetic and/or electrical) may be specified in
the M ESHING P ROPERTIES E DITOR or by right-clicking on a specific PARTS object in the P ROJECT
T REE.

Figure 3.6 shows the location of the meshing options dialog.

Figure 3.6: Zooming in to the meshing options dialog

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An Overview of XFdtd 17

O UTER B OUNDARY conditions, which regulate how the calculation engine treats the boundaries of the
project, are specified within the O UTER B OUNDARY E DITOR. This editor is accessed by double-clicking
on the corresponding branch in the P ROJECT T REE.

Figure 3.7 shows the branch where you can access the O UTER B OUNDARY E DITOR.

Figure 3.7: Zooming in to the Outer Boundary branch

Once the various components of the project are defined, S ENSOR objects can be added. Sensors are
simply objects that request data. There are several different types of sensors based on what type of data
they retrieve. They can be added from the P ROJECT T REE or within the S ENSOR TOOLS dialog in the
G EOMETRY workspace window.

Figure 3.8 shows the two locations from which you can add S ENSOR objects.

Figure 3.8: Zooming in to the Sensor menu options

Calculation criteria are specified within the S IMULATIONS workspace window once sensors have been
added to retrieve all desired results. Here, specifications such as source type, parameter sweep defini-
tions, S-Parameter feeds, frequencies of interest, total/scattered field interfaces and termination criteria are
defined for each simulation that will be run by the calculation engine, XFsolver.

After running the calculation, view the results from the R ESULTS workspace window.

Figure 3.9 shows the S IMULATIONS and R ESULTS workspace windows.

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18 An Overview of XFdtd

Figure 3.9: Zooming in to the Simulations and Results workspace windows

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Chapter 4

The XFdtd Interface

In this chapter, you will learn...

→ the features of the A PPLICATION M ENU B AR

→ the branches of the P ROJECT T REE

→ the major functions of the workspace windows

→ what to do when the icon appears

Older versions of XFdtd incorporated the use of tabbed windows to guide the user through the various
stages of the simulation process. While this interface was a convenient way to set-up projects in previous
versions, it is not sufficient to present additional features that have now been incorporated into XFdtd 7.
As a result, the XFdtd interface has been redesigned to accommodate these new features while remaining
as simple and intuitive for the user as possible. Rather than relying solely on tabbed sections to navigate
through the simulation process, XFdtd utilizes a workspace design as well as the powerful P ROJECT
T REE to control the various aspects of the XFdtd simulation.

Users familiar with older versions of XFdtd should refer to Appendix C for a discussion of these
changes.

The XFdtd workspace is comprised of several parts that are intended to make it as easy as possible to
create projects and run calculations. Figure 4.1 highlights the various parts of the new interface.

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20 The XFdtd Interface

Figure 4.1: The XFdtd 7 workspace

The A PPLICATION M ENU B AR is seen outlined in red in the upper left of the figure.

The P ROJECT T REE, outlined in blue, is used to display and organize the contents of the project within
categorized branches. The row of buttons above it toggles the various branches of the tree on and off.

The series of tabs along the right of the screen (outlined in yellow) store the various workspace windows so
that they can be easily accessed within the project workspace. Minimized workspace windows are stored
within the actual workspace, as outlined in purple in Figure 4.1. Open workspace windows are displayed in
this area as well, as shown in green.

4.1 Application Menu Bar and Toolbar

4.1.1 File Drop-Down Menu

New Project Opens a new XFdtd project. By default, the project is blank. To set a template as the
default new project, click the Managing Project Templates link.

New Project from Template Opens an XFdtd project from a saved template. (Templates are de-
scribed in detail below.)

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The XFdtd Interface 21

Open Existing Project Opens an existing project.

New Window Submenu containing items to open a New Project, a New Project from Template or an
Existing Project in a new application window.

Save Project Saves a new project to a specified directory.

Save Project As Saves a project to a new or existing directory.

Close Project Closes the current project.

Import Imports an existing CAD file, voxel object file, XFdtd Version 6 file, XFdtd mesh file, or any
other supported file format into the current XFdtd project.

Export Parts Exports parts from XFdtd to a file in a specified directory.

Managing Project Templates Select this option to create a new template or to assign a default tem-
plate to be loaded whenever a new project is opened.

To create a new template, simply select an existing saved project file. This file will be saved as a template.
Press the C REATE N EW button and assign the template a name. The default template is a blank project,
but this can be changed to any other template that has been saved in this dialog.

Templates are useful for beginning new projects that contain identical parts to existing projects. For exam-
ple, a new project may reuse the same geometry and discrete components that have already been created
in an existing project file. In this case, the existing project file can be used to create a template so that this
common geometry can be used over and over without having to rebuild the project from scratch.

Recent Projects Lists the five most recently loaded XFdtd projects.

Quit Closes the current XFdtd session.

4.1.2 Edit Drop-Down Menu

Undo/Redo The U NDO button will undo any action or series of actions. Similarly, the R EDO
button will repeat any actions that were mistakenly erased.

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22 The XFdtd Interface

Project Properties The P ROJECT P ROPERTIES E DITOR contains settings that apply to the Project
as a whole. It has several tabs of settings, as described below.

The F REQUENCY R ANGE OF I NTEREST tab allows control of the frequency range of interest for the
project. This setting that allows XFdtd to automatically provide many simulation input parameters, more
accurate project validation and tailored output. It is simply the frequency range, defined as the minimum
and maximum frequencies, over which the user expects to retrieve valid or interesting simulation results.
A specific range of interest via parameterized input can be specified, or the behavior of previous versions
of XFdtd retained by allowing the Frequency Range of Interest to be specified by the grid settings based
on 10 cells per wavelength for the maximum cell edge in the grid (this is currently the default behavior).
The Frequency Range of Interest is currently used in the specification of the Automatic waveform, the
Automatic Good Conductor determination on materials, validation of the Grid, and formatting of frequency-
based output to the Run’s Frequency Range of Interest.

The T IME D OMAIN DATA S AMPLING I NTERVAL defines time between samples when collecting time domain
data. Sensors can individually define the sampling or defer the choice to this project-level setting.

Figure 4.2 shows the F REQUENCY R ANGE OF I NTEREST tab.

Figure 4.2: The Frequency Range of Interest tab in the Project Properties Editor

The D ISPLAY U NITS tab defines the default units used in XFdtd and controls the units displayed in the
geometry window. This setting will also control the default unit setting assigned to values that are entered
by the user without units.

Modifying the display unit only changes how numbers are displayed and entered. It does not affect their
scale.

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The XFdtd Interface 23

A U NIT S ET definition (XF DTD D EFAULT, SI M ETRIC, G AUSSIAN M ETRIC (GCS) or US C USTOMARY) can
be applied to all of the parameters listed under this tab, or a C USTOM definition can be applied to any
individual parameter.

Figure 4.3 shows the D ISPLAY U NITS tab.

Figure 4.3: The Display Units tab in the Project Properties Editor

Under the A DVANCED tab, the user has the option of modifying the project timestep. The timestep that is
used for the simulation is computed from the grid definition and the materials that are used in the space. In
some special circumstances, the user may wish to make that timestep a little bit smaller to improve results
or compensate for some other special conditions. The C USTOM TIMESTEP MULTIPLIER is a factor by which
the computed timestep is multiplied to obtain the final timestep that is actually used.

See Appendix Section B.1 for more on how the timestep is calculated from the grid definition.

The XACT ACCURACY editors are used to further control the timestep when using an XACT mesh on any
part in the simulation. See Chapter 8.3.4 for more information on setting this property.

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24 The XFdtd Interface

Under this tab, the user can also assign N EW PART M ODELING U NITS, which defines the units assigned to
a new part when it is created (in, m, cm, etc.). Changing the value in the N EW PART M ODELING U NITS can
be helfpful when a user needs to create an part that uses a different unit of measurement than other parts
in the geometry. The units assigned to a new part are used by the 3-D modeling engine, which needs to
know the range of units to correctly construct solid models.

After updating the value of the N EW PART M ODELING U NITS drop-down list, all new parts created use that
value. The value in the field can be updated as often as necessary.

This unit defines how the part is modeled internally, and cannot be changed once the part is created.

Note that this unit is not the same as what is defined in Display Units.

Figure 4.4 shows the A DVANCED tab.

Figure 4.4: The Advanced tab in the Project Properties Editor

Application Preferences The five main tabs under A PPLICATION P REFERENCES are G ENERAL,
I NTERFACE, M ODELING, G RAPHS and C OMPATIBILITY.

The G ENERAL Tab (Figure 4.5)

• The options in the Startup section control what happens at the start of XFdtd.
– S HOW TIP OF THE DAY , when enabled, will display a pop-up with a helpful tip about how to use
XFdtd.

– S HOW L ICENSE W INDOW, when enabled, will cause XFdtd to show the licensing window when
the application starts where the user can specify where the license file/server is.

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The XFdtd Interface 25

• Under Results, choose whether to load or clear results from previously-run simulations. Note that
this does not delete simulation results saved to disk. Users can also set the minimum plot size for
Fourier transformations.

• Under Recent Projects, select the number of projects that should appear in the Recent Projects
submenu in the File menu.

• Under Templates, enter the folder location where XFdtd project templates are stored.
• Under Macros Menu, enter one or more folders (separated by ’;’ on Windows and ’:’ on Linux and
Mac) where XFdtd should look for .xmacro files to populate the Macros Menu (see Section 4.1.4
Macros Menu.)

• Under Screen Capture, enter the folder where automatically-named screen shots should be saved.
The global shortcut key combination Ctrl+Alt+F+11 is defined to save a screen shot of the Geometry
View or a Graph Window, whichever is “on top” in the application workspace, to an automatically-
named file in this folder. If neither the Geometry View nor a Graph Window is on top, no action will
be taken.

• Rendering Options controls several display options in the XFdtd GUI:

– The T RANSPARENCY A LGORITHM determines the way XFdtd renders the PARTS O PACITY of
an object.

∗ Z- SORT O NLY N ICE is not as efficient as Z- SORT O NLY FAST, but removes most artifacts
(small areas of inaccurate rendering.)

∗ Z- SORT O NLY FAST is the most efficient rendering option, but may contain artifacts (small
areas of inaccurate rendering.)

∗ D EPTH P EELING is supported only on certain graphics cards. It is more accurate but runs
slower than Z- SORT O NLY.

∗ PAINTERS A LGORITHM is the most accurate rendering option but is the slowest.
The T RANSPARENCY A LGORITHM setting only affects the way an object is displayed in the
XFdtd interface and will not change calculation results.

– T EXT C OLOR defines the color of text automatically displayed in geometry view, such as coor-
dinates, lengths, etc.

• The U NDO /R EDO H ISTORY section controls the how many items can remain on the undo stack. It
gives the user the ability to enhance the application performance by limiting the memory used by the
GUI.

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26 The XFdtd Interface

Figure 4.5: The General tab under Application Preferences

The I NTERFACE Tab (Figure 4.6)

• Object Editing: Controls what happens when a new object is added to the P ROJECT T REE
(e.g. right-clicking on the tree to add a new material.)

– N ONE will simply add the new object to the tree.

– E DIT N AME will add the object to the tree and provide a blinking cursor to add the object’s
name in the tree.

– E DIT P ROPERTIES adds the object and prompts the appropriate dialog window to immediately
pop-up in order to edit the new object’s properties (e.g. creating a new material will cause the
M ATERIAL E DITOR to pop-up).

• Layout: Allows the user to set his or her preferences for saving or restoring the GUI layout.
• Information: Allows the user to set his or her preference for decimal precision in tooltips.
• Gridding: Enables or disables the use of the simplified grid.
• Tool Bar Icon Size: Adjusts the size of the icons in the toolbar (e.g. New Project, Loading
Existing Projects, etc.).

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• Project Tree: The I CON /T EXT S IZE scroll adjusts the size of the items in the P ROJECT T REE.

• Workspace:
– S HOW A LL TABS shows all workspace windows in tabbed workspace regardless of whether
they are active or not.

– S HOW O NLY ACTIVE TABS stores only the active tabs that are stored in the project workspace.

– D ON ’ T S HOW TABS removes the tabbed workspace. Windows can still be accessed in the
V IEW menu in the Application Toolbar.

• Appearance: Allows the user to change the appearance of the GUI and buttons within.

Figure 4.6: The Interface tab under Application Preferences

The M ODELING Tab (Figure 4.7) contains two tabs (Part and Material) that allow the modification of the
defaults appearances for new Parts and Materials. A new color assigned will be assigned to each new
Material if the “Automatically Assign Unique Colors When Possible” checkbox is selected. If not selected,
XFdtd will assign color defined in the FACE C OLOR field to each new material.

Additionally, options for various elements of the view are customizable in the “View Options” grouping.

• Components: The color used to render circuit components.

• Background: The background color of the View.
• Construction Grid: The color for the lines of the construction grid of the Sketcher and Orientation
tools.

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• Mesh Slice: The color for mesh edges that are Free Space.
• Invert Mouse Wheel: Switches the zoom direction when rolling the mouse wheel.
• Separate View Tools: Toggles between showing all View tools in a drop-down list or as individual
items.

• Smooth View Transitions: If marked, XFdtd performs smooth rotations between different view orien-
tations. If unmarked, XFdtd snaps to the selected view orientation.

• Automatically Assign Unique Colors When Possible: If marked, XFdtd automatically assigns a
unique color to each material a user adds to a project. If unmarked, XFdtd always assigns the
color defined in the FACE C OLOR field to each new material a user adds to a project.

Figure 4.7: The Modeling tab under Application Preferences

The G RAPHS Tab (Figure 4.8) contains checkboxes that enable the user to determine what result fields
are used to construct the default name for a plot when it is graphed or loaded into the Field Viewer. In a
Graph, the default name will appear as the name of the plot in the Plot Properties tab and in the Legend.
This name can be edited in the Plot Properties tab (see Section 12.3.2 Customizing Plot.) In the Field
Viewer, the name is used in the combobox selector for what data is being displayed (see Section 12.4.3.4
The Field Editing Toolbar.)

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Figure 4.8: The Graphs tab under Application Preferences

When a behavior of XFdtd is changed, the settings on the C OMPATIBILITY Tab (Figure 4.9) can be used
to revert the behavior back to a previous version if desired. Generally, reverting to a previous behavior
should not be needed. Items on this tab should be self-explanatory, and any changes that warrant an entry
on this tab will also be noted in the What’s New window and in the change log.

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Figure 4.9: The Compatibility tab under Application Preferences

4.1.3 View Drop-Down Menu

The View menu item allows the visibility of toolbars and windows to be toggled. Note that when the button
bar on the right of the application is hidden in the Application Preferences, these windows can be be shown
using the View menu.

4.1.4 Macros Drop-Down Menu

In addition to being able to bundle function and macro scripts with a Project (see section 13.2 “Scripting
Workspace Window”), macros that are used frequently and are project-independent can be placed in a
special folder in the file system to be automatically detected and executed from the Macros menu. The
Macros menu is populated by looking at each of the folders specified in the Application Preferences under
General→Macros Menu for .xmacro files and subfolders. The default locations are
{My }Documents\Remcom\XFdtd\scripts\menu
on Windows and
$HOME/Remcom/XFdtd/scripts/menu
on Linux.

To add, remove or update a macro in the Macros menu, simply add, remove or edit the macro file in the
folders listed in the Macros Menu preference. A menu item is added for each .xmacro file that when
selected will execute the macro, and a submenu item is added for each subfolder that contains at least one
.xmacro file. This allows convenient grouping and organization for large sets of macros.

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By default, the menu item will not have an icon and will use the .xmacro file’s name. However, this can
be changed by adding a header to the macro file. The header format consists of zero or more comment
lines with keyword:value pairs as documented below. All Remcom-provided macro files have this header
and can be referenced for more examples.

// Name: {menu name}

// Icon: {name of .ico file}
// Created: {date}
// Version: {string}
// Author: {name}
// Modified: {date and author}
// Last Modified: {date and author}
// Description:
// {first line of description}
// {next line of description}
// ....
// {last description line}

Each of Name:, Icon:, Created:, Version:, Author:, Modified:, Last Modified: and
Description: are optional. The Modified: keyword can be specified more than once. If other
keywords are specified multiple times, its value takes on the last one. Authors: is also recognized as
a synonym for Author:. The specified icon file is usually a file in the same folder as the macro, but can
also be specified with a relative or absolute filepath.

Submenus can also be given names, icons and descriptions by placing the information in a file named
menu.desc in the submenu folder using the format described above.
Each menu ends with the item “Macro Information”, which is a special menu item that will show a dialog
with information about each of the macros and submenus of that particular menu. This is especially useful
if each of the macros in the menu has a good description, since this menu item then serves as the “help
text” for the macros in the menu.

Example:

// Name: Markup S-Params Graph

// Icon: Marker.ico
// Created: Oct 1, 2010
// Author: J. Doe
// Modified: Jan 22, 2011 by G.Buck
// Modified: Nov 3, 2011 by T.Who
// Description:
// Set the bounds of an existing S-Parameters graph to specific,
// values, add markers at a set of specified frequencies, and add
// markers at specific dB down levels. If more than one
// S-Parameters graph exists, the user will prompted to select the
// one to modify. The specific value for the bounds and markers
// are customizable in the first section of the macro file.

Any messages produced by the macro (output text or error messages) will appear in the lower pane of the
Scripting Window.

Limitations:

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• Only macro scripts (.xmacro), not function scripts (.xfunc), are currently supported.
• Macro Menu macros are currently not directly editable (in-place) in the application. However, they
can be imported, edited and then exported.

• Macros should be fully debugged before using them in the Macros menu as it currently difficult to
debug them because of the previous limitation. It is suggested that the macro be developed and
tested as a Macro in a Project and then exported once it is stable.

This capability will be enhanced and expanded in the future as we receive customer feedback on its use.

4.1.5 Help Drop-Down Menu

Documentation Contains links to the XFdtd Reference Manual, User’s Guide and online Scripting Docu-
mentation.

Support Opens a web browser page to the Remcom Support Portal.

Contact Remcom Opens a web browser page to the Contact Remcom page.

Command-line Help Displays command-line options that may be useful in some circumstances. For
example, if XFdtd is taking a long time to start up because a library on a network drive is linked-to, the
--load-libraries=false option can be used to prevent the library from be loaded.

Licensing Allows the display and configuration of XFdtd licensing information.

Tip of the Day Opens Tip of the Day, which offers many tips and trick for using XFdtd effectively. This
is the same window that is opened on startup if the ”Show Tip of the Day” checkbox is selected on the
Application Preferences General tab.

About XFdtd Shows XFdtd version information as well as Third Party licenses. When contacted, Rem-
com support will usually ask for the version of XFdtd for which support is being requested. It is convenient
to copy and paste the version information from this window or even to provide a screenshot of this window
for that purpose. Additionally, the version number is always displayed in the titlebar of the application.

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Figure 4.10: The About XFdtd Window

4.2 The Project Tree

The P ROJECT T REE provides a tree-structured representation of the active project. It is organized into
the following branches:

• PARTS

• C IRCUIT C OMPONENTS

• E XTERNAL E XCITATIONS

• S TATIC VOLTAGE

• S ENSORS

• D EFINITIONS

• FDTD

• S CRIPTS

• G RAPHS

• G ROUPS

This section describes in detail the branches and display of the Project Tree, as shown in Figure 4.11.

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Figure 4.11: The Project Tree

4.2.1 The Branches of the Project Tree

Parts

The PARTS branch organizes the physical geometry of a project. It also lists material definitions and
modeling operations applied to parts. To set up an A SSEMBLY, right-click on the Parts branch and select
C REATE N EW: A SSEMBLY, as shown in Figure 4.12. Assemblies can also be created from existing
parts by selecting the desired parts, right-clicking and choosing G ROUP INTO A SSEMBLY. Any parts
object or assembly can be exported to a CAD file using this right-click menu as well.

See Section 5.3 for information about adding geometry parts to the project.

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Figure 4.12: Adding a new Part or Assembly from the Project Tree

The PARTS L IST is also helpful for defining and organizing characteristics of geometric parts. To access
this menu, right-click on any part or assembly in the P ROJECT T REE and select V IEW PARTS L IST.
A window will appear displaying each part for the current part or assembly selected. Using the right-click
menu, it is possible to change the meshing priority, enable grid regions or fixed points, include the part in
the mesh, change the visibility, and assign materials. The search bar also enables searching by selected
fields.

Mousing over a gray checkmark in the list will bring up a tooltip explaining why it is not fully solid.

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Figure 4.13: Viewing the Parts List

Circuit Components

The C IRCUIT C OMPONENTS branch organizes discrete circuit components in a project. It also lists any
associated C IRCUIT C OMPONENT D EFINITION objects applied to a component. Figure 4.14 shows how
to add a component by right-clicking in the Project Tree.

See Section 7.1 for information about adding new components and associated tools.

Figure 4.14: Defining a new Circuit Component from the Project Tree

External Excitations

The E XTERNAL E XCITATIONS branch organizes the external excitations ( P LANE WAVES and
G AUSSIAN B EAMS) applied to a project. An external excitation is not valid until it is associated with a
WAVEFORM D EFINITION object. Once the association is made, the definition object is shown in the
tree along below the external excitation. Figure 4.15 shows how to add a plane wave or Gaussian beam
excitation by right-clicking in the Project Tree.

See Sections 7.5 and 7.6 for information about defining external excitations using the P LANE
WAVE E DITOR and G AUSSIAN B EAM E DITOR.

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Figure 4.15: Creating a new External Excitation from the Project Tree

Static Voltage Points

The S TATIC VOLTAGE P OINTS branch organizes the static voltage points in a project. Figure 4.16 shows
how to add a static voltage point by right-clicking in the project tree.

See Section 7.8 for information about static voltage points and the static solver.

Figure 4.16: Defining a new Static Voltage Point from the Project Tree

Sensors

The S ENSORS branch organizes the sensors defined in a project. Sensors are responsible for saving
all data collected during a calculation. They are added by right-clicking on the appropriate branch of the
Project Tree and choosing the desired sensor, as seen in Figure 4.17.

See Section 10 for more information about sensors and related definitions.

Figure 4.17: Adding a Near-Zone Sensor from the Project Tree

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Definitions

The D EFINITIONS branch stores definitions that can be applied to or shared with other objects within the
project. To add a new definition object, right-click on the branch and select the desired object, as seen
in Figure 4.18. This definition is applied to other objects in the Project Tree by clicking and dragging the
definition object onto the desired object. Several editors are accessible from this branch, depending on
what type of definition object is selected.

See Section 6.1 for more about the M ATERIAL E DITOR.

See Section 7.2 for more about the C IRCUIT C OMPONENT D EFINITION E DITOR.

See Section 7.7 for more about the WAVEFORM E DITOR.

See Section 10 for more about several of the sensor editors.

Figure 4.18: Accessing a Definition Editor from the Project Tree

FDTD

The FDTD branch stores definitions associated with the outer boundaries of the project as well as the
grid and mesh, as seen in Figure 4.19.

• Double-clicking on the O UTER B OUNDARY icon will bring up the O UTER B OUNDARY E DITOR.

• Double-clicking on the G RID icon will bring up the G RID TOOLS dialog, used to specify the
characteristics of the grid.

• Double-clicking on the M ESH icon will toggle the M ESH V IEW on or off.

Figure 4.19: Viewing the FDTD branch

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Scripts

The S CRIPTS branch stores user-defined scripts. Right-click on this branch to add a new script or to
import an existing macro or function script to the project. After adding the script, right-click on the script
object, as seen in Figure 4.20, to execute or edit the script in the S CRIPTING workspace window.

For more information on scripting, see Section 13.2.

Figure 4.20: Accessing Scripting tools in the Project Tree

Graphs

The G RAPHS branch organizes the graphical output associated with data collected during a calculation.

See Section 12.3 for more about viewing calculation results.

Groups

The G ROUPS branch allows the user to create fully customizable shortcut groups that may include any
grouping of objects ( PARTS objects, S ENSOR objects, D EFINITION objects, etc.). The Groups branch
is a tool for users to conveniently organize their projects. It also contains automatically generated groups
created by XFdtd to store deletions, additions, or other modifications to CAD files. To add a shortcut group,
right-click on the branch as seen in Figure 4.21.

For more about how to import CAD files, see Section 5.4.

Figure 4.21: Adding a Group within the Project Tree

4.2.2 Customizing the Display of the Project Tree

The row of buttons above the P ROJECT T REE toggle the branches of the tree on and off and simplify the
display. This row is shown in Figure 4.22. Active branches are displayed as fully colored buttons (i.e. ),
and hidden branches are dulled (i.e. ).

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Figure 4.22: Toggling the branches of the Project Tree

Expanding and Collapsing the Project Tree

The P ROJECT T REE is easier to navigate using the expand (+) and collapse (-) buttons, which toggle the
visibility of each branch. Figure 4.23 demonstrates an expanded and collapsed branch in red.

Figure 4.23: Expanding and collapsing individual branches in the Project Tree

Additionally, it is possible to expand or collapse all branches by right-clicking on any branch in the tree and
selecting the T REE icon, as seen in Figure 4.24.

Figure 4.24: Expanding and collapsing all branches in the Project Tree

4.3 Workspace Windows

The XFdtd workspace windows are a series of windows that each has its own designated function. Each
window is described below. This section also explains how to display active windows and how to control
the display of workspace window buttons in the tabbed workspace.

Figure 4.25 shows the location of the XFdtd workspace window buttons.

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Figure 4.25: Workspace windows toolbar

4.3.1 Summary of Workspace Windows

Geometry

The G EOMETRY workspace window comprises the main project viewing area. The window contains four
main tools used to add and edit the fundamental elements of a project:

• G EOMETRY TOOLS

• C OMPONENT TOOLS

• G RID TOOLS

• S ENSOR TOOLS

This window also contains buttons to manipulate the project view.

The capabilities of this window are detailed in Chapter 5.

Simulations

The S IMULATIONS workspace window provides the main interface to define simulations to send to the
calculation engine. Each time the project is modified and saved, the user must define a new simulation to
register the change. This workspace window stores definitions such as source types, parameter sweeps, S-
Parameters, frequencies of interest, scattered/total field interfaces and termination criteria that are specific
to a calculation.

Refer to Section 11.1 for a detailed discussion of setting up and running simulations within XFdtd.

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Results

The R ESULTS workspace window stores all of the results available for a particular project. It is also
possible to load the results of a past project into this window without having to load the entire project itself.
This makes it convenient to compare the results of several projects in a single interface.

See Section 12.1 for more about this workspace window and reviewing results.

Scripting

The S CRIPTING workspace window allows users to create, edit, manage and execute user-defined
scripts.

Section 13.2 details the capabilities of this window.

Libraries

The L IBRARIES workspace window allows users to create and save collections of objects grouped by
category. Because a library is saved to its own filename (and not to a specific project), it is easy to import
common objects and definitions to multiple projects.

Section 13.3 details the capabilities of this window.

Parameters

The PARAMETERS workspace window allows users to create, edit and delete parameters that are refer-
enced universally throughout the project. A parameter can be a simple numeric value or a mathematical
expression. They can be used to run “Parameter Sweeps,” which are specified in the S IMULATIONS
workspace window.

Section 13.1 details the capabilities of this window.

4.3.2 Organizing Project Workspace

There are three ways to display and organize active windows in the project workspace: M AXIMIZED,
C ASCADE and T ILE.

In M AXIMIZED mode, windows are maximized to take up the entire workspace. Selecting tabs in the
tabbed workspace will bring the corresponding window to the front.

In C ASCADE mode, the windows appear stacked on top of each other, each with its own title bar showing.
Users can switch windows by clicking on the title bar, or by using the tabs at the top of the workspace. To
activate this mode, select the Cascade mode icon in the lower right-hand corner, as seen in Figure 4.26.

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Figure 4.26: Project workspace view modes

In T ILE Mode, the workspace automatically sizes any non-minimized windows to fill up the space without
overlapping. This is useful in order to quickly view all windows as large as possible. Any minimized windows
will remain minimized. To assume this mode, select the Tile mode icon in the lower right-hand corner, as
seen in Figure 4.26.

4.3.3 Tabbed Workspace Window Display

All of the workspace windows are easily accessible from the tabbed workspace to the right of the screen.
Unless the application preferences are defined to show all windows, only active workspace windows are
located in this workspace. Any additional workspace windows can be added to the active workspace by
right-clicking and selecting the desired window, or by selecting V IEW in the A PPLICATION M ENU B AR. If
a window is already open and present in the workspace, right-clicking in the tabbed workspace or using
the V IEW menu to select a window will instead close the window. Similarly, the windows can be closed by
clicking the button in the upper-right corner of the appropriate tab.

Figure 4.27: The tabbed workspace, displaying only Geometry and Scripting workspace tabs

4.4 Troubleshooting Invalid Operations within the XFdtd Interface

The XFdtd interface will display an error icon, , to indicate when any invalid definition is created within
a project. This icon will appear in the dialog or editor window as the invalid definition is created, as well
as in the P ROJECT T REE beside the invalid object or definition. Additionally, an icon will appear next

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to the project’s name at the top-level of the Project Tree to indicate globally that the project contains an
invalid definition. A few of the most common invalid operations are discussed below, but in most cases
the source of an error are easily pinpointed by holding the mouse over the icon. A brief message will
appear, summarizing the source of the error and the steps necessary to validate the project.

The icon often appears when objects are created without applying the appropriate definitions. For
example, the icon will appear if a PARTS object is created without applying a material definition, or if
an E XTERNAL E XCITATIONS object is added without an applied waveform definition. In these cases, the
error will be resolved by dragging and dropping the appropriate D EFINITIONS object (if one exists) onto
the invalid object in the tree.

Other common errors occur due to invalid or conflicting grid definitions. If grid definitions are assigned that
cause the project to exceed the maximum number of cells or memory size (defined in the L IMITS tab of
the G RID TOOLS dialog), then the icon will appear. In this case, the limit may need to be increased
or removed or else the number of cells in the project will need to be reduced by increasing their minimum
cell size. XFdtd will also generate an error if the M AXIMUM C ELL S TEP FACTOR defined in the L IMITS tab
is too low to create valid transition regions or if a M INIMUM cell size definition is specified anywhere in the
interface that falls below the universal M INIMUM C ELL S IZE definition in this tab.

For more about grid definitions and associated invalid operations, see Chapter 8.

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Chapter 5

Creating Geometry

In this chapter, you will learn...

→ how to create, edit and import the geometry of your XFdtd project
→ how to align your geometry and view it from any angle

This chapter will focus on geometric modeling within the XFdtd interface. It begins by describing the basic
functions available within the G EOMETRY workspace window, where the project geometry is created. The
V IEW TOOLS buttons are detailed in the following section.

Under G EOMETRY TOOLS, the reader is introduced to the 2-D and 3-D modeling tools, modification
and boolean operations, and patterned arrays that are available within this dialog. In addition to creating
geometry from scratch within Geometry Tools, external files, such as CAD, voxel and mesh files can also
be imported and modified.

After the geometry is created or imported into a project, it is often necessary to adjust an object’s orienta-
tion. XFdtd has the capability of orienting not only geometric parts but also other physical parts, such as
components and sensors. The final section of the chapter details the S PECIFY O RIENTATION tab that is
available during any editing session involving a physical part.

5.1 Geometry Workspace Window

The G EOMETRY workspace window provides the graphical interface of the XFdtd project. Within the win-
dow, there is a series of V IEW TOOLS along the right of the viewing area that can be used to manipulate
the view of the simulation space. Along the top of the viewing area, the window contains G EOMETRY
TOOLS used to create and edit various aspects of the project geometry.

The first drop-down menu at the top of the G EOMETRY workspace window contains four tools:

• G EOMETRY TOOLS

• C OMPONENT TOOLS

45
46 Creating Geometry

• G RID TOOLS

• S ENSOR TOOLS

Later sections in this chapter will describe the operations available in XFdtd within G EOMETRY TOOLS.
Later chapters provide a more detailed discussion of the remaining tools.

For more about creating discrete components with C OMPONENT TOOLS, see Section 7.1.

For more about defining grid and mesh characteristics with G RID TOOLS, see Section 8.1.

For more about collecting data in XFdtd with S ENSOR TOOLS, see Section 10.1

Figure 5.1 shows the G EOMETRY workspace window.

Figure 5.1: The Geometry workspace window

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5.2 View Tools

The V IEW TOOLS are used to alter the perspective of the viewing window by manual rotation, translation
and zoom, as well as automatic orientations to achieve the desired perspective. The View Tools are visible
on the right-hand side of the G EOMETRY workspace window. They can also be found in the top left-hand
corner under the V IEW drop-down menu, as seen in Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.2: The View Tools

The V IEW TOOLS may be hidden by right-clicking on the toolbar and unselecting the toolbar check-box.
The toolbar can be unhidden using the V IEW drop-down menu. Each tool is detailed below.

Select

The S ELECT tool is the default tool in the G EOMETRY workspace window. It is used to select objects
as well as manipulate the view of the simulation space.

• Rotation about a fixed point:

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48 Creating Geometry

– Left-click and drag.

– Click the mouse wheel and drag.

• Translation (panning):
– Right-click and drag.

– Hold S HIFT , left- or right-click and drag.

• Zooming:
– Roll the mouse wheel backwards to zoom in or forwards to zoom out.

– Hold C TRL , left-click and drag the mouse up to zoom in or down to zoom out.

You can reverse the zoom direction by setting a property under the M ODELING tab of A PPLI -
CATION P REFERENCES , as described in Section 4.1.2.

Orbit

The O RBIT tool performs rotation of the simulation space through left-clicking and dragging.

Pan

The PAN TOOL tool performs translation of the simulation space through left-clicking and dragging.

Zoom

Zoom-in or zoom-out of simulation space by left-clicking and dragging the mouse up or down.

Zoom to Window

Zoom into a rectangular shaped area of the geometry as specified by the user. To use, select the tool, then
left-click and drag the mouse to designate the rectangular zoom area.

Zoom to Extents

Select this tool to automatically zoom and bring the entire geometry into view.

Standard View, Isometric View, and Custom View

The S TANDARD V IEW, I SOMETRIC V IEW, N ORMAL V IEW and C USTOM V IEW buttons function
to automatically change the perspective of the objects in the G EOMETRY workspace window. Each
button has a drop-down list with several available perspectives; the list is shown by clicking the down

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Creating Geometry 49

arrow immediately to the right of the button. The first of these buttons changes the view to the following
orientations:
V IEW FROM +Y (F RONT ) V IEW FROM -Y (B ACK )
V IEW FROM +Z (TOP ) V IEW FROM -Z (B OTTOM )
V IEW FROM +X (R IGHT ) V IEW FROM -X (L EFT )
The second button changes the view to the following orientations:

V IEW FROM +X / +Y / +Z V IEW FROM -X / +Y / +Z

V IEW FROM +X / +Y / -Z V IEW FROM -X / +Y / -Z
V IEW FROM +X / -Y / +Z V IEW FROM -X / -Y / +Z
V IEW FROM +X / -Y / -Z V IEW FROM -X / -Y / -Z
The third button is used to adjust the camera position so it is perpendicular to the cutting/sketching plane,
viewing either from the top or the bottom of the plane.

TOP OF P LANE B OTTOM OF P LANE

Pressing CTRL and clicking on any of these button iterates to the next perspective, while pressing
S HIFT and clicking on the button rotates the view around the axis normal to the screen.

If these buttons do not achieve the desired perspective, use the S ELECT, O RBIT or PAN tools to
customize the orientation, and save the desired view by clicking the A DD V IEW button. Multiple custom
orientations can be saved in this way and restored by selecting them from the button’s drop-down list.

For all of the buttons described above, the last-used view is remembered so that when that button is clicked
again, that view is the one that is shown.

Cutting Plane

Use this tool to toggle the cutting plane on and off. The cutting plane will appear in the geometry view as
a translucent blue rectangle sized which is proportional to the bounds of the geometry. The cutting plane
menu provides options for reorienting the cutting plane, saving the current cutting plane’s orientation and
for recalling previously saved orientations.

When the cutting plane is active, it visually clips all geometry in the positive Z direction. Solid body, sheet
body and wirebody geometry that is clipped by the plane form edges and vertices that can be used for
snapping. The sketcher provides a snapping tool to toggle this behavior. Point, direction and plane picking
tools also snap to these locations.

Measure Tool

This tool measures the 3-D distance between any two points by left-clicking on a starting point and dragging
to an ending point. A box in the lower-right corner of the GUI displays the coordinates of the cursor position
in 3-D space. A box in the lower-left corner of the GUI displays axis-aligned distances.

Figure 5.3 shows the Measure Tool calculating the distance between corners of two rectangles and the
location of the cursor in world coordinates.

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Figure 5.3: Using the Measure Tool

Field Reader Tool

This tool measures field values at the location where the mouse hovers over the geometry.

See Section 12.4.3.2 for more on the field reader tool.

Export Image

This action takes a screen shot of the geometry as it is currently shown in the G EOMETRY workspace
window and saves it to a specified location.

The global shortcut key combination Ctrl+Alt+F12 can also be used to initiate this action. A screen shot of
the Geometry View or a Graph Window, whichever is “on top” in the application workspace, will be saved
to a file. If neither the Geometry View nor a Graph Window is on top, no action will be taken.

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This action is only available from the V IEW menu.

The global shortcut key combination Ctrl+Alt+F11 is also defined to save a screen shot as de-
scribed above to an automatically-named file in the folder defined in the Application Preferences
under “Screen Capture.”

Copy Image to Clipboard

This action takes a screen shot of the geometry as it is currently shown in the G EOMETRY workspace
window and saves to to the clipboard for pasting into other applications.

The global shortcut key combination Ctrl+Alt+F10 can also be used to initiate this action. A screen shot of
the Geometry View or Graph Window, whichever is “on top” in the application workspace, will be copied to
the clipboard. If neither the Geometry View nor a Graph Window is on top, no action will be taken.

This action is only available from the V IEW menu.

Opacity and Visibility Tools

The V ISIBILITY buttons control the view of parts of the project. Clicking any of these buttons will hide its
corresponding objects. They include:

PARTS V ISIBILITY - Toggles the geometric parts on and off.

C OMPONENTS V ISIBILITY - Toggles the circuit components on and off.

S ENSORS V ISIBILITY - Toggles the sensors on and off.

O UTPUT V ISIBILITY - Toggles the output result fields on and off.

Clicking the O PACITY button to the right of any of these will bring up a slider to customize the translucency
of its objects. The sliders change the alpha of the objects, making them more or less translucent as the
slider is dragged right or left, respectively. When the project is in Mesh View mode, these buttons are
convenient for turning off the view of the solid geometry so that the view of the cell edges is not obstructed.

There are several ways XFdtd can render this translucency. See the notes on T RANSPARENCY
A LGORITHM in Section 4.1.2 for more on how to adjust these settings.

Mesh View

This button toggles the M ESH V IEW on and off. Alternatively, double-clicking on the FDTD: M ESH
branch of the P ROJECT T REE will enable Mesh View.

When in Mesh View, there are two main viewing modes, M ESH C UTPLANES and 3-D M ESH, that are
controlled by radio buttons along the bottom of the G EOMETRY workspace window. A valid mesh must
be generated to use these viewing options.

See Section 8.3 for more on generating a mesh with the M ESHING P ROPERTIES E DITOR.

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52 Creating Geometry

The first mode, M ESH C UTPLANES, creates cutplanes of the mesh in any or all of the three primary planes.
Toggle any of these cutplanes on or off by checking or unchecking their respective boxes. The sliders
associated with each of these planes are enabled when its respective plane is turned on. The slider moves
the cutplane throughout the slices in the mesh. Additionally, each checked plane will activate the following
icons, which aid in manipulating the cutplanes view:

- Displays all of the geometry/mesh above the cutplane.

- Displays all of the geometry/mesh below the cutplane.

- Toggles on and off the view of the mesh that occurs normal to the cutplane.

- Toggles the view of the mesh cutplane on and off.

- Toggles the view of the electric components on and off.

- Toggles the view of the magnetic components on and off.

There are also two checkboxes available:

V IEW M ESH I NFORMATION - Displays a dialog box with information about the mesh at the location of
the cursor. XFdtd highlights the exact gridline on which the cursor rests (Figure 5.4).

– Mesh Edge

∗ Index
∗ Length
∗ Type
– Grid Node Position (mm)

∗ X
∗ Y
∗ Z
– Mouse Position (mm)

∗ X
∗ Y
∗ Z
– Material

S YNCHRONIZE S LIDERS - Moves the cutplane simultaneously with a slider adjustment while the
mouse button is still pressed.

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Figure 5.4: Viewing XFdtd mesh information

Figure 5.5 shows this first mode that is displayed when the M ESH V IEW icon is pressed. Note that this
is only a preview of the mesh when it is shown while editing the grid within the G RID TOOLS dialog. Any
other time, it is a representation of the most recently generated mesh.

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Figure 5.5: Viewing the XFdtd mesh

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The second mode, 3-D M ESH, provides several different options to view the mesh. Select any of the radio
buttons within this option to create a customized three-dimensional view of the mesh. The M ESH V ISIBILITY
icons are available in this mode as well so that E LECTRICAL and M AGNETIC components of the mesh
may be toggled on and off.

Figure 5.6 shows an object in 3-D M ESH mode with A LL E DGES displayed.

Figure 5.6: Viewing a 3-D mesh

Meshing Options

The AUTOMATIC R EMESHING feature is accessed by right-clicking on the M ESH icon in the P ROJECT
T REE. When this feature is enabled, remeshing is performed any time a change is made to the geometry.
If this feature is not enabled, remeshing must be performed manually. Automatic remeshing may not be
desirable when large meshes are imported because of their memory and performance demands.

Figure 5.7 shows the Automatic Remeshing dialog.

Figure 5.7: The Automatic Remeshing dialog

Toggle Bounding Box Visibility

This button toggles the visibility of the bounding box for the geometry when the geometry is selected.

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Toggle Output Viewing Controls

This button toggles the visibility of the output viewing controls for sensor results.

5.3 Geometry Tools

XFdtd 7 differs from earlier versions in its creation of geometric objects. It constructs geometric objects with
a series of repeatable actions or Features, collectively known as a Modeling Sequence. This approach is
known as “Feature Based Modeling”, and provides more flexibility in customizing an object. Any unwanted
step can be easily undone by suppressing that feature rather than having to rebuild the entire object without
the unwanted step. Every feature in the modeling sequence is represented as a separate object in the tree
to facilitate even simpler additions, deletions and modifications to the modeling sequence.

This section describes the G EOMETRY TOOLS interface, where geometric modeling in XFdtd is per-
formed. This interface enables the user to create new geometry, modify existing geometry, perform boolean
operations and create patterns. To begin using Geometry Tools, open the G EOMETRY workspace window
and select Geometry Tools from the drop-down menu.

A more comprehensive discussion of each Geometry Tool is available in Appendix A.

5.3.1 Creating New Geometry

After selecting G EOMETRY TOOLS, click C REATE N EW to prompt a drop-down menu to appear. This
menu includes the following modeling operations:

A SSEMBLY E XTRUDE R EVOLVE

S HEET B ODY S HEET B ODY FROM FACES W IRE B ODY
S PHERE C YLINDER C ONE
C UBOID TORUS P YRAMID
P RISM F RUSTUM H ELIX

Figure 5.8 shows the C REATE button that displays when G EOMETRY TOOLS is selected.

For more on defining extrusions or revolutions, refer to Appendix Section A.4.

An image of each boolean operation is available in Appendix Section A.7.

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Figure 5.8: The Create menu of the Geometry workspace window

Additionally, these tools are accessible from the Project Tree by right-clicking on the PARTS branch, as
seen in Figure 5.9.

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Figure 5.9: Accessing the Create menu from the Project Tree

Selecting any of these operations will prompt a similar series of cross-sectional editing tools.

5.3.1.1 Specify Orientation Tab

The S PECIFY O RIENTATION tab provides tools for orienting geometric parts in the simulation space.

For a detailed discussion of this tab, refer to Section 5.5.

5.3.1.2 Edit Cross Section Tab

The E DIT C ROSS S ECTION tab, seen in Figure 5.10, contains four toggle buttons: S HAPES, TOOLS,
C ONSTRAINTS and S NAPPING. Each toggles its own toolbar with corresponding operation buttons below.
These tools are also available in menus next to the V IEW drop-down menu in the upper-left corner.

Additionally, a menu under the C ONSTRUCTION G RID button is available to edit the spacing of the visible
grid lines in the 2-D sketcher. (This has no impact on the FDTD grid definition.)

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Figure 5.10: The Edit Cross Section tab of the Geometry workspace window

The current object is named in the box labeled N AME in the upper right. If a name is not defined in this box,
the object is assigned a default name when it is added to the project. To the right of the N AME dialog box
are two buttons: U NDO and R EDO. Clicking the Undo button will undo actions carried out in the E DIT
C ROSS S ECTION tab. Similarly, the Redo button will repeat any actions erased during an undo operation.

Shapes. The S HAPES sketching tools are used to create simple 2-D geometries for wire bodies and sheet
bodies. They also serve as a starting point to define 2-D cross sections for 3-D bodies such as extrusions,
revolutions, and more complicated solid modeling operations.

Pressing BACKSPACE will back up one step when using a multi-step creation tool.

Pressing ESC once will cancel the shape, and pressing it a second time will deactivate the edge
creation tool and activate the default S ELECT tool.

Pressing TAB will bring up a dialog to specify the position.

The following is a list of the 2-D shapes available in XFdtd.

S TRAIGHT E DGE P OLYLINE E DGE

P ERPENDICULAR E DGE TANGENT L INE
R ECTANGLE P OLYGON
N-S IDED P OLYGON 3-P OINT A RC
A RC CENTER , 2 POINTS 2- POINT A RC
C IRCLE CENTER , RADIUS 3- POINT CIRCLE
2- POINT CIRCLE E LLIPSE

For a detailed description of each shape tool, see Appendix Section A.2.1.

Tools. The TOOLS buttons provide useful functionality to users while sketching in the 2-D sketcher.

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60 Creating Geometry

S ELECT /M ANIPULATE T RIM E DGES

I NSERT V ERTEX F ILLET V ERTEX

For a detailed description of each 2-D sketcher tool, see Appendix Section A.2.2.

Constraints. The C ONSTRAINT tools place restrictions on geometric parts that must be satisfied in order
to consider the model valid. They ensure that the user’s intent is sustained throughout a calculation when
parameters may change. Applying a constraint to an object will often affect other characteristics of the
object. For instance, applying a horizontal constraint to one side of an irregular quadrilateral will most likely
change the length of one or more sides and the angles that form with those connecting sides. Thus, it is
important to lock any points that are intended to stay static by:

• selecting the L OCK C ONSTRAINT tool and clicking on the the appropriate vertex or side.

• selecting the S ELECT /M ANIPULATE tool, right-clicking on the appropriate vertex or side and se-
lecting L OCK P OSITION, as seen in Figure 5.11.

Figure 5.11: Locking or editing a vertex’s position with the Select/Manipulate tool

See Appendix Section A.2.2 for more about the S ELECT /M ANIPULATE tool’s functionality.

Each type of C ONSTRAINT tool has its own symbol or letter that is visible when the mouse is held over the
constrained segment.

H ORIZONTAL V ERTICAL
C OLLINEAR PARALLEL
P ERPENDICULAR TANGENT
C ONCENTRIC A NGLE
D ISTANCE E QUAL L ENGTH
E QUAL D ISTANCE R ADIUS
E QUAL R ADIUS

For a detailed description of each constraint, see Appendix Section A.2.3.

Snapping. Snapping tools are available to facilitate the exact placement of vertices on the sketching
plane. When snapping is enabled, the mouse will be “snapped” to the closest of one or more snapping
landmarks if one comes within range. For example, if S NAP TO G RID L INES is selected, the mouse is
snapped to points on the closest grid line as it is moved around in the sketching plane. This makes it much
easier to place a vertex without having to zoom in to a discrete position.

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Several snapping options can be selected at a time, in which case, the vertex will be snapped to the closest
landmark that is within range of the mouse. Blue dots and blue lines represent the snapped location of the
mouse when snapping is enabled. In the case that the mouse is not within sufficient range of a selected
landmark listed below, a vertex will be placed at its exact location on the sketching plane as if snapping
were not turned on.
S NAP TO G RID L INES
S NAP TO G RID /E DGE I NTERSECTIONS
S NAP TO V ERTICES
S NAP TO E DGES
S NAP TO E DGE /E DGE I NTERSECTIONS
S NAP TO PART C ROSS S ECTIONS

For a detailed description and image of each, see Appendix Section A.2.4.

Customizing the Construction Grid. The C ONSTRUCTION G RID drop-down controls the spacing and
appearance of the visible grid lines in the 2-D sketcher. Changes made with this tool do not affect the
properties of the grid (fixed points, grid regions, target cell sizes, etc.).

• AUTOMATICALLY ADJUST LINE SPACING adjusts the line spacing with the current zoom level. The
lines move closer together as you zoom in and further apart as you zoom out.

• L INE SPACING is available when automatic isn’t checked. This is the spacing between adjacent lines
of the construction grid.

• H IGHLIGHT INTERVAL emboldens every Nth line of the grid.

• M OUSE SPACING controls the minimum resolvable distance by the mouse. As you move the mouse,
you will be unable to move between two points closer than this specified distance.

Figure 5.12: Editing the Construction Grid

5.3.1.3 3-D Operation Tabs

If subsequent tabs are available to the right of the E DIT C ROSS S ECTION tab, then continue on to com-
plete a 3-D operation. (These tabs are not available for 2-D objects.) Figure 5.13 shows the A DVANCED
drop-down menu inside of the E XTRUDE tab, available when an E XTRUDE operation is selected. This
menu contains operations that can be applied to the 3-D object.

See Appendix Section A.5 for more on each of these operations.

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Figure 5.13: The Extrude tab of the Geometry workspace window

5.3.2 Modifying Existing Geometry

The M ODIFY button in the G EOMETRY workspace window may be selected to modify the geometry of
existing objects in the project.

S PECIFY O RIENTATION C HAMFER E DGES

B LEND E DGES S HELL
O FFSET S HEET E DGES T HICKEN S HEET
L OFT FACES R EMOVE FACES
O FFSET FACES T WIST
S TRETCH

See Appendix Section A.6 for images of each of these operations.

The T RANSFORM submenu allows an existing object to be transformed by any of the following operations:

S CALE T RANSLATE R OTATE

R EFLECT S HEAR

Refer to Appendix Section A.9 for a description of each transformation.

The C REATE PATTERN submenu presents options for replicating a single selected object multiple times
in one of the organized arrangements listed below.

L INEAR /R ECTANGULAR C IRCULAR /E LLIPTICAL

Refer to Appendix Section A.8 for the definitions and images associated with these patterns.

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5.3.3 Boolean Operations

The following boolean operations are available in XFdtd:

E XISTING PARTS E XTRUDE R EVOLVE

The E XISTING PARTS tool provides several boolean operations to subtract, intersect, unite or chop mul-
tiple objects. For these operations, users must select at least one object to be the B LANK and at least one
object to be the TOOL which acts on the blank. If necessary, users may select multiple objects to be either
the B LANK or the TOOL. Users may also save their original tools and blanks by selecting the appropriate
checkbox (K EEP ORIGINAL TOOLS or K EEP ORIGINAL BLANKS) when choosing a boolean operation.

The Existing Parts tool is also available through the P ROJECT T REE by selecting the desired parts,
right-clicking and choosing E XISTING PARTS.

It is also possible to E XTRUDE or R EVOLVE holes through any part(s) with its respective tool in this
menu. One or more objects are selected in the P ICK B LANK tab and the cross section of the hole is
sketched and oriented in the E DIT P ROFILE and F EATURE O RIENTATION tabs, as described in Sec-
tions 5.3.1.2 and 5.5, respectively. Then the shape of the removed section is specified in the E XTRUDE
B OOLEAN tab or R EVOLVE tab depending on which operation is selected. The P REVIEW tab shows a
preview of the object before the changes are formally applied to the project.

For more on defining extrusions or revolutions, refer to Appendix Section A.4.

An image of each boolean operation is available in Appendix Section A.7.

5.4 Importing CAD, Voxel, Mesh and PCB Files

In order to enhance the geometric modeling process, XFdtd has the ability to load CAD model, voxel data
and mesh objects.

5.4.1 CAD files

CAD Import Options

The CAD Importer is used to import CAD files from many popular modeling packages into XFdtd for use in
simulations. To import a CAD file, simply select
F ILE > I MPORT > CAD FILE ( S ) and load the desired file.

After the user selects the CAD file to load, a dialog box with several important options will appear, as seen
in Figure 5.14.

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64 Creating Geometry

Figure 5.14: CAD import options

• The I NTERPRET U NITS A S drop-down list assigns the units to the CAD file after it is imported.
• The H EAL check-box will check imported files for errors and correct them as needed. In particular,
objects imported from IGES files and STEP files may have errors. For more complex objects, this
can be a time consuming process and pop-up window will display the progress of the operation.

You can also heal a CAD object after it is imported by right-clicking on the object in the
P ROJECT T REE and selecting H EAL.

• The AUTOMATICALLY ASSIGN MATERIALS check-box appears after the external CAD files have been
read. When this option is selected, color information will be extracted from the imported parts if it is
available. If a material exists in the project that has the color of the imported part, that material is
assigned to the part. If no material is found, and a color is available, a new material is created and
assigned.

• The R EFRESH AND MERGE EXISTING PARTS check-box should be checked when the user has already
loaded a CAD file into an XFdtd project and desires to update it with a newer (external) version of
the source file. When this option is selected:

– Parts that are used within your XFdtd project will be updated with any geometrical changes
present in the newly imported CAD file.

– Parts that are new to the imported CAD file are added to the project.

– Parts that have been deleted in the imported CAD file, but are still present in the XFdtd project,
will remain in the project without change.

– Parts that have been deleted in the XFdtd project, but are still present in the CAD file, will be
added to the XFdtd project with M ESHING D ISABLED and its V ISIBLE property unchecked.

– Parts that were found in the project prior to the CAD import remain, but the new CAD database
places the parts in a new parent assembly hierarchy.

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– Parts that were in a former parent assembly are identified, as is the assembly to which they
used to belong.

In each of the above six cases, all changes from the original files will be documented in a
shortcut group in the G ROUPS branch of the P ROJECT T REE. The following shortcut
groups are available:

· New to CAD Database

· No longer in CAD database
· Present in CAD database, but previously deleted
· Parts that moved or changed size
· Parts in a new parent assembly
· Parts in a former parent assembly

Modifying a CAD File

Once imported, an assembly containing all of the parts of the CAD file is added to PARTS branch of
the P ROJECT T REE. Since every part of the CAD file is treated as its own separate object, all available
modeling operations can be applied to any individual object imported from the file. Selecting an operation
in the M ODIFY drop-down box within G EOMETRY TOOLS will allow the user to select any part to modify.

Figure 5.15 shows an imported CAD object before a modification operation is applied. Figure 5.16 shows
the CAD object after an O FFSET FACES operation is applied to one of its parts, and the resulting
M ODELING S EQUENCE object that is added to the tree.

Also see Section 8.4 for important considerations when meshing imported CAD objects.

Figure 5.15: CAD file before modification

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66 Creating Geometry

Figure 5.16: CAD file after modification

5.4.2 Voxel Data

In XFdtd, voxel objects are geometric parts defined by volumetric elements (“voxels”) on a regular, recti-
linear grid in three dimensional space, with each voxel representing a specific material. Due to their com-
plexity, it is common to use voxel representations of biological subjects such as the human body. XFdtd
supports the import of several types of voxel data:

• VariPose
R
Models or those defined with an MMF file

• ICRP Adult Reference Computational Phantoms[5]

• NICT Models[6]
• Virtual Population Models[7]
All voxel data is imported through the F ILE > I MPORT > VOXEL O BJECT menu.

The voxel data import workflow is essentially the same for all voxel data types. After selecting a file repre-
senting the voxel data, a dialog is displayed that:

• Summarizes the count and resolution information of the data

• Provides the option to create default materials for tissues identified in the data but which are unknown
• Allows setting options for how to visualize the data after import
• Allows setting any other model-specific settings
When the dialog is accepted, the voxel data is imported and analyzed. Tissue assignments are either
provided as part of the voxel specification or are implicit for the type of data, depending upon the source.
For each tissue found in the imported data, XFdtd either uses an existing material definition if one exists
in the project with the name of the tissue, or creates one for the tissue and adds it to the project. The
electromagnetic properties and density for the latter are defined using the Tissue Properties Database
published by IT’IS[8] (except where noted below), and a note is added to the Material definition indicating
from which tissue those properties were obtained. If custom tissue definitions are desired when importing

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a voxel model, ensure that material definitions for the custom tissues are defined in the project before
importing the voxel model (XFdtd’s Libraries capability is useful for this workflow). When the process is
complete, an import report is displayed showing all actions taken.

Material assignments for existing voxel objects can be displayed and edited later by choosing
M ATERIAL > VOXEL M ATERIAL A SSIGNMENTS from the voxel object’s right-click menu in the
P ROJECT T REE. The visualization options shown in the import dialog can also be changed later by
choosing VOLUME V ISUALIZATION O PTIONS from the voxel object’s right-click menu in the P ROJECT
T REE.

Information specific to the import of each type of voxel data is outlined in the following subsections.

VariPose
R
(*.mmf)

VariPose R
models or any other voxel data for which an MMF (*.mmf) metadata file is provided can be
imported using the MMF(*. MMF VARI P OSE F ORMAT ) menu item. The MMF file provides voxel counts,
resolution, material names, colors for the data, which is in a separate file referenced by the MMF file.
Note that the density attribute of the MMF file is ignored for this import; the density provided in the tissue
database noted above is used instead. When importing VariPose-formatted data, the MMF file is selected
by the user, not the file containing the voxel data itself.

The voxel counts and resolutions displayed in the import dialog (see Figure 5.17) are read-only since they
are specified in the MMF file. Figures 5.18 and 5.19 show the import report and the import result for the
5 mm VariPose man. Note that an object has been added to the PARTS branch that for the voxel object
and materials created for that object added to the D EFINITIONS : M ATERIALS branch.

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68 Creating Geometry

Figure 5.17: The import dialog for MMF voxel data

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Figure 5.18: The import report for the 5 mm VariPose man

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Figure 5.19: The result of importing the 5 mm VariPose man

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Creating Geometry 71

ICRP Adult Reference Phantoms

The Adult Reference Computational Phantoms defined in International Commission on Radiological Pro-
tection (ICRP) Publication 110[5] can be imported directly into XFdtd using the ICRP A DULT R EFERENCE
menu item. The ICRP has defined two phantoms, one male and one female. XFdtd requires the data file
(AM.dat or AF.dat, for male and female, respectively) and the associated “organs” file (AM organs.dat
or AF organs.dat) that contains the organ (or tissue) definitions to import each of these phantoms. The
data file is selected by the user while the “organs” file is initially inferred (but can also be selected indepen-
dently in the import dialog).

The voxel counts and resolutions are implicit for these phantoms, so the import dialog provides a drop-
down (see Figure 5.20) to select either the male or female reference. For either of these, the counts and
resolutions are read-only. However, there may be occasions when a user may have a subset of one of the
phantoms– for this case, there is also a “Custom” setting which allows editing of the counts and resolutions.
Additionally, these phantoms contain an extra layer of skin at the top of the head and bottom of the feet that
was added artificially. While XFdtd does not import these layers by default, the dialog contains an option
to include them. The “organs” file provides tissue densities, and though the electromagnetic properties for
the tissues is obtained from the tissue database noted above, the tissue densities from this file are used.

Figure 5.20: The import dialog for the ICRP Reference Phantoms

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72 Creating Geometry

NICT Models

Voxel models prepared by the Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Group at the National Institute of Infor-
mation and Communications Technology (NICT)[6] can be imported directly into XFdtd using the NICT
M ODELS menu item. NICT has prepared primarily an adult male model (name Taro, Taro.raw), an adult
female (named Hanako, Hanako.raw and a female 26 weeks pregnant (NICT Pregnant 26w.raw).
These models consist of raw data; the voxel counts and resolutions and tissue definitions are implicit, so
the user need import only the raw data.

Similar to the ICRP Phantoms, the import dialog for NICT data (see Figure 5.21) provides a dropdown
menu to choose which model is being imported in order to set the voxel counts and resolutions. If a new
model or subset of an existing model is being imported, a Custom setting is provided so that the counts
and resolutions can be entered manually.

Figure 5.21: The import dialog for NICT Models

Virtual Population Models

Models from the Virtual Family and the Virtual Classroom (collectively known as the Virtual Population)
created by the Foundation for Research on Information Technologies (IT’IS Foundation), as well as models
re-voxelized using the Virtual Population Tool can be imported directly into XFdtd using the V IRTUAL
P OPULATION menu item. Each model is delivered as a zipfile that contains a *.raw and a *.txt file for
the model, which are both required by XFdtd. The *.raw file is specified as the import file to XFdtd (XFdtd
does not import the accompanying *.sat file), so the zipfiles must be unpacked before importing them
into XFdtd. The *.raw file contains the actual voxel data, while the *.txt file contains tissue definitions

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and voxel counts and resolutions; therefore the counts and resolutions are read-only in the import dialog
(see Figure 5.22).

Figure 5.22: The import dialog for Virtual Population Models

Viewing/Editing Voxel Object Material Assignments

Material assignments for existing voxel objects can be displayed and edited by choosing
M ATERIAL > VOXEL M ATERIAL A SSIGNMENTS from the voxel object’s right-click menu in the
P ROJECT T REE. This will open a dialog that displays for each voxel data ID, what tissue name was
assigned to that ID in the source data and what material in the XFdtd Project that is currently assigned to
that ID. These assignments can changed by selecting one or more rows, right-clicking and then selecting
one of the menu options (as shown in Figure 5.23):

Assign Existing Material...– Assign a material that already exists in the Project to the selected IDs.

Automatically Generate and Assign New Tissue Material– This will perform a similar algorithm
that was used during the import process to automatically determine appropriate tissue parame-
ters (based on tissue name and source data type), then add a new material to the Project with those
parameters. This would be used primarily to assign materials to voxel objects in existing Projects
that do not have appropriate materials already assigned to them or to replace accidentally deleted
materials.

Remove Material Assignment– Remove the assignment of any material to the selected IDs.

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74 Creating Geometry

A report containing information on what materials were created and from what tissues the electromagnetic
properites were taken will be shown when the dialog is dismissed.

Figure 5.23: Assigning tissue materials to voxel objects

Meshing a Voxel object

To set the meshing parameters for the voxel object, right-click on the object in the P ROJECT T REE and
select G RIDDING / M ESHING > M ESHING P ROPERTIES to open the M ESHING PARAMETERS E DI -
TOR .

See Section 8.3.6 for more on the settings of the M ESHING PARAMETERS E DITOR.

5.4.3 Mesh Objects

A mesh object is essentially a collection of edges with applied materials. It is a subsection of the XFdtd grid
from a previous version of XFdtd. Mesh objects, like voxel objects, are linked to an external mesh object
data file, and are loaded through the F ILE > I MPORT > XF DTD V ERSION 6 F ILE option. Figure 5.24
displays an imported *.mesh file.

The import of Version 6 mesh objects with adaptive grid regions is not supported.

See Appendix Section C.2 for a discussion on importing other Version 6 files.

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Figure 5.24: The head of an imported human body mesh object

Figure 5.25 shows the P ROJECT T REE after the *.mesh file seen above was imported. Note that an
object has been added to the PARTS branch that contains the mesh object and a list of all the materials
contained in the object have been added to the D EFINITIONS : M ATERIALS branch.

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Figure 5.25: The Project Tree with imported mesh object

Meshing a Mesh object

Like a voxel object, to set the meshing parameters for a mesh object, right-click on the object in the
P ROJECT T REE and select G RIDDING / M ESHING > M ESHING P ROPERTIES to open the
M ESHING PARAMETERS E DITOR.

See Section 8.3.6 for more on configuring the settings of the M ESHING PARAMETERS E DITOR.

5.4.4 PCB

The FDTD method can be used to simulate how energy propagates through and around Printed Circuit
Boards (PCBs). XFdtd’s user interface was not designed to create complex PCB designs thus geometry
must be imported from another application. The ODB++ format was chosen because it is a standardized
format which facilitates data exchange between many applications in the PCB industry.

XFdtd reads the ODB++ database and constructs a three dimensional representation of the data. The
import window provides several options to customize the construction of the solid model. To initiate the
ODB++ import, first select F ILE > I MPORT > PCB and then choose the desired directory. XFdtd will
read the data and open the Import PCB window seen in Figure 5.26.

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Figure 5.26: ODB++ Layers Tab

At the top of the import window resides a field to specify the ODB++ Database ID. This ID allows solid
geometry to be identified as an ODB++ database which can refreshed and merged similar to CAD geom-
etry. When importing a ODB++ database, parts in the project are examined to determine if an existing
database is available for merge. The R EFRESH AND MERGE EXISTING PARTS and associated database are
only available if an existing database has been detected.

The Layers tab allows the user to specify which layers will be imported and the thickness of each layer.
Layers of the types signal, power ground, drill and mixed will be checked by default, but each layer can be
changed by clicking the checkbox next to the layer name. If a database is being merged the settings of the
previous import will be used, otherwise the layer thickness and dielectric thicknesses are populated given
they were provided in the database or zero if not specified in the file. Each thickness can be modified by
clicking on the value in the table and entering a different value. The A DD Z F IXED P OINTS option specifies
whether or not to add manual fixed points to the grid per layer in order to resolve the geometry adequately
in the mesh. The C ROP G EOMETRY O UTSIDE S UBSTRATE option excludes all ODB++ features completely
outside the profile of the substrate from being imported.

The Nets tab, as seen in Figure 5.27, will be available if the ODB++ database contained EDA data. If there
is no EDA data or no nets are chosen, the geometry for each layer is separated into pads, traces, surfaces

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and the profile. If nets are chosen, the geometry for each net is separated in its own part, and then the
remaining geometry is separated into layers. The B OOLEAN N ETS option attempts to reduce the complexity
of the solid geometry by booleaning subnets together.

Figure 5.27: ODB++ Nets Tab

The Log tab in Figure 5.28, provides the feedback generated when the data was read from the ODB++
database. The contents of this log will indicate any errors encountered. The messages provided in the log
do not include the status of converting the data to the solid models. After the user chooses OK, the data is
converted into parts. In the event of an error during this conversion, a window will appear after conversion
has finished indicating the problems encountered.

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Figure 5.28: ODB++ Log Tab

5.5 Orienting Objects in the Simulation Space

The S PECIFY O RIENTATION tab is available for positioning any physical object in the simulation space.
This tab provides tools for translating, twisting and rotating an object using three different coordinate sys-
tems. There are two primary modes that are available within this tab: B ASIC M ODE, the default mode which
is sufficient under most circumstances, and A DVANCED M ODE, which has more powerful functionality. The
P ICK and A LIGN drop-down menus available in each mode provide additional options for orienting objects.

At the end of this section, two examples are provided of how 2-D sketches are effectively placed in the
simulation space so that 3-D modeling operations are carried out correctly.

5.5.1 Overview of Global, Reference and Local Coordinate Systems

Within the XFdtd interface, there are three primary coordinate systems: Global, Reference and Local. They
are distinguished in the GUI in the following reference forms:

• Global coordinates: X , Y and Z

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• Reference coordinates: U , V and W

• Local coordinates: U 0 , V 0 and W 0
The Global Coordinate System does not change throughout the course of a project, so its origin and three
primary axes always remain the same. The 3-D orientation object marked with X , Y and Z in the lower
left corner of the G EOMETRY workspace window represents the global coordinate system. This set of
orientation vectors is referred to as the G LOBAL T RIAD.

The Reference Coordinate System refers to the orientation and location of objects within their native as-
sembly. If an assembly has not been translated, rotated or shifted, the Reference Coordinate System will be
the same as the Global Coordinate System; otherwise, it will be different. Additionally, if an assembly exists
within another assembly, its Reference Coordinate System will only consider the location and orientation of
its own assembly.

The Local Coordinate System is initiated when an editing session begins within the S PECIFY O RIEN -
TATION tab. It is initially the same as the Reference Coordinate System, but it changes as translations,
rotations and other adjustments are made to the orientation of the working coordinate system. Figure 5.29
shows the set of orientation vectors displayed in this tab, known as the O RIENTATION T RIAD. This coordi-
nate system is reset each time the editing session is reopened, unlike the Reference Coordinate System,
which is preserved across editing sessions.

Figure 5.29: The Orientation Triad governs the location and orientation of the Local Coordinate System.

The O RIENTATION T RIAD is used to correctly orient objects within the simulation space. The center of
the Orientation Triad is referred to as the O RIGIN. The Origin can be defined manually by typing in its
coordinates or by clicking on the intended origin in the simulation space with the P ICK : O RIGIN tool. It may
also be manually shifted by clicking and dragging the directional axis vector of interest.

Read ahead to Section 5.5.3 for more about the P ICK : O RIGIN tool.

5.5.2 Basic Mode

Figure 5.30 shows the S PECIFY O RIENTATION tab in Basic Mode. The C ONTEXT controls whether the
Orientation Triad’s position and orientation is cited in the Global or Reference Coordinate System. Notice
that in Figure 5.30, the coordinates are all defined in terms of X , Y and Z , denoting the Global Coordinate
System.

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Figure 5.30: The Specify Orientation tab in Basic Mode

The origin and orientation of the Orientation Triad can be adjusted in several ways within Basic Mode. All
of these methods are also available in Advanced Mode.

The O RIGIN coordinates specify the location of the origin of the Orientation Triad. The origin can be
updated manually or can be adjusted by clicking and dragging on one of the colored primary-axis vectors
of the Triad. The location display will update automatically.

The orientation of the axes is defined by clicking on the icon found next to any of the axis definitions.
This will change the column from gray (read-only) to white so the values in the column can be edited.
The orientation may also be adjusted by right-clicking on the axis and choosing the appropriate tool in the
context menu, displayed in Figure 5.31.

Figure 5.31: Customizing the orientation of the simulation space

• ROTATE A ROUND [ AXIS NAME ] - rotates the coordinate system about the chosen axis.
• T RANSLATE A LONG [ AXIS NAME ] - prompts the user to type in a translation distance along the se-
lected axis (analogous to clicking and dragging on the axis vector.)

• P ICK N EW D IRECTION FOR [ AXIS NAME ] - redefines the direction of the selected axis in a new
direction specified by the user. This tool is also useful to align the selected axis with the surface of
other objects in the simulation space.

Clicking a point in the simulation space will assign the direction vector directly into the space.
Thus, adjusting the view with the V IEW buttons may facilitate this assignment.

• D EFINE [ AXIS NAME ] W ITH T WO P OINTS - aligns the axis to the direction of the vector between two
user-selected points.

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• P OINT [ AXIS NAME ] AT - redirects the selected axis by directing the vector from its origin to a user-
selected point.

Clicking on A DVANCED M ODE in the Basic Mode window will bring up the Advanced Mode window.

See Section 5.5.4 for a description of the A DVANCED M ODE interface.

5.5.3 Alignment Tools

Direction Picking Tools

The D IRECTION P ICKING TOOLS menu provides six tools for defining the location and direction of the
Orientation Triad. In the descriptions of tools used to align one object to another, ”reference object” will
refer to the pre-existing, stationary object used as a reference for the alignment, and ”object to align” will
refer to the object that will be aligned to the reference object using the respective tool.

Simple Plane. Select a plane on a reference object to orient the plane of the object to align. The normal
vector will be directed out of (orthogonal to) the selected plane, as shown in Figure 5.32. XFdtd will adjust
the object to align so that its face is aligned with the selected plane of the reference object. Press the
SPACE key until the object is correctly oriented.

Figure 5.32: Aligning a new object with an existing reference plane

Origin. Select a point anywhere in the simulation space to position the origin of the Orientation Triad.
(The normal vectors will not change orientation.)

Normal. This tool allows the user to adjust the direction of the normal vector of the Orientation Triad
while maintaining the same origin point. The normal direction can be defined by clicking on a point in the
simulation space, in which case the W 0 -normal vector will be positioned directly into the simulation space.
The normal vector can also be aligned with the face of a reference object by holding the mouse over one
of its faces, and the normal vector of the object to align will be aligned with this face of interest.

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It is convenient to use the V IEW buttons to position the simulation space so that this placement
achieves the desired orientation.

Press SPACE to rotate the direction of the orientation vector before placing it.

Direction for Twist. Twisting about an axis is performed by defining a normal vector. The object will be
twisted about the origin as the twist slider is moved left and right. Figure 5.33 shows the placement of the
normal (purple arrow) and the radius of twist about the origin.

Figure 5.33: Twisting an object about the origin

Axis for Rotation. Unlike the D IRECTION FOR T WIST, the A XIS FOR R OTATION moves the object and
Orientation Triad about a user-defined axis. The object will not be twisted as it is rotated (i.e. a face
originally faced in the Z -direction will always face in that direction independent of its displacement.) Fig-
ure 5.34 shows the rotation of the Orientation Triad and object about the user-defined axis (shown as a
purple arrow.)

Figure 5.34: Rotating an object about a user-defined axis

Axis for Rotation and Twist. This tool is analogous to the A XIS FOR R OTATION tool except when the
object is rotated around the picked axis, it will also be twisted.

The D IRECTION P ICKING TOOLS hotkeys are a convenient option for placing your tool in the exact
position desired. The hotkeys menu for each respective tool will appear after selecting the tool and
holding the mouse over the geometry. Table 5.1 describes the available options.

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Figure 5.35: The hotkeys menu appears when a direction picking tool hovers over an object.

Align menu

The A LIGN menu provides several tools for aligning features of a new object with those on a reference
object.

Align Directions. This tool aligns the face, edge or vertex of the object to align with the corresponding
face, edge, or vertex of the reference object. Pick the face, edge or vertex on the object to align, then pick
the face, edge or vertex of the reference object. The selected faces, edges or verticies will be used to
orient the coordinate system such that the objects are pointing in the same direction. Figure 5.36 shows
an object to align (left) being aligned with a face on the reference object (right.) The bottom image shows
the two objects after they have been aligned.

Press SPACE to reverse the direction of the orientation vector before placing it.

Figure 5.36: Using Match Directions to align two objects

Match Points. This tool matches a user-selected point on the object to align with a user-selected point
on the reference object. Select a point on the object to align and select a second point on the reference
object. Figure 5.37 shows the original objects in Figure 5.36 after two of their corners were matched.

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Figure 5.37: Aligning points on objects

Match Points & Directions. This tool functions much like the M ATCH P OINTS tool above except that it
aligns the normals of two objects rather than discrete points. Select the object to align then select the face
of the reference object. The two positions will be used to translate the first part such that the two selected
points are coincident. Since aligning the faces of two objects do not give regard to the placement of the
moved object, it is often useful to slide the moved object along an axis on the Orientation Triad until the
desired placement is achieved.

Press SPACE to reverse the direction of the orientation vector before placing it.

5.5.4 Advanced Mode

The options available in Advanced Mode allow the user to manipulate virtually all aspects of the orientation
of the coordinate system. The three main areas for editing in this mode are:

• A NCHOR: The anchor point is defined by a location within the reference coordinate system. This
location, along with the offsets defined by T RANSLATIONS, determines where the origin (0,0,0) of the
local coordinate system is located.

• A XIS: Defines the primary direction of the local coordinate system. Users can pick which direction
the axis defines, U’, V’, or W’. Whatever value is entered or picked will exactly define the U’ V’ or W’
direction.

• T WIST: Defines a secondary direction that orients the plane defined by the remaining axes. If the
Axis is used to define U’, Twist orients either V’ or W’, eliminating the remaining degree of freedom.

There are also fields for defining T RANSLATIONS and R OTATIONS. These fields are described below.

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Finally, the P ICKING TOOL and D ETATCH TOOL buttons enable the user to use the mouse to either
select or detatch an anchor point, axis direction or twist direction, respectively. The P ICKING TOOL
is always available. The D ETATCH TOOL is only available when an anchor point, axis direction or twist
direction is defined using reference geometry.

When using a Picking Tool, mousing over the existing geometry displays a selection arrow (for directions)
or sphere (for positions.) Depending on the position or direction and the location of the indicator relative
to the geometric object, extra Picking Tool functions are available. The following table displays these extra
functions.

Table 5.1: Direction and Location Picking Functions

Function Description
Hold ’c’ to center Centers the anchor point on the face.
Press ’h’ to hide part Temporarily hides any part (or parts) that the user points at. The
part reappears when the current picking operation completes. This
is useful if the user wants to hide a part that obscures another part.
Press ’l’ to lock On mouseover, shows the selected part by temporarily removing
any objects that may block the user’s view. The parts will reappear
after the cursor moves away.
Press [Space] to cycle Cycles the indicator through the normal, parallel, and isometric di-
rections that can be determined using the indicated geometry and
its connected entities.
Indicator movement depends on how many edges/faces meet at
the particular entity the directional indicator is over.
Press ’1-8’ for bounding Moves the anchor to each corner of the bounding box surrounding
box corners the selected part. The bounding box is the smallest axis aligned
box that can enclose the object the user is pointing at.
Press ’0’ for bounding Moves the anchor to the center of the bounding box surrounding
box center the selected part.
CTRL Key When picking a location and a direction, users can hold down the
CTRL key to pick the location, then pick the direction. This is most
useful when the normal of the face you’re trying to select isn’t at the
location you want.

The Picking and Detach tools for the Anchor, Axis and Twist areas operate independently based on
the radio button selected in the Specify Orientation Tab (Anchor, Axis, Twist). For example, if the
Axis radio button is selected, the P ICKING TOOL will enable the user to place an axis on an object
and the D ETACH TOOL (if active) will enable the user to detach the existing axis from an object.
The user cannot select or detach any existing anchor points or twist directions when the Axis radio
button is selected, only axes.

Translations can also be applied manually in any direction within the T RANSLATION definition. A translation
will not affect the location of the anchor point, only the location of the Orientation Triad and attached object.
It is important to be aware of which of the three coordinate systems is selected in the C ONTEXT definition
when applying a manual translation, since it may affect the proper placement of the geometry.

Similarly, rotations may also be manually defined within the R OTATION definition. The rotation, across the
angle specified within A NGLE, will be applied to the Orientation Triad (and attached object) at the anchor

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point, in the direction specified by the U 0 , V 0 and W 0 definitions. For example,the Anchor will be rotated
π radians about the W 0 axis by defining
U0 = 0
V0 = 0
W0 = 1
Angle = ”PI rad”
If the definitions were changed to

U0 = 1
V0 = 0
W0 = 1
Angle = ”PI rad”

then U 0 and W 0 will be automatically adjusted to U 0 = ”0.707107” and W 0 = ”0.707107”, since the resulting
rotation will rotate the orientation 0.707107 radians in the U 0 and W 0 directions.

The net movement of the Orientation Triad in the coordinate system will be

U + U 0 + Urotation
0

V + V 0 + Vrotation
0

W + W 0 + Wrotation
0

The A NCHOR, A XIS and T WIST buttons are detailed below.

Orienting the Anchor

Figure 5.38 shows the A NCHOR editing dialog within Advanced Mode.

Figure 5.38: Modifying the location and orientation of the anchor

In Advanced mode, the anchor point is represented by a blue dot in the simulation space. It remains in
place regardless of rotations and translations that are applied to the Orientation Triad. When this dialog is
first opened, U, V and W within the A NCHOR :F IXED P OSITION section represent the location of the anchor
point in the Reference Coordinate System. Adjusting the location of the anchor point will adjust the location
of the Orientation Triad as well (although moving the Orientation Triad will NOT affect the position of the
anchor point.)

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Advanced Anchor Point Capabilities

Right-clicking an anchor point displays its context menu. The menu contains two items: D ETACH A NCHOR
P OINT and A DVANCED.

• D ETACH A NCHOR P OINT: Selecting this item detaches the anchor point from the specified object.
• A DVANCED: Selecting this item displays Advanced dialog window. This window enables the user to
parameterize the location of the anchor point. It contains two sections: Parameters and Offsets.

- Parameters: The Parameters section contains sliders that enable the user to make minute
adjustments to the parametric position of the anchor. If the anchor is attached to a surface of a part,
sliders U and V appear. If the anchor is attached to a part’s edge, slider U appears. If the anchor is
attached to a vertex or the center of an edge, no sliders appear. U defines the parametric position of
the anchor along an edge. U,V defines the parametric position along a face or surface. Parameter
values always vary from 0 to 1 with 0.5 corresponding to the middle of the edge, surface or face.

- Offsets: The Offsets section enables users to offset the anchor point for X, Y and Z of the
Global Coordinate System. For more information on the Global Coordinate System, see Section
5.5.1.

Parameters defined in the PARAMETERS workspace window can be used as values in the Param-
eters section and the Offset section.

In the Parameters section, U and V are not the same as reference coordinates U and V.

Orienting the Axis

Figure 5.39 shows the A XIS editing dialog within Advanced Mode.

Figure 5.39: Modifying the orientation of the axis

The A XIS dialog controls the orientation of the axes of the anchor. The default orientation of the Orientation
Triad vectors are:

U’: U = 0

V’: V = 0

W’: W = 1

These can be redefined to assume any orientation. Changing the orientation of one axis will automatically
adjust the orientation of the other two axes since they must always exist at 90 degrees from one another.

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The D EFINE drop-down list allows you to specify which axis is associated with the direction defined in the
U, V and W orientation boxes.

Twisting the Axis

The twist axis defines a second direction for orthogonalizing the triad. Figure 5.40 shows T WIST editing
dialog within Advanced Mode.

Figure 5.40: Twist dialog

5.5.5 Orienting 2-D Sketches on the Sketching Plane

The correct placement of the Orientation Triad in relation to its corresponding parts is critical to some 3-D
modeling operations, especially during revolution and sweeping operations. It is important to understand
the functionality of the Orientation Triad in relation to the operation that is performed. The following two
examples show how the Orientation Triad should be placed about a 2-D cross section.

Orienting sketches for revolutions

Figures 5.41 through 5.44 demonstrate the placement of the Orientation Triad during a revolution operation.
Figure 5.41 shows a simple 2-D cross section sketched in the E DIT CROSS SECTION tab. Notice that the
sketch does not intersect any of the primary axes.

It is important that the 2-D sketch does not touch any axis of revolution, or else the revolution cannot
be performed.

Figure 5.42 shows the revolution of the circle about the V 0 -axis and Figure 5.43 shows the revolution of
the circle in the U 0 - and V 0 -directions. Figure 5.44 shows how the revolution operation is used to create
hollow or solid sphere from an open or closed semi-circle cross section, respectively.

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Figure 5.41: Orienting a 2-D cross section about an axis of revolution

Figure 5.42: Cross section revolved about the V 0 -axis

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Figure 5.43: Cross section revolved about the U 0 - and V 0 -axes

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Figure 5.44: Using (A.) open (hollow) and (B.) closed (solid) cross sections to (C.) create a sphere with the
Revolution operation

5.5.6 Using Locators to Orient Parts

A Locator is a triad that can be placed on a part or assembly to aid in its orientation. Locators are created
by right-clicking on a part and selecting Create New... I Locator. This creates a Locator associated
with the selected part. By double-clicking on the Locator in the L OCATORS branch of the tree, the E DIT
L OCATOR tab will be activated which is used to modify the location and orientation of the Locator object.

Parts can be reoriented by matching their Locators. To do this, select two locators in the tree, then right-
click to show the context menu. Choose the Match Locators menu item. The Match Locators dialog is
shown, defining which part will be moved and which will remain fixed in space. The S WAP O RDER button
can be used to reverse the default. The part that will be moved by default is determined by the selection
order.

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Chapter 6

Creating Materials

In this chapter, you will learn...

→ how to add materials to your XFdtd project

→ how to correctly define materials and apply them to geometric objects

Once objects are created and situated correctly in the XFdtd simulation space, material definitions must be
added or else the project will not be considered valid. The tabbed windows within the M ATERIAL E DITOR
interface are used to define electric and/or magnetic materials based on their constitutive parameters. After
adding materials to the project, simply drag and drop the material in the P ROJECT T REE onto the desired
geometry to apply it to that object.

6.1 Adding a New Material

To add a new material, right-click on D EFINITIONS : M ATERIALS branch of the P ROJECT T REE and
select N EW M ATERIAL D EFINITION, as seen in Figure 6.1. XFdtd adds a M ATERIAL object to this
branch and assigns it a color. The color is assigned from an existing color sequence, in conjunction with
examining the colors already assigned to existing materials to avoid colors that are already in use.

Depending on the project preferences, the M ATERIAL E DITOR window will appear automatically. If not,
simply double-click on this object to bring up the editor. Similarly, double-click on any existing Material icon
to edit an existing material within the Material Editor.

See Section 4.1.2 for information about project preference definitions.

93
94 Creating Materials

Figure 6.1: Adding a New Material Definition to the project

Once the M ATERIAL E DITOR window is open, enter the name of the material in the N AME dialog box.
Define the T YPE of material as P HYSICAL or F REE S PACE. F REE S PACE is the most basic material
definition. Every other type of material is included within the P HYSICAL definition, in which case the
E LECTRIC and M AGNETIC types should be assigned in their respective drop-down lists.

There are five electrical and magnetic material types available in XFdtd:

• F REE S PACE

• P ERFECT C ONDUCTOR

• I SOTROPIC

• D IAGONALLY A NISOTROPIC

• A NISOTROPIC (E LECTRIC only)

Although frequency-independent materials require the least memory during calculations, there are some
cases in which frequency-independent materials are not appropriate. Frequency-dependent (or dispersive
materials) should be used in these instances. Some common examples of frequency-dependent mate-
rials are high water content materials such as human tissues and metals excited at optical frequencies.
XFdtd has the capability of simulating electric and magnetic Debye and Drude materials such as plas-
mas, Lorentz materials and anisotropic magnetic ferrites, as well as frequency-independent anisotropic
dielectrics and nonlinear diagonally anisotropic dielectrics. These additional sub-types are specified within
the I SOTROPIC, D IAGONALLY A NISOTROPIC and A NISOTROPIC definitions.

The following sections will detail the various types of materials.

6.1.1 Free Space

F REE S PACE is the most basic material. By default, all FDTD cells are initialized as free space, and the
fields at all cell edges are updated using the Free Space equations. This material sets relative permittivities
and permeabilities to one and conductivities to zero.

Figure 6.2 shows the M ATERIAL E DITOR when the F REE S PACE material is defined. Notice that no
E LECTRIC or M AGNETIC tab is available, since both are defined as F REE S PACE material.

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Creating Materials 95

Figure 6.2: Defining a Free Space material

6.1.2 Perfect Conductors

A P ERFECT C ONDUCTOR has infinite conductivity and all fields found within it are zero. It has the same
settings as the F REE S PACE material, as seen in Figure 6.2 above. It should typically be used as
an approximation when a good conductor is needed in an electromagnetic calculation and losses aren’t
important. Attempting to include the effects of a good conductor (rather than perfect conductor) may be
difficult since the wavelength inside the good conductor will become very small, requiring extremely small
FDTD cells to provide adequate sampling of the field values inside the material. This can, however, be
overcome by checking the S URFACE C ONDUCTIVITY box in the E DIT M ATERIAL dialog.

You can read more about the S URFACE C ONDUCTIVITY box in Section 6.1.3.4.

6.1.3 Electric Materials

6.1.3.1 Isotropic Materials

XFdtd includes several I SOTROPIC materials:

• N ONDISPERSIVE

• D EBYE /D RUDE

• L ORENTZ

• S AMPLED

• N ONLINEAR

Figure 6.3 shows the M ATERIAL E DITOR when an I SOTROPIC material is defined. Note that only the
E LECTRIC tab is available since M AGNETIC is defined as F REE S PACE.

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96 Creating Materials

Figure 6.3: Defining an Electric material

Nondispersive. Nondispersive material properties do not vary with frequency. The continuous-time ex-
pressions of Maxwell’s equations for linear, isotropic, nondispersive materials discretized in XFdtd are:
∂E(r, t) ∂H(r, t)
 = 5 × H(r, t) − σE(r, t) and µ = − 5 ×E(r, t) − σ ∗ H(r, t)
∂t ∂t
where

 represents the electric permittivity

σ represents the electric conductivity
µ represents the magnetic permeability
σ ∗ represents the magnetic conductivity
Nondispersive isotropic materials also display a G OOD C ONDUCTOR control. This control effects whether
the material is considered a Good Conductor (i.e. high-conductivity) material for the purposes of XACT
meshing (see Chapter 8.3.4). The default Automatic setting defines any material with a conductivity of
at least 100 S/m as a Good Conductor; however, the On and Off settings can be used to override that
behavior.

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Creating Materials 97

Figure 6.4: Defining a Nondispersive material

S
Debye/Drude. For a D EBYE /D RUDE material, the electrical C ONDUCTIVITY (σ ) in , I NFINITE F RE -
m
QUENCY R ELATIVE P ERMITTIVITY (∞ ), N UMBER OF P OLES, S TATIC R ELATIVE P ERMITTIVITY (r ) and
R ELAXATION T IME (τ ) in seconds must be specified. For a D EBYE material, σ must equal zero. A non-zero
conductivity value results in a D RUDE material.

This is discussed in detail in Chapter 8 of the Kunz and Leubbers text [1].

Figure 6.5: Defining a Debye/Drude material

These parameters cannot be set arbitrarily or instability can occur. One constraint is that the XFdtd timestep
must be small enough to accurately calculate the transient behavior of the material. If the XFdtd timestep
is three percent of the relaxation time or smaller, the time variation of the material parameters should be
sufficiently resolved. Typically, the XFdtd timestep is a very small fraction of the relaxation time. In order to
be clear about the signs in the following discussion, note that we are using the engineering time variation
of:

−jωt
and we are defining the complex permittivity as:

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98 Creating Materials

0 00
 =  − j
00
For the XFdtd calculation to be stable, the imaginary (loss) part ( ) of the complex permittivity, including the
effect of the conductivity term, must be positive for all frequencies from zero frequency to infinite frequency.
00
This condition results in a passive material. If  is negative, then the material has gain and the XFdtd
calculation will become unstable as the field amplitudes grow.

See equation 8.29 of the Kunz and Leubbers text [1].

For a D EBYE material (σ = 0), stability is assured by setting r to a larger value than ∞ . In order to
have realistic behavior at high frequencies, ∞ should be no less than one and should not be much larger
than one. Thus the condition for strictly D EBYE material to be stable is:

∞ ≥ 1
r > ∞
σ = 0
If σ is not zero, then the material has D RUDE behavior. There are different conditions that can be satisfied
for the imaginary part of the complex permittivity to be positive so that XFdtd produces stable results. If the
static permittivity is greater than the infinite frequency permittivity then σ can have any positive value. This
results in the simplest set of conditions for a stable D RUDE Material:

∞ ≥ 1
r > ∞
σ ≥ 0
These conditions are too restrictive to allow general D RUDE materials to be included in XFdtd. The more
general D RUDE conditions are:

∞ ≥ 1
∞ − r
If (r < ∞ ), then: σ ≥ 0
τ
otherwise: σ ≥ 0
F
where 0 is the F REE S PACE P ERMITTIVITY of 8.854e-12 .
m
More general conditions for D RUDE materials can be determined from the discussion in Chapter
8, Section 3 the Kunz and Leubbers text [1].

Lorentz. Stability in L ORENTZ materials should be obtained as long as C ONDUCTIVITY ≥ 0 and the
XFdtd timestep is 3% of the relaxation time or less. The limits on the material parameters are:
S
σ ≥ 0m
∞ ≥ 1
r ≥ ∞
ResonantF requency (Ω) > 0
DampingCoef f icient > 0

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Creating Materials 99

Figure 6.6: Defining a Lorentz material

Sampled. This material allows the user to enter relative permittivities and conductivities sampled at vari-
ous frequencies.

The conductivity and permittivity of the material are interpolated using E VALUATION F REQUENCY from the
data provided below. The E VALUATION F REQUENCY frequency should be roughly in the middle of the
frequency range of interest. If the conductivity and/or permittivity vary significantly over your range of
interest, your results, such as S-Parameters, may deviate from what you would obtain by using a sinusoidal
waveform at specific frequencies.

Note that this is not a dispersive material and will not automatically be converted to one.

Figure 6.7: Defining a Sampled material

Nonlinear. The relative permittivity of a nonlinear isotropic dielectric material satisfies:

r1 − r2
r = r2 +  2  4  6
| E | −Es | E | −Es | E | −Es
1 + a1 + a2 + a3
E0 E0 E0
Where

r is relative permittivity

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100 Creating Materials

E is instantaneous cell edge E-field

r1 is static (low | E | ) relative permittivity

r2 is infinite | E | relative permittivity
Es is the E magnitude above which the material becomes non-linear
E0 is a scaling term
a1 , a2 and a3 are coefficients

Figure 6.8: Defining a Nonlinear material

6.1.3.2 Diagonally Anisotropic

The definitions for a D IAGONALLY A NISOTROPIC are equivalent to those corresponding definitions de-
tailed for I SOTROPIC materials, except the definitions in each of the principle directions are independently
specified.

6.1.3.3 Anisotropic

Frequency-independent A NISOTROPIC materials are defined in XFdtd by the relative permittivity, ¯, and
¯ , tensors.
C ONDUCTIVITY, σ̄

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Creating Materials 101

Figure 6.9: Defining an Anisotropic material

¯ and the parameters below Permittivity

The parameters below C ONDUCTIVITY represent the terms of σ̄
¯
(Infinite Frequency) represent the terms of  as follows:

 
σx x σxy σxz
 σyx σyy σyz 
σzx σzy σzz
 
yxx yxy yxz
 yyx yyy yyz 
yzx yzy yzz

The conductivity and permittivity for frequency-independent anisotropic dielectric materials are represented
¯ and ¯, unlike the equations for linear, non-dispersive, frequency-dependent, isotropic materials. These
by σ̄
are used in the time-domain FDTD update equations in place of  and σ :
∂E(r, t)
¯ ¯ E(r, t)
= 5 × H(r, t) − σ̄
∂t

6.1.3.4 Note on Complex Permittivity, Loss Tangent and Surface Conductivity Correction

Complex permittivity. The value of complex permittivity may need to be calculated for XFdtd for some
materials. The real part of the complex permittivity may be used for the relative permittivity. The conductivity
can be calculated from the imaginary part of the complex permittivity by multiplying by a desired output
frequency value (in radian frequency), as shown by:

σ = ωo ” o

Loss tangent. The loss tangent can be entered directly into XFdtd when it is known, typically for good
dielectrics. The engine can then calculate the conductivity as a function of frequency using:

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102 Creating Materials

0
σef f = ωo  tan δ

Surface conductivity correction. In the case of a frequency-dependent conductor, the S URFACE C ON -

DUCTIVITY C ORRECTION box can be checked to correct the conductivity of a material for a single frequency
of a sinusoidal excitation. This is necessary in cases where the penetration and loss in good conductors
needs to be included in the calculation. Enabling this option allows for the reduction of wavelength in these
cell
materials without reducing the cell size to maintain the 10 wavelength limit.

6.1.4 Magnetic Materials

XFdtd also includes several types of magnetic materials. Many of these materials are simply the magnetic
counterpart to the dielectrics described in the Electric Materials section (Section 6.1.3.) All restrictions
noted in the Electric Materials section apply to their magnetic counterparts.

Figure 6.10 shows the M ATERIAL E DITOR when a Magnetic I SOTROPIC material is defined. Note that
only the M AGNETIC tab is available since E LECTRIC is defined as F REE S PACE. If E LECTRIC was defined
as another type, a E LECTRIC tab would be available as well.

Figure 6.10: Defining a Magnetic material

6.1.4.1 Isotropic

Nondispersive.

See Nondispersive under the electric materials section above (6.1.3.1.)

Debye/Drude.

See Debye/Drude under the electric materials section above (6.1.3.1.)

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Creating Materials 103

Magnetized Ferrites. The first parameter related to magnetized ferrites is the A PPLIED F IELD, (Ho .)
A
Enter its value in units of. This number will be used to calculate the Larmor precession frequency (ωo ),
m
ωo = γHo
m
where γ is the gyromagnetic ratio (2.21x105 .)
C
Next, enter the I NTERNAL M AGNETIZATION (Mo ) in units of T . This number is used to calculate the satu-
ration frequency (ωm ),
Mo
ωm = γ .
µo
Next, use the DAMPING C OEFFICIENT to account for damping in the ferrite or of any absorption of power
due to the ferrite. Finally, enter the direction of the biasing field using the spherical direction fields T HETA
and P HI.

There are several informative references that discuss the form of the permeability tensor used for
the ferrites [9, 10, 11, 12]. (The first two references do not discuss the damping coefficient.)

See the Kung text for parameters for some commercially available ferrites [12].

Figure 6.11: Defining an Magnetized Ferrite material

Sampled.

See Sampled under the electric materials section above (6.1.3.1.)

Nonlinear.

See Nonlinear under the electric materials section above (6.1.3.1.)

6.1.4.2 Diagonally Anisotropic

See Diagonally Anisotropic under the electric materials section above (6.1.3.2.)

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104 Creating Materials

6.1.5 Thin Wire Material

XFdtd includes T HIN W IRE material for use in in special situations where a wire with a radius much smaller
than the cell size is required. In most cases, standard PEC material will serve well as a wire. However,
in cases where the wire radius is important to the calculation and is less than one fourth the length of the
average cell edge, the thin wire material may be used to accurately simulate the correct wire diameter.

Figure 6.12: Thin Wire dialog window

Thin wire materials are subject to several restrictions due to the special modifications they require on the
field update equations. Thin wires may not meet at 90 degree angles, and they may not be located on
adjacent cell edges. Attaching thin wire materials end-to-end is the desired method of using this material
type. Also, thin wires may not be staircased as this will lead to instabilities in the calculation.

If a feed or port will be connected to a thin wire, the cell edge at the feed should also be thin wire material,
not free space. For example, if a dipole antenna is simulated in thin wire material, the feed ”gap” should
also be thin wire. Failing to use thin wire material in the feed gap will lead to less accurate results. If you
do add a feed or port to thin wire materials, you may not specify inductance or capacitance values to that
port because these will interfere with the thin wire calculation. However, resistor values (series or parallel)
may be used.

Using thin wires is applicable only in very rare circumstances. XFdtd does not provide validity checking
for its applicability until the simulation is run. If, at that point, the thin-wire approximation is invalid, the

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Creating Materials 105

simulation will fail.

Thin wire material is only available in certain electrical and magnetic material combinations. In all cases,
the Type selector (appears on the Electrical tab) of the electrical material must be set to Perfect Conductor.
The following table contains appropriate Thin Wire combinations.

Table 6.1: Thin Wire Materials

Electrical Type Magnetic Type
Isotropic Free Space
Diagonally Anisotropic Free Space
Isotropic Perfect Conductor
Diagonally Anisotropic Perfect Conductor
Isotropic Isotropic
Diagonally Anisotropic Isotropic
Isotropic Diagonally Anisotropic
Diagonally Anisotropic Diagonally Anisotropic

6.2 Appearance

Use the A PPEARANCE tab to assign the aesthetic properties of each defined material. Colors and other
properties can be assigned to the faces, edges and vertices of objects that contain the material so that they
can be easily distinguished from other materials in the project.

6.3 Physical Parameters

The P HYSICAL PARAMETERS tab governs the definitions most commonly associated with biological tis-
sue. These definitions are thus necessary only when performing biological calculations. These values are
computed automatically for tissues in the Remcom high fidelity meshes.

6.4 Material Visibility

XFdtd offers the user the ability to toggle the visibility of materials. It is important to know that a material
set as invisible will hide all parts defined by that material in both the geometry space and the mesh.

To toggle the visibility of a material, right-click on the material in the P ROJECT T REE and select S ET
V ISIBLE, S ET I NVISIBLE or S ET O NLY T HIS M ATERIAL V ISIBLE, as seen in Figure 6.13.

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106 Creating Materials

Figure 6.13: Setting the visibility of a material

All parts that are made invisible by an invisible material are easily identified in the PARTS L IST.

See Section 4.2.1 for more on the Parts List.

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Chapter 7

Circuit Components, Waveguides,

External Excitations and Voltage Points

In this chapter, you will learn about...

→ adding passive and active circuit elements to your XFdtd project,

→ adding excitations, such as plane waves and Gaussian beams,
→ adding waveguide interfaces (ports and terminations),
→ adding static voltage points.

This chapter describes how to create and define valid components, waveguide boundaries, and excitations
in an XFdtd project.

C IRCUIT C OMPONENTS are discrete components which are added to the geometry. Examples include
resistors, capacitors, inductors, voltage sources, current sources, switches and diodes. Definitions for the
components are created in the C IRCUIT C OMPONENT D EFINITION E DITOR.

Waveguide boundaries are matched terminations and ports for guided wave structures, including rectan-
gular, circular, microstrip, stripline, coplanar, and many others. The boundaries are rectangular regions,
usually placed at or near an end of a guided wave structure. They can be placed anywhere within the
problem space but must be oriented perpendicular to a principle axis.

There are four primary input excitation forms in XFdtd. The first type of excitation can be applied at any
discrete location with a voltage or current source. The second is a modal excitation through a waveguide
port. The third and fourth excitations are applied externally in the form of incident P LANE WAVES for
scattering calculations, or G AUSSIAN B EAMS for optical frequency calculations. The later two excitations
are configured using the P LANE WAVE E DITOR and G AUSSIAN B EAM E DITOR.

The WAVEFORM E DITOR governs the time variation of all the types of excitations. A WAVEFORM may
be defined as various types of pulses for broadband calculations, a sinusoidal source, or a user-defined
waveform. A waveform definition must be applied to a defined excitation for it to be valid.

107
108 Circuit Components, Waveguides, External Excitations and Voltage Points

S TATIC VOLTAGE P OINTS are inputs to the Laplace static solver which initializes E fields of PEC edges
before the FDTD computation starts. Static voltage points are created and parameters are set by right
clicking in the S TATIC VOLTAGE P OINTS branch of the Project Tree.

7.1 Component Tools

Located in the first drop-down menu of the G EOMETRY workspace window, the C OMPONENT TOOLS
dialog allows users to add discrete components to the XFdtd project. These components include voltage
sources, current sources, feeds, lumped resistors (R), capacitors (C), inductors (L), diodes, non-linear
capacitors and switches. Discrete sources (such as voltage and current sources) are locations at which the
electric field is modified by the addition of some type of input waveform. This dialog is also used to set the
properties of each component, such as spatial orientation, polarity and alignment.

Definitions such as resistance, inductance, capacitance, etc. are specified in the C IRCUIT C OMPONENT
D EFINITION E DITOR so that they can be reused for multiple components if necessary. To access this editor,
navigate to the D EFINITIONS : C IRCUIT C OMPONENT D EFINITIONS branch of the P ROJECT T REE and
double-click on the component’s C IRCUIT C OMPONENT D EFINITION object.

Figure 7.1 shows the various components available within the C OMPONENT TOOLS dialog.

Figure 7.1: Adding a new component with Component Tools

7.1.1 Adding a New Component

Once C OMPONENT TOOLS is visible in the first-drop down button of the G EOMETRY workspace window,
clicking C REATE W ITH N EW will prompt a drop-down menu to appear. This menu includes:

PASSIVE L OAD F EED S WITCH

N ON - LINEAR C APACITOR D IODE
Selecting any of these components will prompt a similar series of tools to place the desired component into
the simulation space. The following sections will detail the definitions associated with these tools.

For more information about the discrete sources, refer to Section 7.2.

C IRCUIT C OMPONENTS are also added by right-clicking in the P ROJECT T REE as in Figure 7.2.

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Circuit Components, Waveguides, External Excitations and Voltage Points 109

Figure 7.2: Accessing the Component Tools dialog from the Project Tree

Connections tab

Discrete sources are placed along a cell edge on which the electric field is modified by the addition of some
type of input waveform. The X, Y and Z values defined in the C ONNECTIONS tab specify the location of
the desired cell edge in the mesh. Users may enter this data manually in the respective fields or use the
D ETATCH TOOL, P ICKER and M ODIFY tools to define the appropriate data points.

• D ETATCH TOOL: The Detach tool enables the user to detatch an endpoint of a discrete source
from the geometric object to which it is attached. This tool is only available if the user placed one
or both endpoint(s) with the Picker tool. When detatched from the object, the endpoint will not move
when the object moves or is modifed (changes in extrude length, for example.)

• P ICKER TOOL: The Picker tool provides an alternate way for the user to place a discrete source.
By associating an endpoint with a specific location on the geometry of a part, the discrete component
will move (expand or contract) if the part moves. To use the Picker Tool, click the icon by Endpoint
1 and place the first endpoint on the part. Then, click the icon by Endpoint 2 and place the second
endpoint on the part.

• M ODIFY TOOL: The Modify tool enables the user to exert pinpoint control over the location of the
discrete source. It contains two sections: Parameters and Offsets.

- Parameters: The Parameters section contains two sliders, U and V that enable the user to
make minute adjustments to the location of the endpoint of a discrete source in the x- and y-planes.

- Offsets: The Offsets section enables users to offset the endpoint of a discrete source for X, Y
and Z.

Figure 7.3: Editing component connections

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110 Circuit Components, Waveguides, External Excitations and Voltage Points

Properties tab

In the P ROPERTIES tab, the name of the component, direction, and polarity is defined. The component(s)
can be aligned with either the X -, Y - or Z -axes, by selecting X, Y or Z, respectively. Otherwise, the default
AUTO selection will automatically align the component based on E NDPOINT 1 and E NDPOINT 2 defined in
the C ONNECTIONS tab.

The user can include the component in the mesh or assign the component as a port by checking I NCLUDED
IN M ESH or T HIS COMPONENT IS A PORT , respectively. When the latter is selected, XFdtd will automatically
add a P ORT sensor at this location.

Keep in mind that a port that contains only passive components cannot be the active port.

If lumped reactive elements are used in an active port specification, the resulting S-Parameters,
though valid for the complex system impedances defined, will not correspond to the (usually 50 ohm-
based) S-Parameters that would be measured for the system on a network analyzer.

See Section 10.5 for more about port sensors and the data that they collect.

Clicking the A DVANCED button displays several additional controls that affect the generation of the com-
putational grid in the vicinity of the component. The E VENLY SPACED IN ORTHOGONAL DIRECTIONS check
box enforces locally uniform grid cell sizes at the location of the component in each of the two directions
perpendicular to the component in the mesh. For instance, if the component is Z-directed, enabling even
spacing will cause the X grid cell sizes to be equal and the Y grid cell sizes to be equal on all cells adjacent
to the component in the mesh. As this typically reduces the size of grid cells in the vicinity of the compo-
nent, it is unchecked by default and should be left off except in special cases. The E NABLE F IXED P OINT
ON E NDPOINT 1 and E NABLE F IXED P OINT ON E NDPOINT 2 checkboxes allow you to instruct the Grid to
pass X-, Y-, and Z-directed grid lines through the location of the given endpoint.

Figure 7.4 displays the P ROPERTIES tab for editing a feed.

Figure 7.4: Editing component properties

If a component is added before it is defined in the C IRCUIT C OMPONENT D EFINITION E DITOR, a

default definition will be created so that the component is valid. To edit its properties, double-click
on this default definition under the D EFINITIONS branch. Likewise, if the component requires a
waveform definition, a default definition will be added to this branch.

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Circuit Components, Waveguides, External Excitations and Voltage Points 111

7.1.2 Adding a Component Using an Existing Definition

The C REATE W ITH drop-down menu functions similarly to the C REATE W ITH N EW drop-down menu
described above except that a pre-existing component definition is applied to the component that is to be
added. For this reason, the C REATE W ITH menu is not active until a component definition has already
been created within the C REATE W ITH N EW dialog- it is a list all of the pre-existing component definitions
that have already been added to the project. This menu makes it easy to add identical components to a
project.

7.1.3 Component Visibility

XFdtd offers the user the ability to toggle the visibility of components. Unlike Materials, when a component
is set as invisible it is only hidden in the geometry space. It is not hidden in the mesh. To hide a component
from the mesh, un-mark the I NCLUDE IN M ESH checkbox.

To toggle the visibility of a component, right-click on the component in the P ROJECT T REE and select
either S ET V ISIBLE, or S ET I NVISIBLE, as seen in Figure 7.5.

Figure 7.5: Setting the visibility of a component

7.2 Circuit Component Definition Editor

The C IRCUIT C OMPONENT D EFINITION E DITOR is used to define the parameters associated with dis-
crete components. Components such as voltage sources, current sources, feeds, lumped resistors (R),
capacitors (C), inductors (L), diodes, nonlinear capacitors and switches are defined in this window.

It is important to recognize the purpose of the C OMPONENT TOOLS interface versus that of the C IRCUIT
C OMPONENT D EFINITION E DITOR. The former places the physical component into the project (and cre-
ates an object in the P ROJECT T REE that represents the actual component), while the latter creates a

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112 Circuit Components, Waveguides, External Excitations and Voltage Points

C IRCUIT C OMPONENT D EFINITION object for the parameters of that component (or components) that can
be used over and over again by dropping it onto multiple components.

The C IRCUIT C OMPONENT D EFINITION E DITOR is accessed by double-clicking on any object found in
D EFINITIONS : C IRCUIT C OMPONENT D EFINITIONS branch. Figure 7.6 shows the sample setup for a
feed. Note that the T YPE of component determines the diagram in the editor.

Figure 7.6: The Circuit Component Definition Editor

7.2.1 Passive Load

When a component with no source is desired, the user may create it by selecting PASSIVE L OAD. Passive
components include lumped resistors (R), inductors (L) and capacitors (C). Since passive lumped loads do
not radiate energy, they may be added to the calculation when either P LANE WAVE or G AUSSIAN B EAM
excitations are selected.

See Sections 7.5 and 7.6 for more about these excitations.

The RLC elements lumped at component locations can be combined in several configurations:

• The All Series configuration places a resistor, an inductor, and a capacitor in series. Each of these
RLC elements are optional, and can be removed (shorted) by setting the appropriate element pa-
rameter to 0. For instance, the series capacitor can be removed by entering a capacitance of 0 F,
resulting in a resistor in series with an inductor.

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Circuit Components, Waveguides, External Excitations and Voltage Points 113

• The All Parallel configuration places the resistor, inductor and capacitor in parallel with each other.
Each of these RLC elements are optional and can be removed by setting the appropriate element
parameter to 0. For instance, the parallel inductor can be removed by entering an inductance of 0
H, resulting in a resistor in parallel with a capacitor.

• The RL || C configuration places the series combination of resistor and inductor in parallel with
a capacitor. This arrangement may be useful for modelling a non-ideal inductor that includes the
effects of wire resistance and self-capacitance. In this configuration, none of the RLC elements are
optional, and all element parameters must be specified with values greater than zero.

The selected configuration is shown schematically in this window. Regardless of the configuration, the
resulting lumped impedance acts upon a single FDTD mesh edge.

There are two ways the RLC values can be specified. Both methods result in a single set of RLC values
being used for simulation. The first, a N ORMAL RLC specification, is appropriate when the equivalent circuit
can be represented as constant RLC values over all frequencies. Figure 7.7 shows a PASSIVE L OAD with
a N ORMAL RLC Specification.

Figure 7.7: Editing a normal load within the Circuit Component Definition Editor

The second specification method, S AMPLED, is intended to represent a component whose equivalent RLC
values are frequency dependent. The single set of RLC values to be used for simulation is determined by a
linear interpolation between the samples using an evaluation frequency. This frequency should be near the
middle of the frequency range of interest to match the impedance response as closely as possible for the
entire band. If the characteristic impedance of the circuit using interpolated RLC values varies significantly
over the frequency range of interest, the use of multiple sinusoidal runs instead of a single broadband run
is recommended to ensure validity of results. Figure 7.8 shows a PASSIVE L OAD with a S AMPLED RLC
specification.

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114 Circuit Components, Waveguides, External Excitations and Voltage Points

Figure 7.8: Editing a sampled load within the Circuit Component Definition Editor

Note on displacement current and lumped elements

There are physical limitations to the lumped element approximation in FDTD. Each FDTD mesh cell in-
cludes a volume of free space. That free space volume has capacitance, and a displacement current
flows through it. If a lumped RLC element is specified that results in a high impedance, the free space
displacement current may be significant relative to the current through the lumped elements in XFdtd. In
this situation, if the displacement current is neglected, the result is non-physical and Maxwell’s equations
cannot be satisfied. So for lumped element calculations, the displacement current is included even though
the corresponding mesh cell capacitance is not indicated on the port circuit schematic.

To determine the relative significance of the displacement current, one can calculate the capacitance
∆x ∆y
of the FDTD mesh cell. For a Z -directed component, the capacitance of the cell is given by ,
∆z
where ∆x , ∆y , and ∆z are the mesh cell dimensions and  the permittivity of the material at that
F
cell location, usually that of free space, 8.854e-12 .
m
This is discussed on page 192 of the Kunz and Luebbers FDTD book [1].

As long as the impedance of this mesh cell capacitor is large compared with the impedance of the RLC
lumped element circuit, its inclusion in the XFdtd calculation has a negligible effect. If the RLC lumped
element circuit has an impedance comparable or larger than the mesh cell capacitance, then the inclusion
of this capacitance keeps the result stable and physically correct.

For calculating impedances, a frequency corresponding to the sine wave frequency or the highest
frequency of interest within the spectrum of the excitation waveform should be used.
µ∆
Similarly, a lumped inductor should not be less than the inductance of the FDTD cell, given by 4 ,
where µ is the permeability of that point in space and ∆ is the mesh cell length in the direction of
the inductor.

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Circuit Components, Waveguides, External Excitations and Voltage Points 115

7.2.2 Feed

An active source, or F EED, usually refers to an active component together with any passive components
at the same cell edge. An active component is a cell edge on which the electric field is modified by the
addition of some type of input waveform. Voltage and current sources are active components.

Series and Parallel configurations of RLC components are available in conjunction with a voltage or current
source. The choice of Series or Parallel for RLC Arrangement affects only the configuration of the RLC
elements, and not their relation to the source. As such, the (series or parallel) RLC load is always in series
with a voltage source or in parallel with a current source.

The amplitude of the source’s input waveform may be specified here, as well as the polarity. The phase of
the source may be specified if the input waveform is a sinusoid. Otherwise this option will be unavailable.

The amplitudes specified for all voltage and current sources are peak values, not RMS.

A time delay may also be specified for voltage and current sources when a AUTOMATIC, G AUSSIAN,
G AUSSIAN D ERIVATIVE or M ODULATED G AUSSIAN waveform is used. The time delay is specified in
timesteps and is applied to the beginning of the source waveform. For example, if a time delay of 200
timesteps is specified for a given source port, the input waveform at that port will begin 200 timesteps later
than the defined waveform. This functionality allows for any number of Gaussian excitations to be applied
at different times throughout a simulation.

The voltage across the FDTD mesh edge (electric field times edge length) and the FDTD mesh edge
current include the effects of both the RLC components at that mesh edge and the voltage/current source.
This is illustrated in Figure 7.9 for a voltage source, Vs , in series with a source resistance, Rs . The
voltage across the FDTD mesh edge is determined by the voltage source in combination with the source
resistance, so that the mesh edge voltage differs from the source voltage by the voltage drop across the
source resistance.

Figure 7.9: Feed schematic, including FDTD mesh edge voltage, V, and current, I

7.2.2.1 Multiple Voltage and/or Current Sources

For calculations with multiple voltage and/or current sources, such as antenna arrays or multi-port S-
Parameter calculations, multiple feeds may be specified. They are specified in the S IMULATIONS
workspace window before the calculation is run.

For more about setting up an S-Parameter simulation, see Section 11.1.1.

For antenna calculations, all feeds are normally excited; however, for S-Parameter calculations only one
feed can be excited for a particular XFdtd calculation. For broadband feeds, each source function must

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have the same pulse width but may have different amplitudes. Alternatively, they may all use the same
user-supplied file of voltage versus time. The polarity can be adjusted by clicking the desired button.
This may be useful in controlling the sign of the phase terms in S-Parameter calculations. For each feed,
independent source resistances may be specified. For sinusoidal excitations, each feed can be specified
with a different magnitude and phase.

7.2.2.2 Specifying the Source Resistance

For most XFdtd calculations, active sources will consist of a voltage source with a series source resistance.
This is the default configuration for feeds. The default value for the source resistance is 50 Ω , since that is
the most common reference. If an S-Parameter calculation is made, the S-Parameters will be in reference
to the port resistance.

S-Parameters can be calculated for any reference impedance by changing the value of the resistance
at each port.

If the value of the source resistance is not determined by the desired S-Parameter reference, then for most
calculations the source resistance should be chosen to match the structure being driven. This will strongly
excite the structure and also dissipate resonances most efficiently. For example, for a microstrip with 50 Ω
characteristic impedance, a source resistance of 50 Ω would typically be a good choice.

For antenna calculations, determining a good approximation to an actual antenna feed is not always simple.
Many antennas are fed with coaxial cable. For most XFdtd calculations the coaxial cable itself need not be
meshed because it is only used to feed the antenna, and the fields inside of it are not of primary interest.
The simplest approach to simulating this is to locate a port in line with the center conductor of the coaxial
cable where the cable is connected to the antenna. The impedance calculated by XFdtd will then be at this
point in the antenna.

The port resistance typically should be set equal to the characteristic impedance of the coaxial cable
used to feed the physical antenna. This will automatically refer S-Parameters to this resistance value.

To reduce the number of timesteps needed for the transients to dissipate for broadband calculations, include
a source resistance equal to the characteristic impedance of the coaxial cable being approximated. This is
similar to driving an actual circuit or antenna using a matched source.

For some situations, it is desirable to match a voltage or current source to a reactive load. In this situation,
the RLC capabilities of XFdtd components can be utilized.

If the coaxial cable or other feed geometry is important to the calculation, XFdtd may be used to mesh the
cable itself. In this situation it is important to determine the characteristic impedance of the coaxial cable
as meshed, and to match the port resistance to the characteristic impedance.

Another important advantage to including a source resistance is reducing the number of FDTD timesteps
necessary for convergence of the electromagnetic calculation. This is especially important for resonant
devices, such as many antenna and microstrip circuits. With a “hard” source consisting of a voltage source
without series resistance, a resonant microstrip antenna may require 64,000 timesteps for the transients to
dissipate. The addition of a source resistance might reduce this to 4,000 timesteps. Similar time savings
may be encountered for microwave circuits.

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7.2.3 Diode

A D IODE can be defined by specifying the following:

• S ATURATION C URRENT (Is )

• J UNCTION P OTENTIAL (Vj )
• D EPLETION C APACITANCE at zero bias (Cj0 )
• the sum of T RANSIT T IME (τd ) for holes and electrons
• E MISSION C OEFFICIENT (n)
• junction G RADING C OEFFICIENT (m)
• the F ORWARD C OEFFICIENT (F C ), which determines when the junction is heavily forward biased
For stability consideration, voltages applied to the diode should not exceed 15 volts.

Further information regarding the FDTD diode formulation may be found in [13].

Figure 7.10 shows editing dialog for a D IODE within the C IRCUIT C OMPONENT D EFINITION E DITOR.

Figure 7.10: Editing a diode within the Circuit Component Definition Editor

7.2.4 Nonlinear Capacitor

The N ON - LINEAR C APACITOR contains parameters which correspond to the following equation:

C1 − C2
C = C2 +
| V | −Vs 2 | V | −Vs 4 | V | −Vs 6
1 + a1 ( ) + a2 ( ) + a3 ( )
V0 V0 V0
where

C is instantaneous cell edge capacitance

V is instantaneous cell edge voltage

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C1 is static (low | V | ) capacitance

C2 is infinite | V | capacitance
Vs is voltage magnitude
V0 is a scaling voltage
a1 , a2 and a3 are coefficients
A non-linear capacitor may be combined with a parallel resistor.

Figure 7.11 shows editing dialog for a N ON - LINEAR C APACITOR within the C IRCUIT C OMPONENT D EF -
INITION E DITOR .

Figure 7.11: Editing a nonlinear capacitor within the Circuit Component Definition Editor

7.2.5 Switch

A special feature of XFdtd is its ability to include timed and programmable S WITCH components. This
allows a change in the configuration of the geometry during a calculation. Any number of switches may
be introduced into the geometry, with each switch being specified as a separate component. Switch states
may be changed only once during a calculation.

The initial state of the switch, whether open or closed, may be specified as well as the timestep where
the switching action begins. The switching action is spread over a variable number of timesteps to reduce
switching transients. The switch transition should on the order of 60 timesteps.

To define the properties of the switch, select O PEN or C LOSED to define the switch’s initial state in the
C IRCUIT C OMPONENT D EFINITION E DITOR. Press to add a transition and define the S TART T IME,
D URATION and T RANSITION type of the switch by double-clicking on the default values provided in the chart
in the editor.

Figure 7.12 shows editing dialog for a multiple transition S WITCH within the C IRCUIT C OMPONENT
D EFINITION E DITOR.

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Figure 7.12: Editing a switch within the Circuit Component Definition Editor

A switch may be programmed to allow multiple open/close transitions during a simulation by adding sub-
sequent entries to this initial definition. A switch transition consists of the timestep at which the switch will
activate and the duration (in timesteps) that the Gaussian switching function will be applied. Simply click
the button found above the definitions chart to add one or more switch transitions and define the S TART
T IME and D URATION that the transition will occur. The transition type will be automatically generated based
on the start time of each transition. Furthermore, the S ORT button will automatically sort the transition from
the earliest to latest occurring state.

During the switch transition, the electric field at the switch is changed from the open switch value to zero
when closed (or vice versa) following a Gaussian function. This method provides stability for the XFdtd
calculation. In order to apply the Gaussian switching function, the value of the electric field at the switch
location is first calculated as if the switch were not present. This value is then multiplied by the Gaussian
function with the appropriate argument based on the time since the switch state was changed. For a closed
switch, the multiplier is zero, for an open switch it is one, and for intermediate times during the transition
the value is that for the normalized Gaussian function. For this reason, the function of the switch depends
on the material that exists at the mesh location. Usually this is free space, but it might also be dielectric.

The use of timed switches is for situations where only the actual transient results directly calculated by
XFdtd are of interest. The introduction of the switching action violates the assumptions of linear system
theory, so that applying Fourier transformations to the transient results produced in an XFdtd calculation
with one or more switches which change state will not result in valid impedances, S-Parameters, steady-
state far-zone fields or other results involving Fourier transformation, even if the transient results finally
decay to zero. Broadband far-zone fields will be valid, however.

7.3 Waveguide Tools

The waveguide tools provide methods for adding a matched termination and modal ports to waveguides.
Here we use the broad definition of a waveguide as a structure which guides waves, including the classic
conducting pipe ([14, ch. 8], [15, ch. 8] and many others), coplanar waveguide, coaxial and differential
transmission line, stripline, and microstrip. Figure 7.13 shows three of many types of waveguides. These

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structures could be built with the G EOMETRY TOOLS (Section 5) or imported from CAD. They would
appear under the Parts branch of the P ROJECT T REE.

(a) Coax (b) Microstrip (c) Rectangular Waveguide

Figure 7.13: Some Guided Wave Structures

The WAVEGUIDE E DITOR described in this section defines an interface for a waveguide, usually placed
near an end of a waveguide structure to act as a matched termination for the waveguide and to optionally
contain one or more ports, which can excite specific modes and act as sensors for those modes. Each
port is associated with a chosen mode of the waveguide, but an interface can have more than one port.
Modes are found by an Eigensolver by treating the cross section of the waveguide at the interface as if it
were part of an infinitely long structure of that cross section. Waveguides may be excited by signals from
discrete voltage or current sources which are described in Component Tools (7.1), or at their boundaries
with specified modes using the waveguide ports described in the Waveguide Port Specification Tab (7.3.4)
in this section. See section (7.4) for information on which type of excitation port to use in a particular
situation. Note that waveguide ports are modal, i.e. specific to a specified mode and discrete components
are nodal, i.e. specific to the location regardless of what mode(s) are incident on them, and that discrete
ports and waveguide ports cannot be used together in the computation of S-Parameters.

(a) Magic Tee with Interfaces (b) Waveguide Interface

Figure 7.14: Magic Tee and Waveguide Interface

As an example of how waveguide interfaces might be used, Figure 7.14a shows a magic tee with waveg-
uide interfaces, shown in red or green, at all four terminals. As shown in Figure 7.14b the interface is a
rectangular region with an inner and outer face. The inner face should face the waveguide structure. En-
ergy incident on the inner face will be absorbed, so the interface will act as a matched termination to the

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waveguide. Also, if this interface contains one or more ports which are used to excite chosen modes of the
waveguide, the excitation will proceed in the propagation direction, which is the direction into the waveg-
uide, as shown by the arrow. The outer face appears as a perfect conductor to the rest of the problem
space, so energy external to the waveguide will not enter the waveguide through the interface.

To access the WAVEGUIDE E DITOR, double-click on an existing WAVEGUIDE object in the

WAVEGUIDES branch of the P ROJECT T REE, or right-click on the branch to create a N EW
WAVEGUIDE I NTERFACE. The editor will open at the top of the G EOMETRY W ORKSPACE W INDOW, and
consists of a P ROPERTIES tab, a G EOMETRY tab, a B OUNDARIES tab, and a P ORT S PECIFICATION tab.

7.3.1 Waveguide Properties Tab

Figure 7.15: The Waveguide Tools Dialog with Properties Tab Selected

This tab allows some basic properties about the waveguide interface to be defined.

Name User-defined name.

Enable If not enabled, this interface will not be part of computations and will not act as a termination
or port. Unchecking Enable is a convenient way to effectively remove an interface from a project
without deleting it, so that it is available to be used later.

Use Fixed Point Add a fixed point at the interface in the direction of propagation (normal to interface).

Impedance Type Type of impedance computation, Zvi, Zpv, or Zpi. The impedance of modes in a waveg-
uide can depend on how the impedance is defined. Three methods are available in XFdtd: Zvi is
a voltage and current definition, Zpv a power and voltage definition, and Zpi a power and current
definition. Definitions which use voltage require the specification of an impedance line. These meth-
ods, and the use of an impedance line, are explained further in the Port Specification Tab subsection
(7.3.4). The default choice should be good for most basic situations. After the simulation is complete,
this impedance will be available in the results browser entries for this waveguide port.

Active Allows ports (see Subsection 7.3.4) to be active. Uncheck this to use this waveguide interface as
a termination only.

Amplitude Peak amplitude of the associated waveform

Phase Shift Phase shift to be applied to the associated waveform, if the waveform is sinusoidal

Time Delay Time delay to be applied to the associated waveform.

Waveform Associated waveform definition, selects the waveform to be used if a port is defined that excites
the waveguide.

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7.3.2 Waveguide Geometry Tab

Figure 7.16: The Waveguide Geometry Tab

Use this tab to position and size the interface rectangle within the problem space. The waveguide interface
is a planar rectangle transverse to the propagation directions of the waveguide, as shown in Figure 7.14b.
The rectangle is defined by choosing its center, orientation (via the propagation direction), and extent. The
buttons to the right of the center point are similar to some of those of the Geometry Orientation Tab (5.5)
and provide for mouse selection of the center point, and attachment and offset of the interface to an object
in the geometry, such as the waveguide structure. Here attachment means that the interface will change
location to follow the part it is attached to, if that part is moved to a different location in the geometry. Note
that the center point does not have to be the actual center of the waveguide cross section — center point
and extensions are just used to locate the interface rectangle.

Figure 7.17: Interface Rectangle with Local (u, v) Coordinate System

The propagation direction defines the orientation of the interface rectangle, either normal to x, y , or z . It
also determines which of the two faces of the interface rectangle is the inner and which is the outer, the
inner being in the propagation direction. Select the direction that points into the waveguide structure. Of
course, the energy inside the waveguide may propagate in either direction. If this interface has one or
more ports which are used to excite the waveguide, the excitation will proceed in the specified propagation
direction. Energy incident on the inner face of the interface will be absorbed. Energy incident on the outer
face of the interface will encounter a perfect conductor. Setting the propagation direction also causes a
local (u, v) coordinate system to be assigned to the interface, parallel to the edges of the interface and
normal to the direction of propagation, P , as shown in Figure 7.17.

The rectangle’s center point and extent should be chosen to position the rectangle so that it encloses most
of the energy in the waveguide. For waveguides which have conducting boundaries on all transverse sides,
such as rectangular, circular, and coaxial, the interface size is fairly simple: it should enclose the waveguide
fields completely. Since the interface rectangle will appear as a conductor on its outer face and an absorber

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on its inner face, it is a good idea to not make it much larger than it needs to be to enclose the energy of
the guide. Figure 7.18 shows how this might look for a rectangular waveguide.

(a) Correct (b) Correct, but overly large (c) Incorrect

Figure 7.18: Geometry of Interface for Rectangular Waveguide

For waveguides that have one or more open sides, the required size of the interface is not as obvious,
though it should be large enough to enclose the largest fields so that it may properly terminate the waveg-
uide and so that modes may be properly computed. Figure 7.19 shows the E -field typical for the quasi-TEM
mode around a microstrip. The field tends to be strongest between the microstrip and the ground plane,
and near the corners of the microstrip. The waveguide interface should be chosen to encompass the area
of the strongest fields.

Figure 7.19: Quasi-TEM Mode E -Field around a Microstrip

The four outer edges of the interface are treated as perfect conductor, causing the tangential fields to
approach zero near the outer edges in the field solution, as explained further in the description of the
Boundaries Tab (7.3.3). If the interface is too small it may not be possible to compute the desired mode
with good accuracy. If the interface is too large, additional nonphysical modes may be produced. For
example, consider a microstrip with a conducting boundary around it. The interface and microstrip form a
rectangular guide with an offset center conductor. This structure will have additional modes not present in
a simple microstrip. The cutoff frequency for some of these modes will decrease as the size of the interface

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increases. For a small interface, the unwanted modes may have a cutoff frequency above the frequency
range of interest and they will not be found, but a larger interface may have unwanted modes with cutoff
frequencies in or below the frequency range of interest. Finding the best size is a balancing act:

Interface too small May not have “enough space” to set up the desired mode properly,

Interface too large May have unwanted modes, may interfere with the surrounding geometry.

Figures 7.20 – 7.21 give recommended minimum sizes for the interface rectangle for some common struc-
tures based on empirical results. For other open-ended structures, keeping the interface sides 5 x (max-
imum structure dimension) from the structure is a fairly conservative first choice. One can verify that an
interface is large enough by viewing the fields for the chosen mode and seeing that the fields do indeed
drop off significantly by the time they reach the outer edges of the interface.

Figure 7.20a shows the interface for a microstrip with w ≈ h. As w becomes small compared with h, the
most intense fields tend to stay near the vertical space above and below the trace. If w > h, the horizontal
dimension of the interface may need to be increased to around 10w .

Figure 7.20b shows the interface for a stripline. The lower value of the interface width is for w ≤ h. The
height of the interface should be set so that the horizontal sides of the interface are in the metal ground
plane.

(a) Microstrip (b) Stripline

Figure 7.20: Interface Size Guidelines for Microstrip and Stripline

Figures 7.21a and 7.21b show the interface for grounded and ungrounded co-planar waveguides. For the
grounded case the lower horizontal edge of the interface is in the ground plane. For the ungrounded case,
the interface extends the same distance below and above the plane of the conductors.

(a) Co-planar Waveguide with Ground (b) Co-planar Waveguide

Figure 7.21: Interface Size Guidelines for Co-planar Waveguide

7.3.3 Waveguide Boundaries Tab

The outer four edges of the interface are treated as a perfect conductor by the Eigensolver. The user can
select whether each boundary is perfect electrical conductor (PEC) or perfect magnetic conductor (PMC).

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Figure 7.22: The Waveguide Boundaries Tab

Waveguides with conducting material on all transverse sides, such as classic rectangular and circular
guides, will have near-zero fields at their edges so the boundary conditions from this tab will have minimal
effect on the problem. However, in some open-sided waveguides the choice of boundary type may allow a
more compact interface rectangle to be used.

For example, Figure 7.23 shows the E -field typical for the quasi-TEM mode around a microstrip with a
possible location of the interface rectangle drawn in green. In this case the horizontal sides of the interface
are u-directed and the vertical sides are v -directed. We wish the fields to be very close to zero along
the edges of the interface, but due to the open-sides of the microstrip this is possible for only the lower
horizontal edge, which is in the ground plane. The other edges are located away from the microstrip so that
the fields there are small, but size constraints often means that we do not want the interface rectangle to be
too large, so we must strike a balance between small size and performance, as discussed in the previous
section (7.3.2). In the figure, the E -field along the vertical sides is strongest just above the air-dielectric
boundary. At this point E is mostly tangential to vertical sides and H (not shown) is mostly normal to
them. The PMC boundary type best satisfies this condition, so the vertical (v ) sides should be set to PMC.
The strongest E along the top horizontal boundary is directly over the microstrip and is mostly normal to
the top boundary at this point (H tangential). The PEC boundary type best satisfies this for the horizontal
axis, so the upper u boundary should be set to PEC. The lower horizontal boundary is in the conducting
ground plane and will have near-zero fields so that boundary type is of little importance. For this case, we
recommend leaving that boundary set to PEC.

Here are some recommended choices for the other structures of Figures 7.20 – 7.21. Stripline: vertical
PMC, horizontal PEC (in conductor). Co-planer with and without ground: vertical PEC, horizontal PEC. For
other structures, if you are not sure of the field configuration at the interface edges an Eigen solution can
be performed (see the next section, 7.3.4). on a large interface and the fields viewed from that solution. In
general, the larger the interface, the smaller the fields at the edge of the interface and the less impact the
boundary type choice will have.

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Figure 7.23: Quasi-TEM Mode E -Field around a Microstrip with Proposed Waveguide Interface

7.3.4 Waveguide Port Specification Tab

Figure 7.24: The Waveguide Port Specification Tab without a Defined Port

This tab allows the user to create ports corresponding to particular modes for the waveguide. Unlike circuit
components, which may have only one port associated with them, a waveguide may have multiple ports.
Each port is associated with a particular waveguide mode and will be part of the S-Parameter matrix, if
S-Parameters are being computed. When a port is active, it will excite its corresponding mode in the
waveguide.

If the waveguide interface has no ports, it will still act as a matched termination for energy flowing out of
the waveguide structure.

When ports are present, an Eigensolver finds each requested mode by assuming that the waveguide cross
section is part of an infinitely long structure of that cross section. XAct materials are not allowed within
the interface rectangle, though they may appear in other parts of the waveguide. Also, the Eigensolver
assumes the objects are lossless and does not account for dispersive, nonlinear, or magnetic materials.
Once the modes are found, the mode distribution of the active port is applied to the interface to excite the
problem.

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(a) TE10 Mode (b) TE20 Mode

Figure 7.25: Short Straight Rectangular Waveguide

Each port launches and acts as a sensor for a particular mode, selected by the user. Consider the simple
example of a straight rectangular waveguide of Figure 7.25 with waveguide interfaces at each end. Each
interface has two ports defined. One port at each interface excites/senses the TE10 mode, as shown in
Figure 7.25a and the other the TE20 mode, as shown in Figure 7.25b. For convenience, call one end of
the waveguide the “source” and the the other end the “load”. The port numbers are assigned as follows,
where fc is the cutoff frequency of the mode:

port mode fc location

1 TE10 10 GHz source end
2 TE20 19.95 GHz source end
3 TE10 10 GHz load end
4 TE20 19.95 GHz load end

Figure 7.26a shows S-Parameters for the case of the TE10 mode active at the source end (port 1). Most of
the energy arrives still in the TE10 mode at the other end of the guide (S31) and a small amount is reflected
back to the excitation port (S11). Almost no energy is detected at either of the TE20 ports (S21 and S41)
because this uniform structure contains no discontinuities which might transfer some of the energy from
one mode to other modes. Figure 7.26b shows the corresponding case for the TE20 mode (port 2) active
— and in this case almost all of the energy stays in the TE20 mode.

(a) Port 1 (TE10 ) Active (b) Port 2 (TE20 ) Active

Figure 7.26: S-Parameters for Rectangular Waveguide

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Figure 7.27: Time-domain E Field in Rectangular Waveguide with Off-center Metal Post

(a) Port 1 (TE10 ) Active (b) Port 2 (TE20 ) Active

Figure 7.28: S-Parameters for Rectangular Waveguide with Post

Next the problem is modified slightly by adding a metal post off-center in the waveguide, as shown in Figure
7.27. This discontinuity will cause some of the energy from the excited mode to couple into other modes
as required to satisfy boundary conditions. The simulation is re-run for the new geometry, giving the S-
Parameter results of Figure 7.28. In Figure 7.28a, the excitation is by port 1 (TE10 mode) and in Figure
7.28b, the excitation is by port 2 (TE20 mode). Notice from the S-Parameter plots that for either case there
is now significant energy in both modes.

7.3.4.1 Simple procedure for lowest order mode with no integration line

To add a port to a waveguide interface for the special, but common, case of a single port which uses the
lowest order mode of the waveguide with no rotational symmetry and no need for an integration line the
following four steps from the Port Specification tab will suffice:

1. Click to add a port to the interface. Set its name, if desired.

2. Enter the Evaluation Frequency, a frequency within the expected operating range of the waveguide.

3. Select “Compute Modes” to compute the modes for that frequency with the Eigensolver. If the
Evaluation Frequency is above the lowest waveguide mode cutoff frequency, results for mode 0
should be displayed in the geometry window for the waveguide.

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4. Click Apply or Done to accept this port.

7.3.4.2 More detailed explanation

Figure 7.29: The Wavegude Port Specification Tab with Some Regions Marked

Figure 7.29 shows the Port Specification tab divided into 4 regions.

Region 1 The controls in region 1 allow ports to be added, named, deleted, and selected in various ways.
A port that is checked will be part of the simulation and may be set as the active port when a simulation is
created. If it is not checked, it will be ignored by the simulation. One port will be shown in bold face, “port
1” in this case, indicating that this port is the default and will be active if S-Parameters are not computed.
Right-click on a port and select Make Default to make this port the default port. A port that is selected,
such as “port 3” in this case (highlighted in blue), is the one for which modes will be displayed in region 3
once the Compute Modes button in region 2 is pressed. Click on a port to select it.

Region 2 The Evaluation Frequency is entered and mode computation performed from region 2. The
modes will be evaluated for all ports in this interface at the Evaluation Frequency by the Eigensolver. If the
Evaluation Frequency is below the cutoff frequency of a mode, that mode will not be displayed. The mode
will be configured for the distribution at the Evaluation Frequency. For some modes, such as modes in
heterogeneous waveguides, the distribution changes slightly with frequency. Best results will be obtained
at the Evaluation Frequency.

Figure 7.30: Port Information Area (Region 3) for a Transmission Line, including Zline

Region 3 This region contains mode information about the selected port, once computed, and allows
specification of an integration line, explained below. The modes are ranked by increasing integers starting
at 0 for the lowest order mode. The waveguide can be any arbitrary 2-D shape, not just rectangular or

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circular. In general, the convenience of indexing modes by (x, y ) or (r , θ ) coordinates, such as TE10 or
TM21 , does not apply to arbitrary shapes, hence the ranking by sequential nonnegative integers. For cases
such as rectangular or circular, it is straightforward to identify the indexed mode from the cutoff frequency
and from the field pattern in region 4. The following information is displayed for the selected mode:

Type The “Type” can be TE for transverse electric, TM for transverse magnetic, TEM for
transverse electric and magnetic, quasi-TEM for quasi transverse electric and magnetic
(such as a microstrip), or EH for mixed modes with both TE and TM components.

Fc The cutoff frequency (fc ), or lowest propagating frequency, of this mode.

Beta Propagation constant (β ) of this mode in the waveguide.

Zwave Wave impedance is the ratio of the transverse components of the electric and mag-
P |Et (f )|
netic fields in the waveguide. It is computed by cells |H (f )| in the plane of the port,
t
where Et (f ) and Ht (f ) are the transverse components of E and H , and f is the
evaluation frequency.

Zline Line impedance is computed when a transmission line is detected by XFdtd, which
means that two or more unattached conductors are found in the port. Examples include
microstrip, stripline, coax, and differential pairs. Figure 7.30 shows Region 3 for the
P (f )
case of a microstrip, showing Zline . It is computed from Zline = I 2t (f ) , where Pt is
the frequency-domain forward power and I(f ) is the frequency-domain forward current
for the port.

The Integration Line is a line along which voltage will be computed if the impedance type from the Prop-
erties tab (7.3.1) is set to “Zvi” or “Zpv”. The Integration Line is also used to orient some modes when the
waveguide cross section has a rotational symmetry, such as a square or circular waveguide. To use an
integration line, click to check the “Use Integration Line” check box which will enable the Integration Line
tab, where the line can be defined by choosing its endpoints, p1 and p2 . These are chosen in a way that
is very similar to picking the endpoints for a discrete component, as covered in subsection (7.1.1), “Adding
a New Component”. As with a discrete component, the direction of the line is important. The positive
zero-phase direction will be set so that E points from endpoint 2 (p2 ) to endpoint 1 (p1 ).

Integration line for voltage computation In circuit theory, impedance may be calculated in several ways,
three of which are:

V (f )V ∗ (f )
Zpv (f ) = ,
2P (f )
V (f )
Zvi (f ) = ,
I(f )
2P (f )
Zpi (f ) = ,
I(f )I ∗ (f )

where P (f ), V (f ), and I(f ) are complex frequency-domain power, voltage, and current, and A∗ indi-
cates the complex conjugate of A. In circuit theory Zpv = Zvi = Zpi . To extend these definitions to
waveguides, let P (f ) → Pt (f ) be the power flow through the transverse cross section of the guide and
I(f ) the total current flow. Pt (f ) and I(f ) are thus well defined. The usual way to obtain voltage, V (f ),

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is to integrate the E field along an integration line in the transverse plane of the waveguide between ter-
minals, sides, or nodes of the guide. The Integration Line in region 3 defines this path for the computation
of V (f ), and must be defined to compute Zpv or Zvi . Note that V (f ) is path-dependant and, in general,
Zpv 6= Zvi 6= Zpi in waveguide theory. The path is usually chosen to be the straight line path that gives
maximum voltage, such as between the centers of the long sides of the guide for the TE10 mode in a
rectangular guide.

A good, and more thorough, discussion of modal impedance in waveguides can be found in [16] and [17],
in addition to the many books on waveguide theory.

(a) Default mode orientation (b) Desired mode rotation angle θ

Figure 7.31: TE11 mode E field in a waveguide port of a circular waveguide

Integration line for mode orientation In certain cases where the waveguide cross section contains a
rotational symmetry, such as in a square or circular waveguide, it may be possible for a mode to exist
in more than one orientation. For example, Figure 7.31a shows the TE11 mode in a circular waveguide.
Define desired orientation angle, θ , for the mode relative to the positive direction of the u axis, as shown in
Figure 7.31b. θ can vary from 0 to 2π (or really, any θ ∈ R) without changing mode type or β , fc , or Zwave
for the mode. This ambiguity is a type of mode degeneracy. In a circular waveguide, the Eigensolver may
produce two solutions for the mode. XFdtd will attempt to orient the mode so that the strongest E field is
parallel to the u-axis. If another orientation is desired, the impedance line can be used to orient the mode
within the waveguide. In Figure 7.32 an integration line is used to orient the mode at an angle of 30◦ from
the u-axis. The direction of the line, i.e. which end is p1 and which is p2 , determines the positive direction
of the fields, so it is important to define impedance lines consistently for like modes in each interface if
S-Parameters are being computed.

Region 4 When modes are successfully computed, they are shown in the Geometry View located at the
waveguide. In region 4, the field “E” or “H” may be selected as well as the x, y , or z component of the
selected field or the full vector (all 3 components). “Scaling” controls the size of the vectors shown in the
display.

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132 Circuit Components, Waveguides, External Excitations and Voltage Points

(a) Location of the integration line (b) E field of oriented TE11 mode.

Figure 7.32: Integration line used to orient the TE11 mode of a circular waveguide

7.4 Discrete Ports or Waveguide Ports?

Discrete ports and waveguide ports each provide a means to excite a geometry at a specific location in
the problem space and to sense signals at their locations, providing port and feed related information such
as S Parameters, input impedance, group delay, powers, efficiencies, etc. Discrete components, which are
explained in the Components Tools section (7.1), use a voltage or current source to excite a cell edge that
is usually connected between parts of the geometry, such as between a microstrip and ground plane, or
two terminals of an antenna. Waveguide ports, which are explained in the Waveguide Tools section (7.3),
excite a particular mode in a guided wave structure. General information about ports is provided in the Port
Sensors section (10.5). Often both methods will give good results.

(a) Discrete Port (b) Waveguide Port

Figure 7.33: A Discrete Port and a Waveguide Port Feeds with a Microstrip

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Each discrete port will consist of a voltage or current source, possibly combined with one or more other
discrete components such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors, located at a single point in the problem
space, and often connected between conductors. Figure 7.33a shows how a discrete port might be used
to feed a microstrip line. In many cases one needs to excite a structure where it is neither necessary nor
desirable to include a guided wave feed. Examples include exciting an antenna or filter directly at it’s input,
as shown in Figure 7.34 for a bowtie antenna. In this case a discrete port is clearly the most straightforward
choice.

Figure 7.34: A bowtie antenna fed directly by a resistive voltage source

Figure 7.35: TE21 mode E field in a waveguide port of a circular waveguide

A waveguide port consists of a rectangular region, usually at or near an end of a guided wave structure,
surrounding the cross section of the waveguide. Figure 7.33b shows the same microstrip with a waveguide
port instead of a discrete feed. Waveguide ports allow the user to select a particular mode, say the funda-
mental quasi-TEM mode in the case of a microstrip, and excite that mode specifically (see the discussion
of ports in the Waveguide Port Specification Tab subsection, 7.3.4). Fields in the rectangular port region
are set to correspond to the selected mode. For example, Figure 7.35 shows a waveguide port exciting
the TE21 mode in a circular waveguide. Waveguide ports give more control over the mode excited (and
detected). One could excite a given mode in a waveguide with discrete components via voltage stubs
or current loops, but a waveguide port is usually simpler. Also, a waveguide port will distribute the fields
specifically for the selected mode so energy at other modes will, in general, be much less than for the stub

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134 Circuit Components, Waveguides, External Excitations and Voltage Points

or current loop method. A waveguide port is usually the best choice for exciting a particular mode when
more than one mode may propagate.

For cases where only one mode will propagate and both methods excite that mode fairly efficiently, the
best method may depend on the type of problem. Returning to the microstrip of Figure 7.33, both methods
will excite the microstrip well. The discrete feed is obviously more compact. If the geometry is crowded,
such as inside a mobile phone, the discrete feed may make more sense. To see when the waveguide
feed may be necessary we need to look at the performance of the two feed types. The quasi-TEM mode
of operation typical for a microstrip has field magnitudes in a cross section as shown in Figure 7.23. A
waveguide port excites this pattern closely over the area covered by the port. A discrete feed simply
applies a voltage difference between the microstrip and its ground plane. Since, usually, the quasi-TEM
is the only propagating mode, the correct field distribution for the mode is achieved a very short distance
along the microstrip from the feed. This small discrepancy causes a slight reflection from the discrete port
that may be 30 to 40 dB below the input signal. A waveguide port at its evaluation frequency (see the

Figure 7.36: S Parameters for a Microstrip with a Waveguide Port at Each End

waveguide port discussion in subsection 7.3.4) usually has less reflection and can have a return loss “floor”
of -60 to -70 dB. Figure 7.36 shows the return loss for a 50Ω microstrip with a waveguide port exciting
one end and another waveguide port acting as a matched termination at the other end. The evaluation
frequency for both ports is 20 GHz.

In both cases the tiny loss of forward-going energy has very little impact on the energy received at other
ports from the excitation port, fields in the problem space other than those reflected to the excitation port,
efficiency, power dissipated and radiated, Specific Absorption Rate (SAR), far-zone pattern, etc. It may be
important, though, if very low return loss is anticipated from the excitation port, for example, measuring S11
from a coaxial connector. For many applications, such as antenna and PCB applications, both methods will
give comparable results. For example, Figure 7.37 shows S11 for a three-band antenna similar to [18] next
to the Specific Anthropomorphic Mannequin (SAM) head simulated once with a discrete port and once with
a waveguide port. The S11 computed by each method are quite similar. Figures 7.38 and 7.39 show SAR
statistics for the SAM head with 1 Watt delivered power computed by both methods and Figures 7.40 and
7.41 compare the total far-zone radiation pattern for both methods. Again, the results are very close.

Following are some general guidelines for each type of port.

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(a) Geometry (b) S11 for Discrete Port and Waveguide Port

Figure 7.37: A Triple-Band Slot Antenna Near the SAM Head

Figure 7.38: SAR Statistics for Triple-Band Slot Antenna Near the SAM Head with a Waveguide Port

Discrete ports recommended when:

• Using a microstrip or stripline with no need to measure return loss below -40dB,
• Geometry is crowded near the desired feed point, such as in a mobile phone or portable computer,
• Exciting a structure directly without need to model the feed line.
Waveguide ports recommended when:

• Exciting a mode other than the lowest order propagating mode,

• Exciting hollow pipe type waveguides, such as rectangular or circular (with or without ridges, partial
dielectric fill, etc.),

• Launching a signal in a coaxial cable,

• Need to measure return loss below -40dB.

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Figure 7.39: SAR Statistics for Triple-Band Slot Antenna Near the SAM Head with a Discrete Port

Figure 7.40: Far-zone Pattern for Triple-Band Slot Antenna Near the SAM Head with a Waveguide Port

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Figure 7.41: Far-zone Pattern for Triple-Band Slot Antenna Near the SAM Head with a Discrete Port

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7.5 Plane Wave Editor

Of the two varieties of external excitations available in XFdtd the first is a plane wave. A plane wave
source is assumed to be infinitely far away so that the constant field surfaces are planar and normal to
the direction of propagation. The plane wave excitation is useful for computing radar cross section and
scattering behavior.

To access the P LANE WAVE E DITOR, double-click on an existing P LANE WAVE object in the
E XTERNAL E XCITATIONS branch of the P ROJECT T REE, or right-click on the branch to create a N EW
P LANE WAVE. The editor will open at the top of the G EOMETRY W ORKSPACE W INDOW, and consists of
a L OCATION tab and a P ROPERTIES tab.

Figure 7.42: The Location Tab of the Plane Wave Editor

On the L OCATION tab, specify the incident direction using the I NCIDENT T HETA and I NCIDENT P HI con-
trols. I NCIDENT T HETA is the defined as the angle between the positive Z -axis and the incident direction,
while I NCIDENT P HI is defined as the angle between the positive X -axis and the projection of the incident
direction into the XY plane. The incident wave P OLARIZATION can also be specified on this tab.

Figure 7.43: The Properties Tab of the Plane Wave Editor

On the P ROPERTIES tab, the excitation can be given an identifying N AME. An excitation WAVEFORM must be
selected, and the A MPLITUDE of the excitation must be specified. The electric field values in the X ,Y and Z
directions resulting from the choice of amplitude and incident direction are displayed with the I NCIDENT
A MPLITUDES heading in this window.

Plane wave excitations are enabled or disabled by selecting the source type in the S IMULATIONS
workspace window (see Section 11.1.1). Since passive lumped loads do not radiate energy, they may be
present in a simulation which is excited by a plane wave.

All active ports will be set to passive lumped loads when a plane wave excitation is selected.

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7.6 Gaussian Beam Editor

The second external excitation definition available is the G AUSSIAN B EAM source. The focused Gaussian
beam is characterized by an incident electric field that has a two-dimensional, radially-symmetric Gaussian
distribution in planes normal to the incident direction. It converges to maximum intensity at the focus point.
All calculations with a Gaussian beam source are performed in scattered-field, though total-field values may
also be saved. Unlike the plane wave and discrete sources, this source requires that the source waveform
be sinusoidal.

Examples where this type of source is useful include structures used at optical frequencies and
situations where it is desired to illuminate only a portion of the geometry.

To access the G AUSSIAN B EAM E DITOR, double-click on an existing G AUSSIAN B EAM object in the
E XTERNAL E XCITATIONS branch of the P ROJECT T REE, or right-click on the branch to create a N EW
G AUSSIAN B EAM. The editor will open at the top of the G EOMETRY W ORKSPACE W INDOW, and consists
of a L OCATION tab and a P ROPERTIES tab.

Figure 7.44: The Location Tab of the Gaussian Beam Editor

The controls on the L OCATION tab behave identically to those on the P LANE WAVE E DITOR (Section 7.5),
with two important additions. The F OCUS L OCATION controls specify the location in the simulation space of
maximum intensity of the excitation. The X , Y and Z coordinates can be entered manually, or chosen by
graphically using the P ICKER TOOL (See Section 7.1.1 for more information on using the point selection
tools shown here.)

The F OCUS R ADIUS editor sets the beam radius ω0 at the focal point in the plane normal to the direction
of travel at which the field strength drops to 1e ≈ -8.686 dB of its maximum value. In other planes normal
to the direction of travel, ω is the radius at which the field strength drops to 1e of its maximum value in that
plane and is given by:
λz
ω 2 (z) = ω02 (1 + )
πω02 2
where λ is the free space wavelength and, for simplicity, the direction of travel is assumed to be parallel to
the Z -axis and the focus in the z = 0 plane.

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Figure 7.45: The Properties Tab of the Gaussian Beam Editor

The controls on the P ROPERTIES tab behave identically to those on the P LANE WAVE E DITOR (Section
7.5.) Note that only Sinusoidal waveforms can be used with a Gaussian Beam.

Gaussian beam excitations are enabled or disabled by selecting the source type in the S IMULATIONS
workspace window (see Section 11.1.1.) Since passive lumped loads do not radiate energy, they may be
present in a simulation which is excited by a Gaussian Beam.

All active ports will be set to passive lumped loads when a Gaussian beam excitation is selected.

7.7 Waveform Editor

The WAVEFORM E DITOR is used to edit waveforms that can be used in conjuction with an E XTERNAL
E XCITATION or a F EED to inject energy into the space for an FDTD simulation. When used in a simulation,
a waveform’s field value at each timestep is applied to the field in the space as part of the field update
calculation.

To create a WAVEFORM, right-click on the D EFINITIONS : WAVEFORMS branch of the P ROJECT

T REE and select N EW WAVEFORM D EFINITION. Double-clicking on a Waveform under the same branch
will open that waveform for editing. There are seven types of waveforms available:

• AUTOMATIC

• B ROADBAND

• G AUSSIAN

• G AUSSIAN D ERIVATIVE

• M ODULATED G AUSSIAN

• S INUSOID

• U SER -D EFINED

The choice of waveform should be based on the desired output. For broadband calculations, the
AUTOMATIC, B ROADBAND or one of the Gaussian-type waveforms should be used since they will
inject energy into the space in a wide band of frequencies. The S INUSOID may be chosen for cases
where steady-state results are desired at a single frequency. The U SER D EFINED waveform can be
used when none of the other choices meet the requirements of the simulation.

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The default when creating a new waveform is the AUTOMATIC waveform. It is recommended to use this
waveform unless a specific frequency response is desired.

To produce valid results within a specific frequency range, the signal-to-noise ratio (waveform to compu-
tational noise) must not be too small. All waveform windows display a line at -60 dB as a simple indicator
of when the signal-to-noise ratio is becoming too small to be generally useful. Of course, the actual useful
signal-to-noise ratio floor is problem dependent. The marker also notes that appreciable amounts of energy
will not be introduced into the simulation space at frequencies around or below the line.

7.7.1 Automatic

The AUTOMATIC waveform dynamically changes shape to excite the Frequency Range of Interest defined
for the project. If the Frequency Range of Interest is a non-empty range including zero then the Automatic
waveform will take on the shape of a Gaussian including a DC component. If the specified range is a
non-empty range excluding zero the waveform will take on the shape of a Modulated Gaussian with no DC
component. In each of these broadband cases the Automatic waveform will be 20 dB down at the non-zero
range limits. This is done to avoid exciting frequencies outside the specified range. If the specified range
is a single value the Automatic waveform will be a Sinusoid at the specified frequency. The Automatic
waveform will dynamically adjust to any changes in the Frequency Range of Interest.

7.7.2 Broadband

When broadband results are desired, a B ROADBAND waveform should almost always be used. This
waveform provides a Gaussian pulse with the largest frequency content possible for the specific FDTD
space when E XCITE A LL P OSSIBLE F REQUENCIES is selected. Alternatively, the user can clamp the upper
end of the frequency range by selecting E XITE UP TO A M AXIMUM F REQUENCY and choosing a frequency
response magnitude and corresponding frequency. In this case, the waveform frequency response is
truncated in the simulation to the maximum allowed, even if a wider frequency response is specified in this
editor. Figure 7.46 shows a Broadband waveform in the WAVEFORM E DITOR.

See Section 7.7.8 for more information on waveform frequencies.

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Figure 7.46: Defining a Broadband waveform in the Waveform Editor

7.7.3 Gaussian

The G AUSSIAN waveform provides broadband input and is also suitable for use when broadband re-
sults are desired. The width of the pulse is user-specified. Figure 7.47 shows a Gaussian pulse in the
WAVEFORM E DITOR.

See Section 7.7.8 for more information on specifying the width of the pulse.

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Figure 7.47: Defining a Gaussian pulse in the Waveform Editor

Since the Gaussian pulse has a non-zero average value, it should not be used for a F EED when there is
a closed path (loop) of perfect conductor connected to the Feed unless the feed also contains resistance.
This is because the Gaussian has a DC (zero-frequency) component which starts a steady current flowing
in the loop that will never decay through loss or radiation. The symptom of this will be a source current
that has an average value not equal to zero. If this occurs, the G AUSSIAN D ERIVATIVE or M ODULATED
G AUSSIAN pulses can be used or a non-zero source resistance specified for the Feed.

7.7.4 Gaussian Derivative

The G AUSSIAN D ERIVATIVE is nearly identical to the Gaussian except that it has a zero average value
and thus the DC component is removed. For the same simulation, the pulse width of a Gaussian Derivative
should be set somewhat greater than what would be set for a Gaussian since the Gaussian Derivative will
have a wider frequency spectrum for the same pulse width. Figure 7.48 shows a Gaussian Derivative in
the WAVEFORM E DITOR.

See Section 7.7.8 for more information on pulse width.

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Figure 7.48: Defining a Gaussian Derivative waveform

7.7.5 Modulated Gaussian

The M ODULATED G AUSSIAN should be used only when a specific frequency range is desired. This
is useful in structures where low frequencies could excite non-radiating modes that could resonate and
invalidate results. This waveform is a sinusoid with a Gaussian envelope with the sinusoid centered in the
envelope so that the average of the pulse is zero.

Figure 7.49 shows a M ODULATED G AUSSIAN in the WAVEFORM E DITOR.

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Figure 7.49: Defining a Modulated Gaussian waveform

The P ULSE W IDTH for the Modulated Gaussian may be adjusted to enclose a specific frequency range.
This is useful, for example, in waveguide simulations so that only frequencies in the band of single-mode
operation are excited. It is also useful when band-limited devices are being simulated. For example, a
broadband antenna, such as a spiral, may be designed for a specific frequency range. Exciting the antenna
at frequencies outside this range may greatly increase the simulation time needed for convergence since
the out-of-band energy cannot readily radiate or be otherwise dissipated by the antenna structure.

See Section 7.7.8 for more information on pulse width.

7.7.6 Sinusoid

The S INUSOID is useful when only one frequency is of interest. When this waveform is used, a single
frequency simulation is performed that provides additional result types over broadband simulations. The
“ramped” part of the waveform is used and automatically configured to avoid introducing energy at any
frequency other than that of the sinusoid into the simulation.

Since the Sinusoid is different than the other waveforms, it requires some special considerations. It is

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146 Circuit Components, Waveguides, External Excitations and Voltage Points

recommended that the length of a simulation be at least five cycles of the sinusoid when not using automatic
convergence. In some cases, such as extremely low frequencies, running five cycles may not be practical,
in which case even just a fraction of a cycle may be used.

Figure 7.50 shows a S INUSOID in the WAVEFORM E DITOR.

Figure 7.50: Defining a Sinusoid waveform

7.7.7 User Defined

An arbitrary waveform may be specified using the U SER D EFINED waveform type. A time record of the
waveform, pre-discretized in time at the timestep of the simulation, is imported from a text file (*.src.)
The format of the file depends whether the waveform will be used for a D ISCRETE VOLTAGE S OURCE or
P LANE WAVE S OURCE, and is described in the following subsections.

The frequency response of the User Defined waveform is computed from the input data. Figure 7.51
shows a U SER D EFINED waveform in the WAVEFORM E DITOR. An example user-defined waveform file
is illustrated in Figure 7.52.

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7.7.7.1 Discrete Source Format

The format for a D ISCRETE VOLTAGE S OURCE-formatted user-defined waveform file is a single integer,
N , in the first line of the file, which is the number of samples in the file, followed by N lines that define
the sampled waveform at successive timesteps. Each line contains two numbers which are the normalized
voltage of the waveform at the source followed by its time derivative. The first datapoint (on line 2 of the file)
corresponds to time = timestep. The next datapoint (on line 3 of the file) corresponds to time = 2*timestep
and so on. If the file contains data for fewer timesteps than a simulation needs, XFdtd will use zeroes for
the unaccounted-for timesteps (see Figure 7.52.)

7.7.7.2 Plane Wave Source Format

The format for a P LANE WAVE S OURCE-formatted user-defined waveform file is a single integer, N , in the
first line on the file, which is the number of samples in the file, followed by N lines that define the sampled
waveform at successive timesteps. Each line contains two numbers which are the normalized electric
field magnitude (in Volts/meter) followed by its time derivative. The first datapoint (on line 2 of the file)
corresponds to time = timestep. The next datapoint (on line 3 of the file) corresponds to time = 2*timestep
and so on. If the file contains data for fewer timesteps than a simulation needs, XFdtd will use zeroes for
the unaccounted-for timesteps (Figure 7.52.)

Figure 7.51: Defining a User Defined waveform

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Figure 7.52: A User Defined waveform file

7.7.8 Notes on Choosing Waveform Parameters

For obtaining broadband results, the usual choice for a waveform should be the AUTOMATIC waveform.
However, for certain situations, a specific pulse type may be desired. For these cases, when choosing the
pulse width and/or frequency for a waveform, the constraints of the FDTD method must be kept in mind.
The time rate of change of a pulse or the sine wave frequency must be low enough so that the waveform is
accurately sampled. This results in the frequency being constrained by the Courant limit:
1 c
f requency ≤ √ =
104t 3 104x
where

4t is the timestep
c is the speed of light
4x is the largest grid edge length in the space.
This prevents the waveform from introducing energy at frequencies too high for the FDTD method to pro-
duce accurate results. The pulse width should also not be so large (and thus the frequency content so low)
that the calculation is not excited at frequencies for which accurate and useful results might be obtained.
There must be sufficient energy in the pulse in the frequency range of interest for results to be above the
numerical noise. For simulations with very small cells compared to the shortest wavelength of interest,
pulse widths may be set much larger than the default size to reduce the number of timesteps needed for
convergence and to increase stability.

If dielectric materials are present in the FDTD space, wavelengths are reduced inside those materials since
the velocity of propagation is less than the speed of light in free space. A reasonable rule of thumb for loss-
less or low-loss dielectrics is that the maximum frequency for the spectrum of the pulse should be reduced
by the square root of the relative permittivity (r ) times the relative permeability (µr ), or equivalently, the
P ULSE W IDTH, τ , should be increased by this factor:

√
τnew = τold r µr

where

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τnew represents the corrected pulse width

τold represents the uncorrected pulse width.
For more lossy dielectrics or conductors, the frequency and pulse width should be adjusted proportionally
to the change in wavelength in the material relative to the free space. Of course, the maximum frequency
for reliable results is also reduced as the frequency spectrum of the excitation pulse is reduced.

For example, suppose part of the simulation space is free space and part is a low-loss dielectric with a
relative permittivity of 4.0. Further suppose the cell size is 1 cm. At 10 cells per wavelength, one would
expect reasonable results up to 3 GHz with a Gaussian pulse 32 timesteps wide (for a uniform grid.) But
since part of the space has a dielectric material, with the same cell size the Gaussian P ULSE W IDTH should
be doubled to 64 timesteps to reduce the frequency spectrum bandwidth. Correspondingly, the maximum
frequency for reliable results would be decreased from 3 GHz to 1.5 GHz.

When using the B ROADBAND waveform, XFdtd chooses (in the case of automatic pulse width selection)
or limits the pulse width (in the case of user-specified frequency content) of the Gaussian pulse based on
the restrictions above. When using a waveform with user-specified pulse widths, it checks to make sure
the frequency limit, as described above, is not exceeded. If it is, then an error is given when the simulation
is created.

7.8 Static Voltage Points

The S TATIC VOLTAGE P OINTS feature is used to create and place a voltage point on an object made of
PEC material. These points are used by the Laplace static solver to initialize the starting E field within the
problem space to voltage values assigned by the user. With no static voltage points defined, the initial E
field at the beginning of the FDTD computation is set to 0 V/m at each cell edge.

To use this feature, right-click the Static Voltage Points branch of the P ROJECT T REE and select New
Static Voltage Point as seen in Figure 4.16. A static voltage point will be added to the project. Double click
the new point to edit the point’s properties.

Static Voltage Points are specified by graphically picking or manually entering the location of the static
voltage point and by specifying the voltage. Click the Done button to apply your changes.

Keep in mind that only one entry per conducting object is necessary. Duplicate entries will overwrite the
voltage preset value. (PEC outer boundaries and any untagged metal objects will be preset to 0V . If
the boundary is PML, the fields at a PML boundary will be initialized appropriately to prevent non-physical
reflections at the interface.) Additionally, static voltage points can be used by themselves to excite an object
containing PEC materials, or in conjunction with an external excitation or a discrete source.

Figure 7.53 shows the available parameters when creating a static voltage point.

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Figure 7.53: Defining a static voltage point

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Chapter 8

Defining the Grid and Creating a Mesh

In this chapter, you will learn...

→ about the differences between the grid and the mesh

→ about the tools available for you to specify the properties of the XFdtd grid
→ how to set localized grid properties, right down to individual objects or single cells
→ how to tell XFdtd which objects to include in the mesh and in what order to consider them
→ how to adjust the way touching objects are meshed

Figure 8.1: An illustration of an object sur- Figure 8.2: An illustration of the grid (black
rounded by the grid lines) and the electic mesh (light green lines)

151
152 Defining the Grid and Creating a Mesh

Figure 8.3: An illustration of the grid (black

Figure 8.4: An illustration of the grid (black
lines) and the magnetic mesh (light green
lines) and the electic and magnetic meshes
lines). The magnetic mesh is offset from the
(light green lines)
electric mesh.

The XFdtd method requires the simulation space to be discretized in order to perform calculations. To
simplify workflow, XFdtd separates the processes of defining the locations of the discrete space, gridding,
and assigning materials to the defined locations. This section will further define these concepts and explain
how to use them efficiently in XFdtd. To create a successful grid and mesh, users must understand the
following components:

• Part: A part is a geometric shape either created by a user or imported into XFdtd. After creating or
importing a part, a user assigns a material to it. The material assigned to each part determines its
electromagnetic characteristics during the calculation.

• Grid: The gridding process takes the continuous space and chooses discrete axis-aligned locations.
XFdtd provides tools in the G EOMETRY - E DITING G RID window to adjust the position and spacing
of grid edges along the X, Y and Z axes. These tools enable XFdtd to provide an accurate repre-
sentation of the solid parts while limiting the required memory and simulation time needed for the
calculation.

• Mesh: XFdtd creates the mesh by sampling at all grid locations throughout 3-D space to determine
which grid locations should be set for the mesh. It then assigns a material to each edge of the
grid after inspecting where the parts and the grid overlap. An easy way to think of this process is
through the simple formula ”Objects + Grid = Mesh.” Grid edges where a part exists use the material
assigned to that part. All other grid edges use free space material. Circuit components also are
included in the mesh at their nearest discrete location. When the lines in the grid change, the mesh
changes as well.

General grid definitions are assigned to the entire grid within the G RID TOOLS dialog of the G EOMETRY
workspace window. Here, definitions such as target cell size, bounds and limits are defined. Customizable
grid definitions such as fixed points and grid regions can also be added.

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The G RIDDING P ROPERTIES E DITOR provides tools to modify the grid locations in and around individ-
ual parts thus allowing important parts to be resolved more accurately during the discretization process.
This editor is useful for objects whose characteristics are not adequately considered by the general grid
definitions set within the G RID TOOLS editing tabs.

Finally, the M ESHING P ROPERTIES E DITOR governs how each object within the boundaries of the defined
grid will be meshed. The meshing order determines which object’s material is assigned to mesh edges in
the case of spatial conflicts. By default, every object in the project is meshed with uniform priority, but these
settings can be adjusted within this editor so that higher-priority objects are meshed more carefully than
lower-priority objects. In cases where parts have the same meshing priority, XFdtd uses the order of the
parts in the P ROJECT T REE.

Appendix B also supplies a thorough discussion of gridding theory, concepts and recommendations
within XFdtd.

The following sections explain how to enter the grid properties and specify the various grid elements using
these editors.

8.1 Grid Tools

There are two ways to access the G RID TOOLS dialog. With the G EOMETRY workspace window open,
either select G RID TOOLS from the drop-down menu in the window, or double-click on the FDTD:
G RID branch of the P ROJECT T REE. Once the dialog is open, press the E DIT G RID button to define
the grid parameters for the project.

The tabs located within grid tools follow the step-by-step editing process that is used to define the grid.
The first tab, S IZE, specifies general definitions that are applied to the whole grid, whereas the second
and third tabs, F IXED P OINTS and G RID R EGIONS, allow the user to customize the grid by manually
placing gridlines and changing the cell characteristics of different grid regions.

See Appendix Section B.3 for a thorough discussion of fixed points and grid regions.

The fourth tab, L IMITS, applies constraints to the grid so that memory requirements and adjacent cell size
ratios do not exceed a reasonable value. Since grid definitions largely influence the memory requirement
of a particular calculation, two bars are always visible in order to monitor how much memory the intended
grid definitions will use. The C URRENT bar the total amount of memory required to simulate the project,
while the N EW bar shows how much memory will be required to simulate the project based on the pro-
posed changes. Mousing over either memory estimate, displays a tooltip. The tooltip contains additional
estimates (Minimum Usage, Maximum Usage and Best Estimate), and an explanation of how the estimate
was derived. The Limits tab also allows specifying a smallest desired cell size. If a grid definition requires
a cell smaller than the smallest desired size, the grid becomes invalid and a warning message appears.

The fifth tab, I NFO, provides data about both the current and the proposed grid (the two sets of values
will be the same if any proposed changes have been applied.) The grid’s dimensions, upper and lower
boundaries, cell counts, and minimum and maximum edge lengths are shown. A value is shown for each
axis, X , Y and Z .

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8.1.1 Size Tab

The S IZE tab allows the user to select whether XFdtd automatically defines the cell size and the place-
ment of the grid at the boundaries of the project (B ASIC M ODE), or whether the user defines these param-
eters themselves (A DVANCED M ODE). In Basic Mode, users define a single cell size/padding and XFdtd
creates a uniform grid in X , Y and Z . In Advanced Mode, users can specify cell size/padding in each
direction.

Figure 8.5: The Basic mode enables XFdtd to define cell size and placement

Figure 8.6: The Advanced mode enables users to define cell size and placement

Specify Padding

In Advanced Mode, there are two options for defining the outer boundaries. The first option is to specify the
padding around the project’s lower and upper boundaries in terms of discrete numbers of cells. The second
option is to specifying a grid bounding box by its physical coordinates, independent of the geometry. Each
option is detailed below.

Figure 8.7 displays the available options for specifying the padding of the outer boundaries of an XFdtd
cell.

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Figure 8.7: Defining a project’s boundaries by cell padding within the Size tab

When S PECIFY PADDING is selected, the number of padding cells is multiplied by the main grid delta. Fixed
points are placed at that distance from the edges of the geometry. The grid lies between those exterior fixed
points. In the absence of any manual grid regions, manual fixed points, part grid regions or part-associated
automatic fixed points, the space between the exterior fixed points is divided into cells with even spacing.
The minimum number of cells, given the extent and the main grid size, is used. Each evenly-spaced cell
will have an edge length no greater than the target cell size.

B ASE C ELL S IZES allows entry of the target cell size when generating the XFdtd grid in areas that are
not part of a grid region. Note that this is the target cell size and may not reflect the actual cell size in
the grid. The actual cell size may be slightly lower depending on the constraints placed on the grid, but
it will never be higher, ensuring that the desired level of detail is not compromised. When there are two
fixed points or grid region bounds of any type, the region between them will be divided into a number of
cells. The number of cells that is required depends upon the target cell size. No cells larger than the target
will be generated. The target cell size may not divide evenly into the distance between the fixed points or
grid region bounds. The gridding process prefers to generate cells of a constant size. First the minimum
number of cells required to span the distance is calculated and then a cell size, less than or equal to the
target size, is calculated so that the distance is spanned exactly.

See Appendix B for more details and for exceptions to the general rules.

F REE S PACE PADDING ( IN CELLS ) allows users to define the extent of the padding space around the
geometry. The extent is specified as a number of cells, each of which is taken to be the target cell size.
In simple projects this means that the number of cells specified will be added as free space around the
geometry (at the main grid cell size.) In more complex projects, grid regions close to the boundary may
cause transition regions containing smaller cells to intrude into the free space padding. The free space
padding’s extent will remain the same, whether it is made up of the specified number of cells each exactly
the target cell size, or whether the padding extent contains some number of smaller-sized transition region
cells.

There are also two checkboxes available in the S IZE O PTIONS drop-down list: I NCLUDE U NMESHED O B -
JECTS and I NCLUDE C IRCUIT C OMPONENTS . Selecting either of these options will ensure that any un-
meshed object and/or circuit component is included within the padded region. Otherwise, only meshed
objects will be used to determine the size of the padded region. These options may also affect the size of
the region bounded by free space padding.

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Specify Bounds

Figure 8.8 displays the available options for defining the outer bounding box.

Figure 8.8: Defining a project’s boundaries by a bounding box within the Size tab

There are some instances when defining a G RID B OUNDING B OX rather than a padding of free space cells
may be advantageous in placing the outer limits of the grid. The grid bounding box, unlike cell padding, is
independent of the geometry, so it is possible to define a grid bounding box that does not include the entire
geometry. Like the S IZE tab, the G RID B OUNDING B OX has a B ASIC M ODE and an A DVANCED M ODE
(Figure 8.8.)

B ASE C ELL S IZES is the same as the B ASE C ELL S IZES definition under S PECIFY PADDING.

8.1.2 Fixed Points Tab

Fixed points are essentially gridlines placed at discrete locations in the mesh, and therefore control the
placement of cell boundaries in the mesh. They are used to ensure that important parts of the geometry
are considered at cell edges which cannot be controlled by uniform meshing. For example, it may be useful
to place a fixed point at the edge of a PARTS object in the geometry so that its edge does not fall between
cell edges.

The F IXED P OINTS tab stores the definitions associated with the placement of fixed points in the geom-
etry. To add a fixed point to the mesh, select the A DD button and define the F IXED P OINT P ROPERTIES by
typing in the physical coordinates of interest. Note that any of the three principle directions may be checked
or unchecked (in the F IXED checkbox) depending on how many points are to be defined. For example, if
only the X -coordinate is defined, a fixed point will be added that intersects at that location on the X -axis,
which defines a plane in Y Z . Defining fixed points in all three principle directions will result in three fixed
points, intersecting at the defined point.

Figure 8.9 displays the dialog associated with defining fixed points. In this instance, only X and Y are
checked, so two fixed points spanning the X - and Y -planes will be added in the X (at X = -0.2 m) and Y
(at Y = -0.2 m) plane, respectively.

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Figure 8.9: Defining Fixed Points within Grid Tools

A fixed point can also be defined by checking the X, Y, and/or Z coordinate check-boxes of interest
and clicking on the desired location of the plane in the simulation space with the S ELECTION tool.

8.1.3 Grid Regions Tab

A G RID R EGION is a bound region in the mesh that is assigned a cell size different from the cell size
assigned in the S IZE tab. Grid regions may be d esirable in locations that require finer meshing and
thus require smaller cells. It is also advantageous to use them in areas that are not important to the XFdtd
calculation by defining them with larger cells to save memory and calculation time. Simply define the
R EGION B OUNDS and the C ELL S IZES in each direction of interest, and a region will be placed on the grid.

Figure 8.10 displays the dialog associated with defining grid regions. In this example, the cells within the
particular grid region are defined to be 0.001 m. Automatic fixed points will be merged to be spaced 60%
of this distance as defined in the M INIMUM boxes.

See Appendix B for more information about fixed point merging.

Figure 8.10: Defining Grid Regions within Grid Tools

8.1.4 Limits Tab

The L IMITS tab contains several required and several optional limits used to restrict characteristics of the
grid.

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The M AXIMUM C ELL S TEP FACTOR definition restricts the rate at which the cell size may increase between
two adjacent cells. For example, if a cell is 1 mm long and the maximum cell step factor is set to 2, the next
cell cannot exceed 2 mm, because that would cause the cell ratio between these two cells to exceed 2.
Therefore, if a grid region has cells of 1 mm, and the default global grid target is 5 mm, additional cells are
needed, forming a transition region between the grid region and the Global grid, since 1 mm:5 mm exceeds
the 1:2 ratio.

The ratio of 1:2 is used in this example because it is the largest ratio recommended in Chapter 11,
Section 2 of the Taflov and Hagness text [2].

The second required limit, M INIMUM C ELL S IZE, represents the global minimum cell size allowed in the
project. No cell in the project can fall below this limit or the project will not be valid. A good rule of thumb
for setting the M INIMUM C ELL S IZE is to make it 1/2 of the target cell size. There are other M INIMUM C ELL
S IZE definitions within the G RID TOOLS and G RIDDING P ROPERTIES E DITOR, but they must be greater
or equal to this global definition to be considered a valid definition.

The two optional limits aid in restricting the size of the XFdtd project so that the calculation time and memory
requirements do not exceed a defined limit. These limits can be applied to the project by restricting the
number of M AXIMUM C ELLS that are contained within the mesh. If this definition is applied to a project and
exceeded, an error message will appear to indicate this.

Figure 8.11 displays the L IMITS tab.

Figure 8.11: Defining Grid Regions within Grid Tools

8.2 Gridding Properties Editor

The G RIDDING P ROPERTIES E DITOR window is used to define grid regions and fixed points associ-
ated with an individual object. To open the G RIDDING P ROPERTIES E DITOR window, right-click on
the appropriate object in the PARTS branch of the P ROJECT T REE and select G RIDDING / M ESHING
> G RIDDING P ROPERTIES as seen in Figure 8.12.

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Figure 8.12: Accessing the Gridding Properties Editor

Like the S IZE tab in the G RID TOOLS dialog, the G RIDDING P ROPERTIES E DITOR window contains
a B ASIC M ODE and an A DVANCED M ODE. In B ASIC M ODE, users enter cell size and boundary extension
information, then XFdtd uses this data to automatically create cells and boundary regions for X , Y and Z .

In Advanced Mode, the U SE AUTOMATIC G RID R EGIONS and U SE AUTOMATIC F IXED P OINTS checkboxes
enable either of these definitions when they are selected. Figure 8.13 shows the G RIDDING P ROPERTIES
E DITOR window with both grid regions and fixed points enabled. The following sections detail the definitions
associated with grid regions and fixed points.

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Figure 8.13: The Gridding Properties Editor

8.2.1 Automatic Grid Regions

A grid region is a region assigned a specific cell size within a specified lower and upper boundary. A custom
cell size can be applied in this region to any or all of the three principal directions. They are desirable in
instances in which the C ELL S IZES defined to the entire grid under G RID TOOLS: G RID R EGIONS is
not sufficient for a particular object.

Grid regions can be added to the grid within G RID TOOLS by defining each region’s physical bounds, or
a grid region can be applied to a single object within this editor. In this case, the grid region will be applied
everywhere within the object (plus any extended region defined in the B OUNDARY E XTENSIONS definition).

See Section 8.1.3 for more on defining a region’s physical bounds.

Cell sizes

The C ELL S IZES definition refers to the maximum target cell size that may occur between the lower and
upper boundaries. The actual cell size between these boundaries may be slightly lower depending on the
location of these boundaries. For instance, if a C ELL S IZE is defined to be 1 m in the X -direction and the
upper and lower boundaries are defined at X = 1 m and X = 4.9 m, respectively, the actual cell size would

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be 0.975 m since the distance between the upper and lower boundaries would not permit four 1 m cells
within 3.9 m. The actual cell size will never be adjusted to a value higher than the C ELL S IZE definition,
however.

See Appendix Section B.2 for more information on choosing an appropriate cell size.

Boundary extensions

The upper and lower boundaries of the grid region usually occur at the edges of the object, but in the case
that these bounds are not sufficient, they can be moved inward or outward in any X, Y, and/or Z direction by
defining values in the L OWER B OUNDARY E XTENSIONS and U PPER B OUNDARY E XTENSIONS dialog boxes.
If a positive distance is defined, the boundary will be shifted at that distance away from the object and
conversely, if a negative distance is defined, the boundary will be shifted into the object.

8.2.2 Automatic Fixed Points

Fixed points are analogous to gridlines whose locations are explicitly defined to control where the edges
of meshed cells fall in the geometry. Automatic fixed points are given that name because their positions
are automatically determined by examining the geometry of the part with which the automatic fixed points
are associated. Cell sizes are adjusted to flow as evenly as possible between the fixed points while never
exceeding the target cell size at the location of each fixed point.

See Section 8.1.4 for more on the L IMITS tab.

For a discussion of how fixed planes vary from grid regions, see Appendix B.3.

Fixed points can be placed anywhere in the grid by specifying their location within the F IXED P OINTS tab
of the G RID TOOLS dialog, or they can be added within this editor to a particular object based on the
object’s geometry.

See Section 8.1.2 for more on the F IXED P OINTS tab.

The following settings control where fixed planes are placed in reference to the object’s geometry.

Lower and upper boundaries

Places fixed point(s) at the lower or upper boundary of the object in the direction specified.

Wire endpoints

Places fixed point(s) at any discontinuity existing in the object. See Figure 8.14 for an example of a fixed
point placed at an edge.

Edge corners

Places fixed point(s) anywhere that there is a discontinuity in the derivative of a object’s edge (i.e. points
that do not have tangents).

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Figure 8.14 shows the fixed points placed at wire endpoints (yellow points) and edge corners (green points)
that occur within the simple wire body (shown in white).

Notice how the cell sizes vary to accommodate the placement of the four fixed planes (in red).

Figure 8.14: Fixed points placed at wire endpoints and edge corners

Endpoints of axis-aligned wires

Places fixed point(s) along any axis-aligned straight edges that exist in the object geometry.

Figure 8.15 shows fixed planes (in red) placed at axis-aligned straight edges.

Notice that straight edges that are not axis-aligned do not have fixed planes.

Figure 8.15: Fixed points placed at axis-aligned straight edges

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Edge loops bounding box

Places fixed point(s) at the edges of loops or closed circuit of edges. Any loop that smaller than the
M INIMUM S IZE will be ignored. Thus, to consider all loops that exist in the object’s geometry, simply define
the M INIMUM S IZE as 0.

Figure 8.16 shows 12 fixed points placed at the edges of loop boundaries.

Notice that the M INIMUM S IZE has been set to 0 so all loops are considered. If the minimum size
was larger than one or more loops, no fixed points would be placed at its edges.

Figure 8.16: Fixed points placed at edges of loops (minimum size = 0)

Open ellipse center points

Places fixed point(s) at the center of open ellipses.

Figure 8.17 shows four fixed planes inside four filleted edges, which are treated as open ellipses.

Figure 8.17: Fixed points placed at the center of open ellipses

Closed ellipse center points

Places fixed point(s) at the center of closed ellipses.

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8.3 Meshing Properties Editor

The M ESHING P ROPERTIES E DITOR is used to adjust the properties of the mesh for individual objects.
This gives the user greater control over the meshing process, when necessary, in order to create a more
accurate mesh. In most cases, the default settings are sufficient. A mesh is generated automatically when
calculation files are written, or when grid definitions are applied within the G RID TOOLS dialog and the
project is viewed with the M ESH V IEW button in the V IEW TOOLS menu.

The meshing properties editor displays different setting configurations depending on the type of part being
modified. Figure 8.18 shows the M ESHING P ROPERTIES E DITOR for a model part, with the menu of
meshing modes displayed.

Figure 8.18: The Meshing Properties Editor for a model part

To open the M ESHING P ROPERTIES E DITOR window, right-click on the PARTS : Modelname branch of
the P ROJECT T REE and select G RIDDING / M ESHING > M ESHING P ROPERTIES.

When editing the grid, a preview of the grid is created in the M ESH V IEW mode, but it is not acually
meshed until the grid definitions have been applied.

When AUTOMATIC R EMESHING is turned on, the mesh will be updated automatically, so that the cutplanes
visible within M ESH V IEW will be current. If this feature is not turned on, the icon will indicate the mesh
is out-of-date. In this case, press the Automatic Remeshing button and select R EMESH N OW to generate
the current version of the mesh.

See Section 5.2 for more on the AUTOMATIC R EMESHING feature.

8.3.1 Meshing Modes

There are five available meshing modes in XFdtd. Each is described below. These can be specified in the
M ESHING P ROPERTIES E DITOR or in the P ROJECT T REE by right-clicking on the object and choosing
G RIDDING / M ESHING > M ESH T YPE, as seen in Figure 8.19.

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Figure 8.19: Assigning meshing modes within the Project Tree

• Meshing Disabled. Select M ESHING D ISABLED to disable meshing for objects that do not need
to be considered during meshing operations. Selecting this option will reduce memory usage, and
remove the object from the computation.

• Electrical Meshing. Select E LECTRICAL M ESHING to include the object in the electric mesh only.
• Magnetic Meshing. Select M AGNETIC M ESHING to include the object in the magnetic mesh only.
• Dual Meshing. Select D UAL M ESHING to force the object to be included in both electrical and
magnetic meshes.

• Automatic Meshing. The AUTOMATIC M ESHING mode is selected by default. It enables XFdtd to
automatically determine which parts are included/excluded from the electric and magnetic meshes.
This determination is based on the electric and magnetic properties of the material assigned to the
part.

When Automatic Meshing is selected:

– Parts with electric material, other than free space, are included in the mesh

– Parts with magnetic material, other than free space, are included in the mesh

– Parts made entirely of free space material are not included in the mesh.

The following table displays the various meshing modes available in XFdtd.

To include a part in the mesh where both the E LECTRIC and M AGNETIC material types are set to
F REE S PACE, select either the Electric Mesh mode or the Dual Mesh mode.

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Table 8.1: Mesh Modes

Mesh Mode In Electric Mesh In Magnetic Mesh
Automatic All parts with non-free space electric All parts with non-free space magnetic
material properties material properties
Electric Yes No
Magnetic No Yes
Both Yes Yes
Disabled No No

To select a different mesh mode, right click an object in the P ROJECT T REE and select M ESHING
P ROPERTIES or M ESH T YPE. A window containing the available mesh modes appears.

Under most circumstances it is best to keep the default mode because it enables the software to
automatically apply the most memory-efficient meshing option.

8.3.2 Meshing Order

The M ESHING O RDER setting specifies the level of priority that each object has. If objects overlap in a
particular region of space, the object with a higher meshing priority will overwrite the other objects. Each
object is assigned a default priority of 50. This should be changed to a higher or lower value depending
on whether the object should be given more or less consideration, respectively, when meshed. If two
overlapping objects have the exact same mesh priority, the material used for mesh edges where the two
objects overlap is determined by which object is closest to the top of the P ROJECT T REE .

Choosing S ET P RIORITY prompts the user to enter a numerical priority definition.

Additionally, priority can be specified within the P ROJECT T REE, as displayed in Figure 8.20. Moving
the selected PARTS object priority U P or D OWN increases or decreases its mesh priority, respectively.
Likewise, selecting M OVE TO TOP assigns that object the highest priority of all of the objects in the project;
M OVE TO B OTTOM will assign it the lowest priority.

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Figure 8.20: Assigning meshing priority in the Project Tree

8.3.3 Include in Mesh

The I NCLUDE IN M ESH setting specifies whether or not the selected part is considered when XFdtd
calculates the mesh. This setting does not affect the mesh mode or mesh order of the part. The benefit is
that a user can remove an object from the mesh or add it back in without having to re-set the mesh mode or
order associated with the part each time they make a change. This option can be set by right clicking a part
and selecting or de-selecting the G RIDDING / M ESHING > I NCLUDE IN M ESH checkbox, or by selecting
the M ESHING P ROPERTIES E DITOR. To add or remove multiple parts from the mesh, select them, right
click, and select Include in Mesh or Exclude from Mesh.

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168 Defining the Grid and Creating a Mesh

Figure 8.21: Parts included in and excluded from the mesh

8.3.4 XACT: Accurate Cell Technology

As discussed in Chapters 2.2 and 2.7, the cell size used to discretize the domain is frequently limited by the
dimensions and features of the geometric structure, and this in turn will determine the runtime and memory
costs of the simulation. When it is important to accurately resolve, say, the thickness of a conductor (or
of a gap between conductors) or the shape of a highly curved radiating body, this typically means that a
very fine grid must be used in the vicinity of the smallest geometric features. Appropriately placed Fixed
Points and Grid Regions make this grid refinement straightforward, and ultimately provide more accuracy
in simulation results.

However, this increase in simulation accuracy comes at a cost. Increasing the number of cells in each
of the X, Y, and Z directions by a factor of N leads to a factor of N 3 increase in memory consumption
and up to a N 4 increase in computation time. For this reason, it can be difficult to sufficiently refine the
computational grid while keeping your simulations fast and small.

In cases such as these, utilizing XFdtd’s XACT Mesh capability can be extremely helpful. XACT is a set
of techniques which use geometric information to provide a subcellular discretization of the computational
domain, providing a more accurate simulation for a given grid resolution. This can in turn be used to reduce
the overall simulation time and memory requirements for a given level of desired accuracy. For example:

• Using XACT, it is possible to represent gaps between conductors in the mesh without necessarily
having a full grid cell distance between the conductors. In turn, this may allow you to increase your
cell size (and timestep) beyond what is possible with Cartesian mesh edges only, resulting in overall

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faster simulations.

• Using XACT, curved surfaces can be modeled more accurately than can be done with Cartesian
mesh edges only, since the XACT mesh represents the boundary of the object as actually curved in-
side of a grid cell (see Figure 8.22). Thus, using XACT can improve the accuracy of your simulations
for a given grid resolution.

Figure 8.22: Meshed spheres with a conventional mesh (left) and XACT mesh (right)

Much more geometry information is used when computing fields near the boundary of parts with an XACT
mesh than with a conventional mesh. As such, execution time and memory usage penalties are incurred
when XACT is enabled. In order to avoid these penalties when unnecessary, XACT should be used with
care. Here are some guidelines:

• XACT is most beneficial for parts with high conductivity or Perfect Conductor electric material prop-
erties.

• XACT is most beneficial on parts with high curvature or where the size of small geometric features
is significant.

• Axis-aligned geometry that is already well-represented by a conventional Cartesian mesh will not
typically benefit from using XACT.

• XACT is not intended for use on parts with cross-sectional size that is smaller than a single grid cell.
In such cases, it may not be possible to generate an XACT mesh that maintains connectivity without
enabling Aggressive Surface Meshing as well (see Chapter 8.3.5).

You can enable XACT on a single part from either the part’s M ESHING P ROPERTIES E DTIOR (Chapter
8.3.5) or by choosing E NABLE XACT M ESH from the G RIDDING / M ESHING submenu of the part’s
right-click menu in the P ROJECT T REE. If an assembly is selected in the P ROJECT T REE, the right-
click menu’s S UBPARTS > G RIDDING / M ESHING > E NABLE XACT M ESH ON A LL S UBPARTS
can be used to similar effect.

In order to mesh a part using XACT, the part’s assigned material must be classified as either an electric
Perfect Conductor, as a Good Conductor, or as otherwise having low conductivity. This classification is

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controlled by the nature of the material, and also by the G OOD C ONDUCTOR choice in the M ATERIAL
E DITOR (See Chapter 6.1.3.1). Note that the XACT formulation for parts meshed with Good Conductor
materials assumes a minimum of five skin depths thickness to the part at all locations, thus blocking all
energy transfer through the part.

When XACT is enabled for any part in the simulation, XFdtd will by default reduce the simulation timestep
by as much as 30% in order to maintain numeric stability in the computation. The maximum amount
of timestep reduction is controllable from the XACT ACCURACY setting on the A DVANCED tab of the
P ROJECT P ROPERTIES E DITOR. This setting allows you to trade simulation speed against the accuracy of
the subcellular representation of geometry. Large values of this setting (near 1.0) will cause the simulation
timestep to be reduced very little, thus giving the fastest simulation runs. Small values of this setting (near
0.1) may cause the simulation timestep to be significantly reduced (as low as 10% of its usual value) but
will most accurately represent your geometry. The default value of 0.7 should be reasonable in most cases.

Please be aware of the following limitations of the XACT technique in XFdtd:

XACT can only currently be used with simulations excited by Discrete Sources, Waveguide Interfaces
and Total Field Plane Waves. Scattered Field Plane Wave, Gaussian Beam, and Static Voltage
Points cannot be used with XACT in XFdtd.

XACT can only be enabled on parts using nondispersive, isotropic electric materials.

Some material types cannot exist on or near a part meshed with XACT. These include Dispersive,
Thin Wire, and Nonlinear electric materials, and any magnetic material type other than Magnetic
Freespace. Furhtermore, when an Averaged Electric Material is encountered nearby a part meshed
with XACT, the Dominant Material of the average (See Chapter 8.3.6) will be used in its place.

XACT-enabled parts cannot come within one cell of the simulation boundary in XFdtd.

In addition, care should be taken when a thin part with an XACT mesh lies less than a grid cell away from a
part that is conventionally meshed. As the conventionally meshed part finds the best-fitting set of Cartesian
mesh edges to describe its surfaces, it may choose some mesh edges on the opposite side of the XACT
meshed part, as shown in Figure 8.23. In such a case, the best recourse may be to enable XACT for both
parts, although judicious use of Fixed Points may correct this behavior in some situations.

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Defining the Grid and Creating a Mesh 171

Figure 8.23: The blue plate’s conventional mesh has edges on both sides of the red plate’s XACT mesh

It should be emphasized that parts with XACT use a more faithfully meshed representation of the geometry
than a conventional Cartesian mesh can provide. This can have unexpected consequences in cases where
there are small gaps in your parts which a conventional mesh would typically short together. The XACT
mesh will never do this. Thus, it is critical when using XACT that the CAD representation of your parts
contains no unwanted gaps.

It is also worth noting some limitations of Sensor results near XACT-enabled parts:

Surface sensors on XACT parts will show results from the staircase mesh of the part (the same
as non-XACT parts), not the surface of the part. A typical case is to place a surface sensor on
an XACT part to obtain current density (J) in order to capture current on the surface of the part.
However the result can be confusing, especially for small, thin parts, since what is captured and
subsequently rendered is J on the stair-case mesh surrounding the part. The actual surface current
density computation will be included in a future version of XFdtd.

Near XACT geometry, there are multiple possible places to measure E-Fields on each E-edge or
H-Fields on an H-edge. For snapped sensors, E-Field and H-Fields are sampled nearest the E-grid
node (this is the case for the previous note). For interpolated sensors, the E-Field nearest the center
of the E-edge and the H-Field nearest the center of the H-edge are sampled.

When you use an interpolated surface sensor, the results are rendered in a way that do not appear
staircased, but the field values displayed are interpolated from field values captured at the centers
of staircase mesh edges.

For a snapped sensor, field components that are actually located some distance away from the
node are co-located at an E-grid node. E.g. The Ex component reported at a grid node is actually
measured a half cell away in the +X direction and the Hx component reported there is measured a
half cell away in the +Y and +Z directions. This may add some confusion, because depending on

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172 Defining the Grid and Creating a Mesh

what side of the body the sensor is attached to, the displayed field components may be from the
other side of the body.

8.3.5 Solid Meshing Options

Under most circumstances, the solid meshing options are not necessary. These options may be advanta-
geous in projects that have small features that are not adequately considered by default meshing opera-
tions. Figure 8.24 shows the solid meshing options in the M ESHING P ROPERTIES E DITOR.

Figure 8.24: The Meshing Properties Editor for a solid model part

Only mesh object surface

The O NLY MESH OBJECT SURFACE option meshes the shell of the physical object rather than its entire
volume.

Invert the direction of surface rounding

If the edge of an object falls in the center of a cell rather than at a cell edge, XFdtd’s default behavior is
to round the object away from the center of the object. Selecting I NVERT THE DIRECTION OF SURFACE
ROUNDING will invert this behavior and round the edge inward, towards the center of the object. This
usually is not necessary but may be useful in cases where an object is very close to another. In this
instance, rounding a surface outward can cause the objects’ edges to touch and result in a short circuit that
may cause inconsistent results.

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Defining the Grid and Creating a Mesh 173

Aggressive surface meshing

AGGRESSIVE SURFACE MESHING should only be enabled for an object that is very small compared to the
projects’ cell size. This option will create a more detailed mesh around smaller features to ensure that they
are surrounded with cell edges. This would be necessary for small feature whose electrical conductivity
may be compromised without detailed meshing.

8.3.6 Volume Meshing Options

Several additional settings are available when assigning mesh properties for volumetric parts, such as
voxels. Figure 8.25 shows the volume meshing options in the M ESHING P ROPERTIES E DITOR.

Figure 8.25: The Meshing Properties Editor for a volumetric part

Volume meshing method

There are two VOLUME M ESHING M ETHOD algorithms available for converting the volumetric data to cell
edge data. Both methods use an intersection method to determine how much of a given volume is con-
tained inside of a cell edge. Therefore, it is applied to every volume that intersects the cell edge. The data
is combined to measure the percentage that each material fills in each cell edge. These percentage fill
values are in increments of a half of a percentage point. This information is then used based on which
algorithm is selected.

• The first method, refered to as the D OMINANT M ATERIAL meshing algorithm, evaluates the list of
percentage fill values, and then chooses the material that has the largest percent fill to apply as the
final material for that cell edge.

• The second method, refered to as the AVERAGED M ATERIAL meshing algorithm, uses the percent
fill values for each cell edge to generate an ”averaged material.” These averaged materials are
maintained in a separate list from the original materials of the geometry.

Degradation level

The D EGRADATION LEVEL is available in the AVERAGED volume meshing method. It dictates how non-
averaged materials intersecting the volume of the cell edge are to be grouped and considered for averaging,

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174 Defining the Grid and Creating a Mesh

by defining the size of a set of bins that represent a percentage of the total cell edge volume. For example,
a degradation level of 4 subdivides the total volume (100%) by 4, meaning each bin represents 25% of the
volume. Therefore, for consideration in the averaged material, a non-averaged material must fill at least half
of the bin, or 12.5% of the total volume. By defining a course resolution for material consideration we are
able to condense the number of averaged materials, keeping memory and calculation speed reasonable
while providing a user-defined level of accuracy.

Volume calculation method

The VOLUME CALCULATION METHOD determines the accuracy of the rendered volume. It directly relates to
the D EGRADATION LEVEL, as it determines the amount of material volume that fills a cell. A PPROXIMATE
is sufficient for most calculations, and runs most efficently. E XACT is a better choice when it’s important to
resolve structures that are changing rapidly within the size of a cell. By definition, it is more accurate but
also requires more memory.

8.4 Touching Objects

The FDTD mesh is a discretization of a continuous 3-D space into cells of user-specified size. The process
of transferring these geometric representations into this discretized space (meshing) can lead to unintended
artifacts. One common situation that arises is that two objects in the geometry that are very close together,
but not touching, end up intersecting in the mesh. Such an artifact can lead to inaccurate results due to a
short-circuiting effect in the calculation. The user traditionally has two options in this case. The first is to
move the two objects further apart, which may not be possible given the design of the geometry. The other
is to create cells small enough in that region to resolve the separation between the objects, which may lead
to an extremely large number of cells and a dramatic increase of computation resources required to run
the simulation.

XFdtd provides a third option to alleviate the work required by the user. This is the role of the TOUCHING
O BJECTS functionality. There are two tools available for the user to identify and correct any unintended
artifacts caused by meshing or geometric positioning.

• The first, T EST O BJECTS IN CAD S PACE , tests two objects for a CAD space intersection. It will
report to the user if two objects are actually touching in non-discretized space.

• The second, S EPARATE O BJECTS IN M ESH , allows the user to create a relationship between two
objects that will ensure they are separated in the final mesh by a user-defined number of cells.

These tools allow the user to maintain a separation while not sacrificing computational complexity or geo-
metric design.

8.4.1 Test Objects in CAD Space

In order to find out whether two objects are actually touching, XFdtd provides the T EST O BJECTS IN CAD
S PACE function to test the selected objects. This can be done by holding C TRL and selecting two objects
in either the G EOMETRY workspace window or under the PARTS branch of the P ROJECT T REE. Then
test the objects by selecting TOUCHING O BJECTS > T EST O BJECTS IN CAD S PACE, as shown in Figure
8.26.

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Defining the Grid and Creating a Mesh 175

Figure 8.26: The Touching Objects menu

A dialogue will appear with the results. The user will also have the option of ensuring that the objects are
separated in the mesh, as seen in Figure 8.27. If Y ES is selected, the S EPARATE O BJECTS IN M ESH dialog
will appear, as described in the following section.

Figure 8.27: The Touching Object Test dialog

8.4.2 Separate Objects in Mesh

Defining a separation operation between two objects ensures that a gap of user-defined size is maintained
despite discretization or geometric positioning. To perform this operation, select two objects and navigate
to TOUCHING O BJECTS > S EPARATE O BJECTS IN M ESH, (seen in Figure 8.26 above). The dialog seen
in Figure 8.28 will appear.

• The P RIMARY M ODEL is separated from the S ECONDARY M ODEL. Ensure they are identified appro-
priately. Pressing S WAP I NPUTS will reverse their labels.

• Define the S EPARATION D ISTANCE ( CELLS ) between the two objects. This is the number of cells that
is “taken away” from the S ECONDARY M ODEL in the meshing operation.

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176 Defining the Grid and Creating a Mesh

• Specify the F ILL

MATERIAL to use, if any. If no material is specified then the material existing in the
mesh under the removed object will be used.

This is a very powerful concept, as it means that any complex configuration of materials may
exist in the gap between two objects, and that information is not lost by performing the opera-
tion.

Figure 8.28: The Separate Objects in Mesh dialog

To illustrate this concept, consider the case of two touching cubes made of different materials. A mesh
separation of 2 cells and a different (red) material is applied, with the smaller (purple) cube as the P RIMARY
M ODEL and the larger (blue) cube as the S ECONDARY M ODEL. Though the geometry is unaffected, the
mesh separation is visible when viewing the geometry in M ESH V IEW, as seen in Figure 8.29.

Figure 8.29: Touching objects geometry (left) and mesh view (right) with a 2-cell mesh separation applied

Once this relationship is specified it will be maintained and updated appropriately in the mesh and nothing
further is required by the user. If the user decides to delete one of the operands, the operation will be
automatically removed; and if the user re-orients or changes materials on the operands, the operation
will reflect that appropriately. The mesh separation is managed from the FDTD > M ESH branch of
the P ROJECT T REE.

XFdtd 7.3.0 Reference Manual

Chapter 9

Defining Outer Boundary Conditions

In this chapter, you will learn...

→ how to distinguish absorbing and reflecting boundaries in XFdtd

→ how to choose which boundary type to use for your project calculation

Specifying an outer radiation boundary is necessary to indicate how the calculation treats the boundaries
of the problem space. During an XFdtd calculation, the fields updated at every cell location are dependent
upon the neighboring fields. However, due to memory limitations, the fields on the outer edges of the
grid cannot be updated correctly because the grid must be a finite size. To correct this situation, outer
radiation boundary conditions are applied at the edges of the XFdtd grid. Thus, the performance of the
outer boundaries is a significant factor in the accuracy of the calculation, and it is important to use them
correctly. This chapter details several available options for defining the outer boundaries of an XFdtd
project.

Outer boundaries are defined in the O UTER B OUNDARY E DITOR, located in the FDTD: O UTER
B OUNDARY branch of the P ROJECT T REE, as seen in Figure 9.1.

Figure 9.1: Outer Boundary Branch

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178 Defining Outer Boundary Conditions

9.1 Absorbing Boundaries vs Reflecting Boundaries

The outer radiation boundary is a method for absorbing fields propagating from the XFdtd grid toward the
boundary. By absorbing these fields, the grid appears to extend infinitely; however, it is actually finite
in order to fall within reasonable memory usage. There are two numerical absorbers designed to allow
electromagnetic fields radiated or scattered by the FDTD geometry to be absorbed with very little reflection
from the boundary. These include a P ERFECTLY M ATCHED L AYER (PML) and a second-order, stabilized
L IAO radiation boundary.

In some cases a reflecting boundary rather than an absorbing one is preferred. A perfectly conducting
boundary (either electric, PEC, or magnetic, PMC) may be used in these cases, for example, to
provide a ground plane, or to image the fields in an XFdtd calculation.

The Liao and PML boundaries may not be mixed together in the same calculation. Furthermore, PML may
not be used with the PMC boundary. The Liao boundary may be used with both PEC and PMC boundaries.

The default boundary condition for XFdtd is PML.

In addition, XFdtd has P ERIODIC boundary conditions that allow periodic structures to be modeled.
These boundary conditions equate the corresponding outer surfaces of the mesh.

Figure 9.2 shows the O UTER B OUNDARY E DITOR.

Figure 9.2: The Outer Boundary Editor

9.2 Liao Boundary

The L IAO outer boundary condition is an estimation method, which is makes it fundamentally different
from PML boundary conditions. By looking into the FDTD space and back in time, it estimates the
electric fields just outside the limits of the FDTD mesh. These estimated values are then used in the FDTD
equations inside the space. The Liao estimation assumes that waves are allowed to travel outward from

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Defining Outer Boundary Conditions 179

the space but not reflect back in. This method works well provided that there is enough space between
the radiating geometry and the outer boundary. Typical limits are at least 10 cells of spacing to ensure that
instability does not occur.

For more on calculation instability, see Section 11.3.5.

A homogeneous dielectric may be located against the Liao boundary. For example, in a lossy earth or strip
line calculation, the earth or dielectric layer may touch the outer boundary. Liao will usually function well
in this situation provided that there are no air gaps within five cells of the Liao boundary. Liao assumes
homogeneous material within five cells, and if this is not the case then the XFdtd calculation will usually be
unstable with rapidly rising field amplitudes.

Since Liao is an estimation method, the size of the FDTD mesh is not increased by using it. Some storage is
needed for saving electric values at previous timesteps, but this is usually negligible in a typical calculation.

9.3 PML Boundary

The P ERFECTLY M ATCHED L AYER (PML) boundary condition is offered as an alternative to Liao. PML is
an artificial absorbing material that absorbs the incident energy as it propagates through the PML layers.
Better absorption, that is, smaller reflection, is obtained by adding more layers at the expense of increasing
the size of the FDTD mesh. For example, consider an XFdtd calculation on a mesh using the Liao absorber
that is 50 x 60 x 70 cells or a total of 210,000 cells. There is a 15 cell free space border all around
the geometry so that the Liao boundaries can provide small reflections. If the Liao is changed to seven
PML layers, the geometry mesh will not change. However, outside of this defined mesh region, seven
additional FDTD mesh layers are added on each side of the geometry. This means that the actual number
of FDTD cells that must be calculated grows to 64 x 74 x 84 or 397,824 cells, almost double. This, coupled
with the fact that PML cells require more arithmetic operations than normal cells, means that there is a
computational penalty for using the PML boundary condition over Liao.

However, the benefit of using the PML layers is that they provide better absorption than Liao even with only
a five-cell border of free space, and perhaps only six PML layers would provide this. In such a situation,
calculation time would be saved. Making this comparison would require meshing the object again with a
smaller free space margin to the outer boundary. This can be done easily in XFdtd using the mesh tab and
choosing a smaller padding around the geometry.

Both PML and Liao boundary conditions are offered to provide flexibility. Both methods should provide
similar results when properly used, although in most cases, particularly when low frequencies (compared
to the cell size) are used, PML is superior. It is recommended that PML boundary conditions are used
whenever possible and therefore this is the default boundary condition in XFdtd.

9.4 PEC Boundary

In some situations, terminating one or more faces of the FDTD geometry space with a P ERFECT E LEC -
TRIC C ONDUCTOR (PEC) outer boundary is advantageous. For example, the conducting ground plane of
a microstrip could be located on one face of the FDTD space.

If all of the outer boundaries of the calculation are not absorbing, a P LANE WAVE should not be used to
excite the calculation and the far-zone transformations will not provide correct results for far-zone fields.

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180 Defining Outer Boundary Conditions

The sole exception is in the case of one PEC boundary and five absorbing boundaries, which will compute
far zone over infinite PEC ground.

An edge of the FDTD space should be set to PEC using the PEC Boundary Condition. Do not
set FDTD cells to PEC material in the geometry and set the outer boundary to absorbing, as this will
cause instabilities in the calculation.

9.5 PMC Boundary

The P ERFECT M AGNETIC C ONDUCTOR (PMC) outer boundary condition may be useful in reducing the
size of the FDTD mesh, memory requirements, and calculation time by taking advantage of symmetries in
the geometry. For example, this condition would be a good choice in a symmetric problem space where
magnetic fields are strictly normal to a plane.

9.6 Periodic Boundary

Similar to the PMC boundary condition, the P ERIODIC boundary condition may be useful in taking ad-
vantage of geometry/field symmetry to reduce the size of the FDTD mesh and therefore the memory and
calculation time required. In this case the upper and lower edges of the mesh are forced to be equal during
the analysis. This may be useful for cases when small geometries are repeated over and over (i.e. optics
examples).

See Section 11.1.1 for more about using the periodic boundary with P LANE WAVE excitations.

XFdtd 7.3.0 Reference Manual

Chapter 10

Saving Output Data with Sensors

In this chapter, you will learn...

→ how to use sensors to save the results of your XFdtd project calculation
→ how to choose the correct sensor to use depending on the type of data you want to save

S ENSORS are objects that save data during a simulation. Any type of data that can be saved in XFdtd
will be saved with a sensor. The type of data that is saved by a sensor is dependent on the sensor type, as
well as the specific data that is requested within various sensor editors. There are various types of sensors
that are available within XFdtd, including:

• S YSTEM sensors
• P ORT sensors

• N EAR F IELD sensors, including:

– P OINT sensors

– S URFACE sensors

– R ECTANGULAR sensors

– P LANAR sensors

– S OLID PART sensors

– S OLID B OX sensors

• FAR Z ONE sensors

• H EARING A ID C OMPATIBILITY (HAC) sensors

• S PECIFIC A BSORPTION R ATE (SAR) sensors

Result objects are generated based on the sensor objects that are defined in the project.

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182 Saving Output Data with Sensors

After a sensor is placed, an editor is used to define its characteristics based on the output data that it is to
retrieve. Each type of sensor has its own respective editor window, and is enabled by default. (Disabling
the sensor will prevent it from collecting data from the calculation engine.) This chapter details the process
of adding sensors to a project and requesting specific results with each type of sensor.

10.1 Sensor Tools

In general, sensors added to the project within the S ENSOR TOOLS dialog (with the exception of S YSTEM,
P ORT and SAR sensors). There are two ways to open this dialog. The first is to choose S ENSOR
TOOLS from the drop-down list in the G EOMETRY workspace window. The second is to right-click on the
S ENSORS branch of the P ROJECT T REE and the desired sensor type.

S YSTEM sensors are automatically added to every XFdtd project, as described in Section 10.4.

Section 10.5 briefly describes P ORT sensors and the data the collect. They are added by setting
a component property. See Section 7.1.1 for details.

SAR sensors are added by double-clicking on the sensor in the P ROJECT T REE. See Section
10.6 for more on SAR sensors.

Figure 10.1 shows the S ENSOR TOOLS menu.

Figure 10.1: The Sensor Tools menu

The following sections detail the process of adding each type of sensor within S ENSOR TOOLS, defining
its associated characteristics, and requesting the desired output data to be calculated by the sensor.

10.2 Near Field Sensors

N EAR F IELD sensors save time-domain and/or frequency-domain near zone field quantities at specific
points, surfaces or volumes within the bounds of calculation space. In general, field data is retrived us-
ing the P OINT, S URFACE, or S OLID sensors, and hearing aid field values are recorded using the

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Saving Output Data with Sensors 183

H EARING A ID C OMPATIBILITY (HAC) sensor. Solid sensor results can be viewed as 2-D plots, and both
Solid and Surface sensors can be viewed as 3-D field sequences (excluding Point sensor data).

See Section 12.3.1 and Section 12.4.1, respectively, for more on viewing 2-D and 3-D results.

10.2.1 Field Retrieval

The field quantities of X -, Y -, and Z -directed electric (E) and magnetic (H) fields may be saved at a
specific point, across a surface, or throughout a volume with a P OINT sensor, S URFACE sensor, or
S OLID sensor, respectively. Additionally, X -, Y -, and Z -directed conduction current density (J) may be
collected with any of these sensors. When a near-zone source is used as the input, the total field values
are available. With an incident P LANE WAVE input, the scattered and total electric and magnetic fields
may be saved in addition to the total current density.

Samplings of near field data may be saved by specifying S AMPLING T IME R ANGE in any of the near field
sensor definition windows. Near field data will be collected in specific planes of the geometry during the
XFdtd calculation at every interval specified within the definition. A field file containing the electric and
magnetic fields and the current will be created for each timestep specified. For example, setting an entry
beginning at timestep 100, ending at timestep 1000, with an increment of 100 will create 10 field files which
may be viewed as a movie after the XFdtd calculation is performed.

Be aware of the number of field slices to save, as they can store enormous amounts of data. Single
field files may contain megabytes of data depending on the number of cells in the specified plane.

10.2.1.1 Point Sensors

A P OINT S ENSOR is positioned at a specific point-location in the simulation space, and can be defined
by the location of a specific vertex in a part object or by a Cartesian 3-D expression. The sensor records
data as it occurs at the specified point in space.

Point sensors record data by means of field interpolation or geometric ”snapping”. When using the interpo-
lated sampling method, the field components are interpolated to the exact location of the point sensor. This
is performed by linear interpolation among the surrounding eight appropriate field value sample points (e.g.
when measuring Ex , the eight surrounding X -directed edge centers are used for the interpolation, and
when measuring Hx , the eight surrounding X -directed cell face center points are used for the interpola-
tion). When using the snapped sampling method, the location of the point sensor is snapped to the nearest
E-grid cell vertex. Field components for snapped point sensors come from the cell whose lowest-index
corner is defined by the snapped location of the sensor. The sensor location is thus dependent on the grid
definition.

Point Sensor Properties

To define a P OINT S ENSOR, open the point sensor properties dialog under S ENSOR TOOLS. In the
L OCATION tab, define the sensor location manually by typing in its coordinates, or automatically by click-
ing on the intended location in the simulation space with the S ELECTION tool. In the P ROPERTIES
tab, enter the name of the sensor, select the desired P OINT S ENSOR D EFINITION, choose the sampling
method (as described above), and enable the sensor.

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184 Saving Output Data with Sensors

Figure 10.2 shows the P OINT S ENSOR properties dialog.

Figure 10.2: Point Sensor properties dialog

Point Sensor Definition Editor

The P OINT S ENSOR D EFINITION E DITOR is used to create definitions for P OINT S ENSORS.

To access the editor, double-click on an existing P OINT S ENSOR D EFINITION in the D EFINITIONS :
S ENSOR DATA D EFINITIONS branch of the P ROJECT T REE. If no point sensor definition is present,
right-click on this branch and select N EW P OINT S ENSOR D EFINITION.

In the F IELDS TO S AVE region of the editor, select the desired point sensor output data to save:

• E: Electric Field Intensity time

• H: Magnetic Field Intensity vs time
• B: Magnetic Flux Density vs time
• J: Current Density vs time
• S CATTERED E: Scattered Electric Field vs time
• S CATTERED H: Scattered Magnetic Field vs time
• S CATTERED B: Scattered Magnetic Induction Field vs time
Scattered field values can be retrieved only if a G AUSSIAN B EAM or a scattered field
P LANE WAVE external excitation is used to excite the simulation.

Figure 10.3 shows the P OINT S ENSOR D EFINITION E DITOR.

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Saving Output Data with Sensors 185

Figure 10.3: Point Sensor Definition Editor

Define the S AMPLING T IME R ANGE by entering the S TART T IME and E ND T IME, or by simply checking
S TART OF S IMULATION and E ND OF S IMULATION to automatically assign the sampling time range to these
values. The U SE P ROJECT VALUE option defines the Sampling Interval using the project T IME D OMAIN
DATA S AMPLING I NTERVAL. Alternatively, the S AMPLING I NTERVAL can be used to indicate how often data
is saved within this time range.

10.2.1.2 Surface Sensors

Surface sensors collect data on one or more faces of a geometric object in the simulation space. Like
P OINT S ENSORS, they can be interpolated or mesh-snapped.

There are three types of surface sensors in XFdtd:

• S ENSOR ON M ODEL S URFACE

• R ECTANGULAR S ENSOR

• P LANAR S ENSOR

See Section 10.2.1.2 to reference the output data that can be retrieved by a surface sensor after it
has been created within S ENSOR TOOLS.

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186 Saving Output Data with Sensors

Sensor on Model Surface Properties

To define a S ENSOR ON M ODEL S URFACE, select the object in the simulation space that the sensor will
be attached to by clicking on it in the P ICK M ODEL tab. In the P ICK FACES tab, select the specific face
to attach the surface sensor. Finally, in the P ROPERTIES tab, assign the new sensor a N AME, D EFINITION
and S AMPLING M ETHOD, and enable the sensor.

All faces of the object chosen in the P ICK M ODEL tab are selected by default. Skip the P ICK
FACES tab if you don’t need to single out a specific one.

D EFINITION, as mentioned here and in the following two sensor descriptions, refers to definitions
stored in the D EFINITIONS : S ENSOR DATA D EFINITIONS branch of the P ROJECT T REE.

Figure 10.4 shows the S ENSOR ON M ODEL S URFACE properties dialog.

Figure 10.4: Sensor on Model Surface properties dialog

Rectangular Sensor Properties

Define a R ECTANGULAR S ENSOR by first using the O RIENTATION tab to choose the plane in which
the rectangle is defined. Then, use the R ECTANGLE tab to define the rectangle’s two opposite corners.
Finally, under the P ROPERTIES tab, assign the sensor a N AME, D EFINITION and S AMPLING M ETHOD,
and enable the sensor.

See Section 5.5 for an explanation of the O RIENTATION tab.

Figure 10.5 shows the R ECTANGULAR S ENSOR properties dialog.

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Saving Output Data with Sensors 187

Figure 10.5: Rectangular Sensor properties dialog

Planar Sensor Properties

The P LANAR S ENSOR uses a point and normal direction defined in the O RIENTATION tab to de-
fine an entire plane (within the boundaries of the simulation space) to collect sensor data. Select the
P ROPERTIES tab and assign the sensor a N AME, D EFINITION and S AMPLING M ETHOD, and enable the
sensor.

Figure 10.6 shows the P LANAR S ENSOR properties dialog.

Figure 10.6: Planar Sensor properties dialog

Surface Sensor Definition Editor

The S URFACE S ENSOR D EFINITION E DITOR window is used to assign definitions associated with a
S URFACE S ENSOR.

To access the editor, double-click on an existing S URFACE S ENSOR D EFINITION in the D EFINITIONS :
S ENSOR DATA D EFINITIONS branch of the P ROJECT T REE. If no surface sensor definition is present,
right-click on this branch and select N EW S URFACE S ENSOR D EFINITION.

In the F IELDS TO S AVE area of the editor, select the desired surface sensor output data to save:

• E: Electric Field Intensity time

• H: Magnetic Field Intensity vs time
• B: Magnetic Flux Density vs time
• J: Current Density vs time

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• S CATTERED E: Scattered Electric Field vs time

• S CATTERED H: Scattered Magnetic Field vs time
• S CATTERED B: Scattered Magnetic Induction Field vs time
Scattered field values can be retrieved only if a G AUSSIAN B EAM or a scattered field
P LANE WAVE external excitation is used to excite the simulation.

• S TEADY E: Steady Electric Field vs frequency

• S TEADY H: Steady Magnetic Field vs frequency
• S TEADY B: Steady Magnetic Induction Field vs frequency
• S TEADY J: Steady Current Density Field vs frequency
• D ISSIPATED P OWER D ENSITY: Volumetric dissipated power density vs frequency
Figure 10.7 shows the S URFACE S ENSOR D EFINITION E DITOR.

Figure 10.7: Surface Sensor Definition Editor

Define the S AMPLING T IME R ANGE by entering the S TART T IME and E ND T IME, or by simply checking
S TART OF S IMULATION and E ND OF S IMULATION to automatically assign the sampling time range to these
values. The U SE P ROJECT VALUE option defines the Sampling Interval using the project T IME D OMAIN
DATA S AMPLING I NTERVAL. Alternatively, the S AMPLING I NTERVAL can be used to indicate how often data
is saved within this time range.

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10.2.1.3 Solid Sensors

Solid sensors collect data by capturing mesh-snapped fields within a volumetric space (interpolated data
is not available).

There are two types of solid sensors in XFdtd:

• S OLID PART S ENSOR

• S OLID B OX S ENSOR

See Section 10.2.1.3 to reference the output data that can be retrieved by a solid sensor after it has
been created within S ENSOR TOOLS.

Solid Part Sensor Properties

A S OLID PART S ENSOR simply assumes the shape of the part that is selected in the P ICK M ODEL tab.
Enable the sensor and assign it a N AME and D EFINITION in the P ROPERTIES TAB.

D EFINITION, as mentioned here and in the following sensor description, refers to definitions stored
in the D EFINITIONS : S ENSOR DATA D EFINITIONS branch of the P ROJECT T REE.

Figure 10.8 shows the S OLID PART S ENSOR properties dialog.

Figure 10.8: Solid Part Sensor properties dialog

Solid Box Sensor Properties

A S OLID B OX S ENSOR assumes the shape of a 3-D box. This shape is dictated by the O RIGIN location
defined in the O RIENTATION tab, and its farthest corner is defined in the O PPOSITE C ORNER TAB.
Enable the sensor and assign it a N AME and D EFINITION in the P ROPERTIES TAB.

See Section 5.5 for an explanation of the O RIENTATION tab.

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Figure 10.9: Solid Box Sensor properties dialog

Figure 10.9 shows the S OLID B OX S ENSOR properties dialog.

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Solid Sensor Definition Editor

The S OLID S ENSOR D EFINITION E DITOR is used to create a definition for a S OLID S ENSOR.

To access the editor, double-click on an existing S OLID S ENSOR D EFINITION in the D EFINITIONS :
S ENSOR DATA D EFINITIONS branch of the P ROJECT T REE. If no solid sensor definition is present, right-
click on this branch and select N EW S OLID S ENSOR D EFINITION.

In the F IELDS TO S AVE area of the editor, select the desired solid sensor output data to save:

• E: Electric Field Intensity time

• H: Magnetic Field Intensity vs time
• B: Magnetic Flux Density vs time
• J: Current Density vs time
• S CATTERED E: Scattered Electric Field vs time
• S CATTERED H: Scattered Magnetic Field vs time
• S CATTERED B: Scattered Magnetic Induction Field vs time
Scattered field values can be retrieved only if a G AUSSIAN B EAM or a scattered field
P LANE WAVE external excitation is used to excite the simulation.

• S TEADY E: Steady Electric Field vs frequency

• S TEADY H: Steady Magnetic Field vs frequency
• S TEADY B: Steady Magnetic Induction Field vs frequency
• S TEADY J: Steady Current Density Field vs frequency
• D ISSIPATED P OWER D ENSITY: Volumetric dissipated power density vs frequency
Figure 10.10 shows the S OLID S ENSOR D EFINITION E DITOR.

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Figure 10.10: Solid Sensor Definition Editor

Define the S AMPLING T IME R ANGE by entering the S TART T IME and E ND T IME, or by simply checking
S TART OF S IMULATION and E ND OF S IMULATION to automatically assign the sampling time range to these
values. The U SE P ROJECT VALUE option defines the Sampling Interval using the project T IME D OMAIN
DATA S AMPLING I NTERVAL. Alternatively, the S AMPLING I NTERVAL can be used to indicate how often data
is saved within this time range.

10.2.2 Hearing Aid Compatibility Sensors

H EARING A ID C OMPATIBILITY (HAC) sensors gather data on a 5cm by 5cm arbitrarily-oriented rectangle
in free space. They are used to determine if a wireless device (such as a cellphone) will generate elec-
trical and magnetic fields large enough to interfere with a hearing aid. In these cases, they are useful for
evaluating the wearer’s ability to adjust the position of the phone to a better location.

The HAC sensor is centered at the origin of the coordinate system described in the G EOMETRY tab.

This sensor collects steady-state E and H fields at grid points near the HAC plane at each frequency of
interest. These values can be then interpolated onto the plane at a user-defined spatial resolution.

Figure 10.11 shows the H EARING A ID C OMPATIBILITY (HAC) properties dialog.

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Figure 10.11: HAC Sensor properties dialog

10.3 Far Zone Sensors

FAR Z ONE S ENSORS are located at theoretical infinite distance from the simulation geometry. They are
only available in the absence of PMC or periodic outer boundary conditions, or when more than one PEC
boundary is used.

To set up a Far Zone Sensor, under the G EOMETRY tab, choose the T HETA /P HI, A LPHA /E PSILON, or
E LEVATION /A ZIMUTH coordinate system. Far zone sensors can be created with one of the following ge-
ometries:

• A range of theta/alpha/elevation over a constant (single) phi/epsilon/azimuth

• A range of theta/alpha/elevation over a range of phi/epsilon/azimuth
• A range of phi/epsilon/azimuth over a constant (single) theta/alpha/elevation
Figure 10.12 demonstrates the transformation of the far zone sensor based on the defined geometry in the
T HETA /P HI coordinate system.

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Figure 10.12: Several Far Zone sensor geometries

As seen under the P ROPERTIES tab, XFdtd has the ability to compute both a steady-state far-zone (near-
to-far) and a broadband far-zone transform. These two options are described below.

Steady-state far-zone transformations

Steady-state transformations are particularly advantageous because the calculation overhead is minimal.
They do not require the definition of specific far-zone angles before the FDTD computation, since all pat-
terns are computed in post-processing using data that is automatically stored by the XFdtd calculation
engine. Instead, the calculation saves the tangential electric and magnetic fields on the far-zone transfor-
mation surface at two timesteps, near the end of the calculation when the system should be in steady state.
This sampling determines the complex tangential fields on the far-zone surface at the excitation frequency.
These fields are then used in post-processing to provide radiation gain or bistatic scattering in any far-zone
direction at any pattern increment. This saves considerable computer time and memory if many far-zone
directions are required.

Additionally, the selection of a steady-state far-zone transformation computes the single frequency input
impedance, total input power, radiated power, and radiation efficiency. All values computed require that the
calculation has reached steady state.

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Figure 10.13: Defining a Far Zone sensor

The far-zone gain is displayed in units of dBi. This is the number of decibels of gain of an antenna refer-
enced to the zero dB gain of a free-space isotropic radiator. This value is calculated based on the net power
available at the source voltage output. Realized Gain (based on the net available power) and Directivity
(proportional to radiated power) are also available for plotting.

Broadband far-zone transformations

The broadband far-zone calculation should be used when broadband results are desired, since the steady-
state transform is only performed for a single frequency. This calculation requires extra time for each
far-zone angle specified, and unlike steady-state far-zone transformations, all far-zone angles must be
defined before running the calculation engine. The broadband far-zone calculation is intended for use in
cases where broadband far-zone results at a few points are desired since it is computationally intensive.
This calculation will also be desired in instances when far-zone time-domain fields are needed (see below).

Since the calculation is computationally intensive, a sampling interval has been introduced to reduce the
number of times it is done during a simulation. The interval can be set manually or computed automati-
cally (the default), and can be found in the Far Zone Sensor editor’s Properties tab. When the broadband
sampling interval is set to “Use Project Value” and the Project’s value is set to “Use Automatic Time Do-
main Sampling Interval” (in the Project Properties), the project’s Frequency Range of Interest and active
waveforms are examined to compute the sampling interval.

A feature of the broadband far-zone transformation is that the time-domain far-zone electric fields can also
generated and may be plotted. However, a sampling interval greater than one (which the automatic setting
will usually do) disables the computation of time domain far-zone results. In order to receive the time
domain data, make sure the Broadband Sampling Interval in the Far Zone Sensor’s properties is set to
“1*timestep”. When an automatic sampling interval is used, the solver’s diagnostics file will report the value
used in the simulation.

If detailed gain patterns versus angle are necessary, you may reduce calculation time by enabling
only steady-state data collection for your sensor and specifying a DFT frequency for your simulation
at each frequency you are interested in.

See Sections 12.3.1 and 12.4.2 for more on viewing field results for each angle of the far-zone
calculation.

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10.4 System Sensors

A S YSTEM sensor is automatically added as a part of each XFdtd project. It collects data within the
simulation space which is not applicable to other types of sensors. System sensor results are provided for
each run, and these results are defined by the time dependence.

See Sections 12.2.1 and 12.3.1 to review numerical and plotted results retrieved by System sensors.

System sensor results can be rescaled based on user input. See Section 12.4.3.3 for details.

10.5 Port Sensors

P ORT sensors save near-zone voltage and current data at the location of a circuit component. They are
automatically added to the project when a circuit component is added and its T HIS COMPONENT IS A PORT
property is checked under the P ROPERTIES tab.

Each Port sensor can have a different source resistance. See Section 7.2.2.2 for more information
on specifying the source resistance.

See Sections 12.2.1 and 12.3.1 to review numerical and plotted results retrieved by Port sensors.

10.5.1 S-Parameter, Group Delay, VSWR and Reflection Coefficient Calculations

When S-Parameter computation is enabled in the C REATE S IMULATION dialog, P ORT sensors will also
save data used to compute S-Parameters, Group Delay, VSWR, and reflection coefficient. When multiple
ACTIVE F EEDS exist in the simulation, enabling S-Parameter computations results in multiple runs where
each feed is activated in turn with all other feeds made inactive by replacing them with lumped components
with the same impedance configuration. S-Parameters will be computed at each port with respect to each
active feed.

When there are multiple active feeds in the simulation and S-Parameter computations are not enabled in
the C REATE S IMULATION window, all feeds will be active simultaneously. Results defined for when only one
feed is active in the system, such as S-Parameters, will not be available. In this case, Voltage, Current,
and Loss are available at each port as well as Active VWSR, which is the same as VSWR but with the
allowance for multiple active sources.

S-Parameters at each Port sensor are calculated using the characteristic impedance retrieved from
the circuit component definitions of that port and the active feed.

See Section 11.1.1 for more on configuring S-Parameter calculations in the C REATE S IMULATION
dialog.

10.6 SAR Sensors

XFdtd has several features that fall under the category of biological applications. For compliance with reg-
ulations on field absorption in human tissue, the Specific Absorption Rates (SARs) can be computed and

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averaged. Detailed human body meshes are available for simulations related to effects on realistic hetero-
geneous models of the body. For some wireless applications, the Specific Anthropomorphic Mannequin
(SAM) head is used in addition to the heterogeneous human head (see Figure 10.14).

Figure 10.14: The Specific Anthropomorphic Mannequin (SAM) head

The Specific Absorption Rate, or SAR, is the unit of measure commonly used to determine the interaction
of electromagnetic fields with human tissue. Most regulations involving devices producing electromagnetic
fields must not exceed some exposure limits, typically defined in terms of the SAR averaged over a cubical
volume of tissue.

As an example, the IEEE sets exposure levels in terms of 1 g averaging volumes for most of the
body, with a 10 g averaging volume applying to extremities such as the ears and fingers [3].

SAR is defined in terms of the room mean square (RMS) of the electric field magnitude by the relation

σ|E|2
SAR =
ρ
Where
S
σ is the electrical conductivity in , and
m
kg
ρ is the material density (defined in 3 in XFdtd)
m
Since the FDTD grid defines the electric fields at the edges of the cells, a single SAR value is formed by
summing and averaging the contributions of the 12 electric fields on the edges of the cells. The SAR is
then referenced to the center of the FDTD cell.

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In XFdtd, the SAR is measured with the SAR sensor and may only be computed in normal dielectric
materials. Frequency-dependent materials have a loss term formed by the imaginary part of the permittivity
rather than simply by the conductivity, and are not supported for SAR calculations.

The SAR values are saved only in complete voxels (closed FDTD cells) where all 12 edges of the cell
are lossy dielectric material (non-zero conductivity) with a non-zero density, therefore steady-state values
for SAR and conduction currents will not exist in all planes. To exclude certain materials from a SAR
calculation, simply leave the material density as zero. Saving the SAR in a plane of free-space will not
produce any useful output as all values will be zero.

SAR sensors can be enabled or disabled by right-clicking on the sensor in the P ROJECT T REE and
changing the S ENSOR E NABLED checkbox.

Un-averaged SAR calculation

Un-averaged SAR is measured in XFdtd using the SAR S ENSOR. Note that most specifications which
involve SAR limits are defined in terms of constant-mass regions, so they will require averaged SAR.

Averaged SAR calculation

The averaged SAR calculation is more meaningful under most circumstances. This calculation is defined
by regulations from organizations such as the IEEE and various government bodies. It is computed over
cubical volumes of voxels where no face of the averaging volume is external to the body (and thus full of air
or other non-tissue material). In certain cases, particularly at the surface of the body, the cubical volume
rule can not be satisfied. In those situations, special rules exist for setting the SAR value in a given voxel.

Refer to the IEEE published standards for regulating SAR calculations and setting SAR values [3].

Only one SAR averaging region can be defined per calculation run. Additional averaging can be
performed as a post-processing step, given that sufficient un-averaged SAR was collected for the
region of interest.

Averaged SAR is measured in XFdtd using the SAR AVERAGING S ENSOR. There are several ways to
compute average SAR values in XFdtd, as shown in the SAR AVERAGING tab. One way is to save 1
gram or 10 gram average SAR regions over the F ULL G RID. During the calculation the averaged SAR
values will be computed for all appropriate voxels. This process is time consuming, and since the 10 gram
SAR is only applicable to the extremity tissues, it is not necessary to compute it for the entire geometry.

As an alternative to computing values over the entire grid, the XFdtd interface also has a tool for computing
the average SAR over a B OX R EGION. In this mode, the locations of opposing corners of a rectangular box
are entered. Only Yee cells that are within the box (once the endpoints have been snapped to the nearest
E-grid vertices) will have their average SAR computed. An additional option in this mode specifies whether
all data outside of box is treated as free space in the averaging process. Figure 10.15 displays the B OX
R EGION dialog below.

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Figure 10.15: Requesting averaged SAR statistics in a boxed region

Another alternative is to select the AUTO S UBREGION option. In this case, the M AX /M IN SAR R ATIO is
defined in decibels so that the requested 1 gram or 10 gram average is performed only where applicable,
thus saving a great deal of calculation time. This quantity must be entered as a unitless ratio (amplitude)
or in dBp (a decibel unit with suffix to indicate an absolute unit of electric power). For example, in a typical
application, the extremity tissues would be identified by different material types from the body tissues, so
indicating this value in the M AX /M IN SAR R ATIO would isolate the calculation to that specific region. Figure
10.16 displays this dialog.

Figure 10.16: Requesting averaged SAR statistics in an automatic subregion

XFdtd also offers tissue selection control under the T ISSUE M ATERIALS tab. You can compute averaged
SAR for A LL T ISSUE M ATERIALS, or for S ELECTED E XTREMITY T ISSUE M ATERIALS. In choosing the latter
option, a dialog box will appear with a list of available pre-defined materials to include in the calculation.

10.7 Sensor Visibility

XFdtd offers the user the ability to toggle the visibility of sensor. To turn off a sensor, un-mark the E NABLE
checkbox.

To toggle the visibility of a sensor, right-click on the sensor in the P ROJECT T REE and select either S ET
V ISIBLE, or S ET I NVISIBLE, as seen in Figure 10.17.

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Figure 10.17: Setting the visibility of a sensor

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Chapter 11

Running Calculations

In this chapter, you will learn...

→ how to create and run a simulation

→ how to start the XFdtd calculation engine
→ the main factors to consider before beginning a calculation

After the XFdtd project setup is complete, it is time to run calculations on the geometry. The S IMULATIONS
workspace window stores the project simulation(s). From this window, the user creates, queues and runs
the simulations.

The actual electromagnetic calculations are not made by the XFdtd GUI. Rather, they are run by a separate
program called XFsolver once the finished project has been saved. Usually this process is run from the
GUI, which calls XFsolver as needed. However, the user may also run XFsolver directly from the command
line or from a remote computer. Once the simulations have been run and the desired calculations are
complete, the results can be viewed within the GUI.

11.1 Simulations Workspace Window

The S IMULATIONS workspace window provides the interface to queue projects to be run with XFsolver,
the calculation engine. Figure 11.1 shows the Simulations workspace window.

201
202 Running Calculations

Figure 11.1: The Simulations workspace window

The S IMULATIONS workspace window lists the name of every simulation that has been created for the
project. Its S TATUS column shows whether the simulation has been created, queued, or completed.

This window also provides the user with the ability to choose how to run the simulation on their computer.
Under the Q UEUE drop-down list, specify whether to run the simulation on the CPU or on the hardware
card with XStream hardware acceleration.

See Section 11.3.2 for a description of the Q UEUE drop-down list.

New simulations are created by pressing the C REATE S IMULATION button in the upper-left corner of this
window. The associated definitions are described below.

11.1.1 Creating a New Simulation

Choosing a Source

There are two main options for choosing a source in in XFdtd, as seen in Figure 11.2. When a voltage
or current source is used as an input, check U SE D ISCRETE S OURCES. Alternatively, the user may also
S ELECT E XTERNAL E XCITATION to use as the source. U SE N O S OURCES should be selected in special
cases with the Static Solver. Discrete sources and external excitation sources are briefly described below.

See Section 7.2 for more about discrete sources.

See Section 7.5 for more about plane wave excitations.

See Section 7.6 for more about Gaussian beam excitations.

See Section 7.8 for more about static voltage and the static solver.

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Figure 11.2: Choosing a source for a simulation

Discrete Source. A discrete source is a cell edge on which the electric field is modified by the addition
of some type of input waveform. The cell edge can be modified to behave like a voltage or current source.
All calculations with discrete source input are performed in total field. Antenna and microwave circuit
computations are examples of calculations that may be performed using discrete sources.

Plane Wave. An incident plane wave source is assumed to be infinitely far away so that the constant
field surfaces are planar and normal to the direction of propagation. Calculations of radar cross section
or scattering may be performed using this input. When a plane wave excitation is selected, additional
configuration options will be available on the S PECIFYING F IELD F ORMULATION tab below (see Section
11.1.1).

Gaussian Beam. This choice allows for a focused Gaussian beam source in which the incident electric
field has a two-dimensional, radially-symmetric Gaussian distribution in planes normal to the incident direc-
tion and converges to maximum intensity at the focus point. All calculations with a Gaussian beam source

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204 Running Calculations

are performed in scattered field, though total field values may also be saved and displayed also. Unlike
the plane wave and discrete sources, the Gaussian beam source requires that the source waveform be
sinusoidal. Examples where this type of source is useful include structures used at optical frequencies and
situations where it is desired to illuminate only a portion of the geometry.

No Source. Use No Source requires that one or more static voltage points already exist in the project,
and that the Enable Static Solver checkbox, which appears in the Static Solver tab, is checked. If both of
these requirements are not met, and Use No Source is selected, a warning icon will appear.

Parameter Sweep Setup

Figure 11.3: Setting up a parameter sweep

A PARAMETER SWEEP defines the values used for a particular Parameter when the simulation is cre-
ated. Parameter sweeps facilitate simulation creation by methodically altering project parameter values and
therefore the project’s state. Multiple project states are represented, as an individual run, inside of a single
simulation. Each run assumes one of the parameter combinations defined in the parameter sweeps.

PARAMETER SEQUENCES by themselves don’t have any settings but instead serve as a container for
parameter sweeps. Inside each sequence, a matrix is formed using the values of the contained parameter
sweeps. A parameter sequence may only define the values for each project parameter once but multiple
sequences can be used if needed.

The interface for creating and editing sequences and sweeps consists of two parts. On the left is a tree for
summary, creation and deletion. The right side is used to edit the parameters of the sweeps. The following
sections describe these two halves in more detail.

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Figure 11.4: Parameter sequences tree interface

The tree structure shows the grouping of sweeps into sequences. Each sequence reports the number
of runs defined by the matrix of values in the contained sweeps. The sweeps show the parameter being
defined, the number of values and the first and last value. If any of the entries represented by the tree are
in an invalid state the yellow error triangle will appear at the right side of the corresponding row. Along the
top of the tree are buttons to create a new sequence, create a new sweep, delete, undo and redo.

Figure 11.5: Parameter sweep entry methods

Sweep editing has three different entry methods but the overall philosophy remains the same. First the
parameter must be chosen, then the SWEEP TYPE specifying how the values are entered. Once the values
are entered for the sweep the resultant values will be shown in the evaluated values. Parameter sweeps
are defined using one of three types:

• S TART, I NCR ., C OUNT defines evenly spaced values using start value, count and an increment
between values

• S TART, E ND, C OUNT also defines evenly spaced values but uses a start value, ending value and a
count

• C OMMA S EPARATED provides a freeform input method to define each value to be used, separated
by a comma

It is important to specify the parameter sweep inputs properly. XFdtd allows units to be used when using a
parameter or during specification of parameter values. In order to assure correct behavior the input

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206 Running Calculations

S-Parameters Simulation Setup

To calculate S-Parameters for a project with multiple ports defined, the simulation will consider one port at
a time to be the active port. The computation with that source active will provide data for a column of the
S-Parameter matrix. For example, if port one is excited in a three-port circuit, XFdtd will determine S11 ,
S21 , and S31 . If different ports are to be excited, a separate calculation must be performed with each port
active. For example, if the full S-Parameter matrix for a two-port problem is desired, two calculations must
be performed with a different port active in each. XFdtd will save the S-Parameters for each run in separate
files, differentiated by the active port number.

See Section 10.5 for more about the data saved with port sensors.

If a parameter sweep is specified in the S ETUP PARAMETER S WEEP tab for multiple parameters in
addition to specifying multiple ports within the S ETUP S-PARAMETERS tab, the parameter sweep
will be performed for each individual port.

Figure 11.6: Setting up S-Parameters

Frequencies of Interest

Within this section, the F REQUENCIES tab specifies whether the simulation is a broadband (transient)
or steady-state calculation. For broadband calculations, uncheck the C OLLECT S TEADY-S TATE DATA box
at the top of this tab. For steady-state calculations, check this box and choose whether the calculation is
to only U SE WAVEFORM F REQUENCY or to U SE S PECIFIED F REQUENCIES of interest. By specifying more
than one frequency of interest, the calculation engine will essentially run a separate calculation at each
discrete frequency by running DFT, saving each as its own run. This will therefore increase the calculation
time in comparison to using only the waveform frequency.

In the O PTIONS tab, the user has the ability to specify several settings specific to collection of steady-
state data. The “Store Data” option specifies whether to save temporary data I N M EMORY or O N D ISK.
Saving the data in memory will speed up the calculation because there is no file saving or loading from

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disk, but it increases the memory requirements. The D ISSIPATED P OWER A LGORITHM control allows se-
lection of which algorithm is used to determine the dissipated power in the simulation space. The “Far-field
Method” (the default) determines it from the power radiated through the edges of the simulation space
and is less memory and computationally expensive than the “Near-field Method”. The “Near-field Method”
determines it by summing the losses on all Yee-cell edges in the simulation space and is more memory
and computationally expensive than the “Far-field Method” due to need to sample and store data over the
entire geometry. The “Near-field Method” is more accurate. Therefore, if you are interested in accurate
losses/efficiencies, use the “Near-field Method” otherwise choose the “Far-field Method.” The S AVE DATA
FOR POST- SIMULATION FAR ZONE STEADY- STATE PROCESSING checkbox determines whether the complex
fields on the far zone box are saved at the end of the simulation. This amount of data and the effort required
to save it are generally very small, so it is recommended that this option always be enabled. When the N OR -
MALIZE F IELDS checkbox is checked (the default), when a broadband source is used the steady-state field
data computed for each frequency is adjusted so that it produces the same data as for an equivalent sinu-
soidal source. This ensures that comparisons of broadband steady-state results with any other steady-state
results (from simulations using either sinusoidal or broadband sources) agree. Therefore, leave this box
checked unless you have a very specific need. S AMPLING I NTERVAL specifies how often to sample a data
type (in timesteps), and determines the highest possible F REQUENCY TO R ESOLVE. The automatic setting
analyzes the frequency content of the input waveforms to generate a sampling interval. You can manually
choose the maximum frequency by considering the frequency content of your pulse. Choose a value where
the frequency content of your pulse has rolled off sufficiently far enough to avoid aliasing issues. Entering
the highest frequency that needs to be resolved will automatically adjust the sampling interval. A sampling
interval of one requires the most calculation time but also provides the most accurate results because it
reduces the effects of aliasing.

Section 12.5 describes viewing far zone post-processing results.

Figure 11.7: Setting up Frequencies of Interest under the Frequencies and Data Storage tabs

Specifying Field Formulation

The S PECIFY F IELD F ORMULATION controls are present whenever a plane wave source is selected to
excite the simulation space.

The XFsolver application supports both the total-field/scattered-field plane wave simulation technique and
the pure scattered-field technique. When the U SE TOTAL /S CATTERED F IELD F ORMULATION checkbox is
checked, the total-field/scattered-field formulation is used.

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Selecting total-field/scattered-field versus pure scattered-field plane wave. With the total-
field/scattered-field formulation, the total E- and H-fields are simulated in the portion of the simulation
space which contains the geometry, but only scattered E- and H-fields are simulated near the outer
boundaries. The interface between the total-field and scattered-field computation regions is located eight
cells into the FDTD mesh for non-periodic boundaries, and must be free-space.

With the pure scattered-field formulation, scattered E- and H-fields are simulated over the full FDTD mesh.
When this formulation is used, plots of both total and scattered field values will be available for display.

In most cases, total-field/scattered-field plane wave is preferable to the pure scattered-field formulation.
Figure 11.8 shows total E-fields propagating (from right to left) through a shelled geometry of Perfect
Electric Conductor (PEC) material. The image on the left represents a pure scattered-field plane wave
source, while the image on the right shows a total-field/scattered-field plane wave source. Since the walls
of the box are PEC material, the electric fields within the free space interior of the box should be zero.
This is true when the total-field/scattered-field formulation is used, but small fields are present inside of
the cavity with the pure scattered-field formulation. Thus, the total-field/scattered field formulation gives a
result which is more correct.

Figure 11.8: Total E-field of a Pure Scattered-Field (Left) vs. Total-Field/Scattered-Field (right) Plane Wave
Source

In some cases, however, the total-field plane wave source will also create inconsistencies in the calcula-
tions. Figure 11.9 shows the resultant electric field when an object crosses the total-field/scattered-field
interface (intersection represented by the white arrows). This will produce incorrect results. To fix this prob-
lem, the interface may be moved so that it is sufficient distance from the geometry. However, to move the
interface, the bounding box of the project must be increased which will also increase the memory require-
ments of the project. Alternatively, a scattered-field plane wave can be used with the understanding that
the region within the shelled geometry is incorrect.

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Figure 11.9: Incorrect results due to an object crossing the interface

Figure 11.10 demonstrates a similar problem where the interface is too close to the bounds of the object.
In this case the fields fall within the “shadow” region of the object and are not calculated correctly. The
image on the left shows the effect of the shadow region early in the field sequence. The image on the right
shows the incorrect field values later in the sequence at the interface between the total-field/scattered-field
interface. The interface, like in the previous example, must be adjusted if total-field plane wave is to be
used.

Figure 11.10: Incorrect results when a field propagates within the “Shadow Region” of the geometry

Selecting desired total-field/scattered-field interfaces. The S PECIFY TOTAL /S CATTERED F IELD I N -

TERFACES controls are only applicable when a total-field/scattered-field plane wave source is used in con-
junction with periodic boundary conditions.

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Figure 11.11: Setting up Total/Scattered Field Formulation

There are two sets of X , Y , and Z boundaries listed within this editor. The checkboxes listed under the
D ESIRED heading are available for users to indicate which sides of the simulation space should include
total-field/scattered-field interface. Depending on the boundary conditions, however, the selected D ESIRED
definitions may not be applicable or may have to be applied in conjunction with other definitions. Thus, the
actual definitions that will be applied during the calculation are displayed under the E FFECTIVE heading.

When P ERIODIC boundaries are specified, certain sides for the interface may be turned off and the
total-field region may extend to the boundary using this definition. Periodic boundaries may be useful for
applications such as optics where small geometries are repeated over and over again. Figure 11.12 is an
example in which the outer boundaries have been set to P ERIODIC in the the Y and Z directions, and
the total/scattered field interface has been turned off (unchecked) in the lower X , upper and lower Y , and
upper and lower Z directions.

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Figure 11.12: The interface may be turned off for problems using periodic boundary conditions.

Static Solver

The Static Solver tab only appears if the project contains static voltage points. To ignore these voltage
points, de-select the Enable Static Solver checkbox.

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Figure 11.13: Selecting iteration and threshold criteria within the Simulations workspace window

The tab contains two options. M AXIMUM I TERATIONS defines the maximum number of repetitions the solver
will compute before exiting if convergence is not reached. R ESIDUAL T HRESHOLD sets the value to which
the iterative Laplace solver will converge. Using the default settings for these parameters is recommended.

Specifying Termination Criteria

The termination criteria specify the conditions which stop the simulation. Many applications require sim-
ulations to reach a state of convergence in order for results to be valid. Often the necessary minimum
iterations of the solver are unknown so an overly aggressive maximum is suggested. The maximum simu-
lation time is required to prevent simulations which wont converge from running endlessly. Several settings
in the termination criteria help simplify the process of finding the middle ground allowing results to run to
convergence.

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Figure 11.14: Selecting termination criteria within the Simulations workspace window

Traditionally simulation progress is thought of in number of iterations of the solver ending at a maximum.
This convention is often useful for providing an estimate of how long the simulation will run but is abstracted
from the physical structure of the system under test. The combination of the time step durations and project
content variations prevent a one size fits all specification.

The most basic method of ending a calculation is defining a value in the M AXIMUM S IMULATION T IME
definition. Once the defined amount of time has passed, the calculation will stop. It is important to note
that the calculation will terminate regardless of whether or not convergence has been met, so setting this
definition to a proper value is important. If it is too low, results will be of no use.

An advanced method of ending a calculation is defining a value in the M AXIMUM WALL C LOCK T IME def-
inition. Wall clock time is the elapsed time from when a job starts running to the time it completes. Like
M AXIMUM S IMULATION T IME, once the defined amount of time has passed, the calculation stops. This field
is optional. If any value other than 0 is entered in the field, XFdtd will stop the calculation (assuming it is
still running) when it reaches the elapsed time.

Selecting the D ETECT C ONVERGENCE check-box will automatically stop the calculation if slow convergence
is detected, regardless of whether the number of maximum timesteps have completed. Convergence in a
broadband calculation is met when all electromagnetic energy has dissipated to essentially zero. Due to
numerical noise in the calculation, there may be a trivial amount of electromagnetic energy, even after the
calculation has converged. The value defined in the T HRESHOLD dialog dictates when the calculation has
reached an acceptable value to assume convergence.

A general rule of thumb is that the values should have diminished by at least 30 dB or 1/1000th from
the peak values.

For sinusoidally-excited problems, typical values for this setting range from -55 dB to -25 dB depending on
the level of accuracy versus runtime desired. For instance, if high accuracy S-Parameters are the goal,
then the convergence threshold should be set to lower than -30 dB. If however, the user wants to view
antenna patterns, -30 dB to -35 dB is suitable. The trade-off here is run time for accuracy. In general, for
sinusoidally excited problems, using automatic convergence with a threshold of about -35 dB will produce
very accurate results and will run in the shortest possible time to reach this level.

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If a calculation is finished but convergence has not been reached, the output from most calculations will
be meaningless. The only option is to decrease the convergence T HRESHOLD or increase the M AXIMUM
S IMULATION T IME in the calculation and run it again. If a resonance is occurring at a frequency beyond the
range of interest, and a broadband input is used, the input waveform can be modified to limit the frequency
content and eliminate the resonance. If the resonance is in band, or a sinusoidal input is used, then this
is not applicable and the maximum simulation time should be increased or a lower convergence threshold
must be chosen.

Advanced options. There are several options available in the A DVANCED button of this window that allow
for more specific termination criteria.

Selecting the F LATLINE D ETECTION check-box will stop the calculation if a slow convergence is detected.
This may occur if the user sets the convergence threshold to a very low value (e.g. <-50 dB). In this case
the calculation may converge but to a level higher than specified.

To prevent false convergence, ”slow” convergence can only be detected once the convergence level
has reached at least -40 dB.

For a steady-state calculation, convergence is reached when near-zone data shows a constant amplitude
sine wave - when all transients have died down and the only variation left is sinusoidal. In this case
”convergence” is tested on the average electric field in the space for its deviation from a pure sine wave.
If D ETECT C ONVERGENCE is turned on, XFdtd automatically places points throughout the space for this
purpose. It is particularly important to monitor the results inside high permittivity dielectrics since the field
propagation in these materials is much slower than in free space.

To ensure that steady-state calculations converge, XFdtd will allow the user to control the T EMPORAL
S AMPLING I NTERVAL and S PATIAL S AMPLING D ENSITY of the sample points. The T EMPORAL S AMPLING
I NTERVAL definition is used to control the interval at which convergence is tested during calculations with
broadband (pulse) excitations.

Setting this value to 100 or 200 timesteps is typical. Setting this value to much less than that
increases the computational overhead a small amount.

S PATIAL S AMPLING D ENSITY is used to control how many spatial samples are used to determine conver-
gence. The sample points are equally spaced in all three dimensions of the grid. L OW density samples
every 4th point in each dimension, while H IGH density samples every point in each dimension. For very
low frequency problems or where the number of timesteps per RF cycle is greater than 200 (e.g. very small
cells with a low frequency excitation), this should be set to L OW. For moderate frequencies or where the
number of timesteps per RF cycle is less than 200 but greater than 100 this should be set to M EDIUM.
For high frequency problems where the number of timesteps per RF cycle is less than 100, a H IGH setting
gives the best accuracy. This setting is for both broadband as well as sinusoidal excitations.

The S AMPLING P ERIOD is used only when there is a sinusoidal excitation.

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Figure 11.15: Use Project Contents Termination Criteria Properties

Analyze project contents. The A NALYZE P ROJECT C ONTENTS functionality provides a simplified input
method for the termination criteria based on the project setup. The MINIMUM SIMULATION TIME, MAXIMUM
SIMULATION TIME and CONVERGENCE THRESHOLD are calculated from the project contents. The default
settings work well for most cases but there are several classes of problems which require the settings to be
modified for instance, highly resonant structures may require the maximum criteria to be increased.

Under A NALYZE P ROJECT C ONTENTS settings the CONVERGENCE THRESHOLD is separated into two values
for sinusoidal and broadband waveform shapes. The value is chosen based on the active waveforms in the
simulation. Often the sinusoidal convergence requires a lower threshold to ensure convergence has been
reached. The CONVERGENCE THRESHOLD used will be reported in the THRESHOLD spin box.

Both minimum and maximum criteria may be set using two different inputs. The GRID DIAGONALS entry
uses the maximum extent of the simulation space as a relative metric to define time using the speed of light
in free space medium. When a sinusoidal waveform is active the sinusoid periods entry method will also
be used. The maximum of the two entry methods determines the simulation time which is reported in the
disabled editors.

Notes

The N OTES section is simply a tool for users to add any notes to be attached to a project. The notes will be
available in the N OTES tab of the S IMULATIONS workspace window after the simulation is created.

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Required Memory

The R EQUIRED M EMORY section displays an estimate of how much memory is required to simulate the
project. Mousing over the estimate, displays a tooltip. The tooltip contains additional estimates (Minimum
Usage, Maximum Usage, and Best Estimate), and an explanation of how the estimate was derived.

11.1.2 Queueing and Running Simulations

After defining the necessary components of the simulation in the C REATE S IMULATION dialog described
above, click the C REATE AND Q UEUE S IMULATION button and the main window will show all of the queued
and completed simulations as seen in Figure 11.16. Only one simulation can be run at one time, so as
soon as a calulation is complete, another queued simulation will begin.

Figure 11.16: Running a calculation

Below this dialog are three tabs:

• S UMMARY, where a basic summary of the simulation is provided, as seen in Figure 11.16.

• N OTES, which simply documents any notes that were added by the user in the C REATE S IMU -
LATION window.

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• O UTPUT, which provides the output generated by XFsolver. Statistics such as the percentage of
completion, current timestep, convergence, time elapsed, etc, are listed for every simulation in this
tab (including output information for every parameter swept).

• D IAGNOSTICS, which provides the diagnostic output generated by XFsolver. This information
contains detailed information about each run in the simulation.

• C USTOM O UTPUT, which displays the contents of project.clog files in the simulation directory
and its Run directories. These files end-user generated, and are displayed here for convenience.

11.1.3 Creating Simulations

If you only want to create a simulation, but not run it immediately, click the C REATE S IMULATION O NLY
button. The simulation will be added to the S IMULATIONS workspace window. To run the simulation,
select it and click the A DD TO Q UEUE button, located to the right of S ELECTED S IMULATION at the top of
the window. The XFsolver engine will begin processing the simulation immediately (if no other simulations
are running). Alternatively, you can start XFsolver from the command line and run the simulation from
there. This process is described in more detail in Section 11.2.2.

11.2 Starting the XFsolver Engine

There are two ways to start the XFsolver engine. The first way is to launch it from XFdtd in the
S IMULATIONS workspace window. The second way is to start the calculation from a command line. This
is preferable for calculations that require a large amount of memory in order to free memory used by the
interface.

11.2.1 Running XFsolver Within the XFdtd Interface

Calculations launched from XFdtd are sent to the XFsolver engine from the S IMULATIONS workspace
window. A list of every simulation that has been created within the C REATE S IMULATION window is listed
in the main window. When a simulation is ready to run, send it to XFsolver by selecting the simulation
and clicking the A DD TO Q UEUE button. Although multiple simulations can be queued at once, only one
simulation is run in XFsolver at a time. Once the P LAY button is pressed, each simulation will run one at
a time until all of the queued simulations have terminated.

See Section 11.1.1 for more on creating a new simulation.

11.2.2 Running XFsolver From the Command Line

In some cases, it is most useful to run XFsolver from a command line. This will prevent XFdtd from over-
loading since it will not be allocating memory for XFsolver in addition to its normal memory requirements.
This is not an issue for most calculations, but it may cause problems when the memory required to run
a calculation approaches the limitations of computer memory. In this case, closing XFdtd and running
XFsolver from the command line will free up any memory used by XFdtd.

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To run XFsolver, navigate to the appropriate project S IMULATIONS or RUN directory and enter the command
(using the appropriate version number):
Windows:
"C:\Program Files\Remcom\XFdtd 7.3.0 (64-bit)\bin\Win64.NET2010\xfsolver" [options]
Linux:
/usr/local/remcom/XFdtd_7.3.0.2/bin/Linux-x86_64RHEL5/xfsolver [options]
MacOS:
/Applications/remcom/XFdtd_7.3.0.2/xfgui.app/Contents/MacOS/xfsolver [options]

The following example is for Microsoft Windows XFdtd users. To follow along with this example, Macin-
tosh and Linux users should substitute the suggested directory paths with paths that are suitable for their
computing environment.

Example: Microsoft Windows users can use the Command Line tool to navigate to the Simulations folder
of an Remcom-provided example project in the P ROJECTS directory. Once there, they can instruct XFdtd
to calculate all of the runs for that simulation. In this example, the Patch.xf project file will be used.

1. Launch the Command Line editor (Start > Run > Cmd)

2. Navigate to the 000001 directory within the Simulations directory.

(cd "C:\Projects\Patch.xf\Simulations\000001\")

3. Start XFsolver in verbose mode [-v] to run the simulation and display progress.
("C:\Program Files\Remcom\XFdtd 7.3.0 (64-bit)\bin\Win64.NET2010\xfsolver" -v)

4. Press the Enter key. The simulation should begin.

32-bit users would enter (32-bit) instead of (64-bit) in the above file path.

To use XFsolver on a specific run within a simulation, users should navigate to the specific run directory
(For example, Patch.xf\Simulations\000001\Run0007\) and then use the command appropriate
to their operating system.

For normal operation no [options] need be specified, but Table 11.1 lists several command line options that
may be of interest.

Table 11.1: Command Line Options

Option
Description
-h
--help
Display a help message containing program option and argument descriptions.
-v
--verbose
Output verbose status messages as a simulation executes.
Default value: false
--version
Output version information and exit.
--license-diagnostics
Output license diagnostics information and exit.
Table continued on next page. . .

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Table 11.1: Command Line Options (continued from previous page)

--sar-standard={n}
Specify which version of the IEEE 1528.1 standard to use when computing SAR. Possible values
are: 0 == Compute SAR using IEEE 1528.1 prior to Jan. 2010; and 1 == Compute SAR using
IEEE 1528.1 ratified Jan. 2010.
Default value: 1
-o
--output={s}
Specify zero or more types of output to generate from the simulation and/or post-processing
steps. Valid values are uan (output a UAN file for each Far Zone sensor), cpuan (output a
circularly polarized UAN file for each Far Zone sensor), and advanced-sar-stats (output a
file with advanced SAR statistics).
No default value
-t={n}
--num-threads={n}
Specify the number of threads to use for the simulation. Not all computational steps can use more
than one thread, but this many threads will be used whenever possible.
Default value: 1
--post-process={s}
Do not perform static field initialization or timestepping, but instead directly perform the specified
post-processing step. Valid values are sar-project (post-process SAR sensors defined in the
project when the simulation was created), sar-request (post-process SAR sensors defined as
post-processing requests), sar-any (perform post-processing requests or project definitions if
requests do not exist) and farzone (sar is deprecated and is equivalent to sar-request).
Example: --post-process=farzone
--post-process-off={s}
Specifies whether or not to perform the specified post-processing step after timestepping. This
option has no effect when the --post-process option is used. Value values are sar. Example:
--post-process-off=sar
--post-process-frequencies={n}
A comma-separated list of which steady-state frequencies to compute if post-processing steady-
state data. A single value of -1 indicates to compute all frequencies. Currently supported only
for SAR post-processing. Example: --post-process-frequency=1,2,4.
Default value: -1
--use-xstream
Use XStream resources for computations when possible. If XStream cannot be used, CPU re-
sources will be used instead unless --use-cpu=false (or --no-use-cpu) is specified.
Default value: false
--use-cpu
Use CPU resources for computations when use of XStream is not possible or
--use-xstream=false (or --no-use-xstream) is specified.
Default value: true
--xstream-list-devices
Display a list of all detected XStream devices and exit.
Default value: false
Table continued on next page. . .

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Table 11.1: Command Line Options (continued from previous page)

--xstream-memtest
Perform a memory test of XStream devices and exit. Use the --xstream-use-devices option
to specify which devices to test.
Default value: false
-d={n}
--xstream-use-devices={n}
Enumerate which devices to make available for XStream. Valid device numbers can be deter-
mined by using the --xstream-list-devices option. If a single value of -1 is specified, simi-
lar devices are detected and used as the available hardware devices. This option affects which de-
vices are available for use by the --xstream-use-number and --xstream-availability
options. Example: --xstream-use-devices=0,3,4
Default value: -1
-n={n}
--xstream-use-number={n}
Specify the number of XStream devices to use for the simulation. A value of -1 indicates
to use all available devices (as determined from the --xstream-use-devices). If the
number of specified devices cannot be used, simulating with XStream will fail. Example:
--xstream-use-number=2
Default value: -1
-a={s}
--xstream-availability={s}
Specify whether or not to use any XStream device or only those that are currently free, meaning
that there is not another simulation currently running on the device. Valid values are any and
free. Example: --xstream-availability=free
Default value: any
--fft-size={n}
An integer specifying the FFT size as n where 2n is the FFT size, e.g. n == 15, 215 ==
32768. n must be from 15 to 23, inclusive.
Default value: 15
--load-static-fields
Load previously-saved static E-Fields before timestepping starts.
Default value: false
--save-static-fields
Save static E-Fields before timestepping starts.
Default value: false
--static-solver-only
Perform static E-Fields computation, save the E-Fields (--save-static-fields is implied)
and exit.
Default value: false
--use-cached-license-location
Allow the use of the cached location from any previous successful license checkout by any Rem-
com product.
Default value: true

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11.2.3 Running the Calculation Remotely

Running a remote calculation is an alternative way to potentially speed up calculation time and free lo-
cal computer resources for other operations. This section will explain how to copy files and launch the
calculation engine on a remote computer.

If your XFdtd project is stored on a file system which is remotely accessible, you can avoid the pro-
cess of copying files back and forth from the remote machine. Simply log into the remote machine,
navigate to the simulation directory and launch the calculation engine.

Running simulations remotely

1. Create the simulation. After creating the simulation from the S IMULATIONS workspace window,
click on the C REATE S IMULATION O NLY button to save the simulation to the S IMULATIONS folder
where your XFdtd project is stored.

You can find the path to this directory in the first line of text under the S UMMARY tab.

See Section 11.1 for more about setting up a simulation in XFdtd.

2. Copy the simulation files to the remote machine. Copy the whole S IMULATION directory (you’ll
need to copy it recursively, since it contains subdirectories) except any existing output directories,
which will exist if the simulation has already been run.

For Windows users, it may be easiest to zip the entire simulation directory transfer the zipfile to the
remote machine over an ftp connection.

For Mac OS X and Unix users, package the files in a compressed archive with the following com-
mand:

tar -czf inputFilesForXFSolver.tar.gz * --exclude=‘output’

Then copy inputFilesForXFSolver.tar.gz to the remote machine and extract it using:

tar -xzf inputFilesForXFSolver.tar.gz

3. Run the simulation. Log in to the remote machine, change directories to the S IMULATIONS folder,
and run XFsolver for the project.

See Section 11.2.2 for more about running the solver from the command line.

4. Copy files back to local machine. In order to view your results from the XFdtd GUI, after running
the simulation on the remote machine, the output files will need to be copied back to the local
machine. Starting with XFdtd R
7.3, all output files reside in the output folder of the Simulation
directory and each of its Run directories.
On Mac and Unix machines, the tar, xargs and find utilities make packaging only the output
files easy. On the remote machine, change directories to the S IMULATIONS directory and run

find. -type d -name ‘output’ \

| xargs tar -czf outputFilesFromXFSolver.tar.gz
For Windows users, zip the simulation folder and send it back to your local machine over the ftp
connection and extract the files. Overwrite any old files with newer versions of the same file only in
the output folders.

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For Mac OS X and Unix users, copy the outputFilesFromXFSolver.tar.gz file to your local
machine, change directories and extract it using:

tar -xzf outputFilesFromXFSolver.tar.gz

5. Refresh results. To make your results available from the XFdtd GUI, click R EFRESH in the
R ESULTS workspace window.

Remote SAR post-processing

1. Setting up post-processing. After requesting post-processing from the R ESULTS workspace

window, in the subsequent dialog box, tell the application to not run the calculation right away.

2. Copy simulation files to the remote machine The same procedure used above for running the
simulation should be used for SAR post-processing.

3. Run SAR averaging on the remote machine. On the remote machine, change directories to the
S IMULATIONS directory, and execute XFsolver using the --post-process=sar command line
flag.

See Section 11.2.2 for more about running the solver from the command line.

4. Copy SAR results back to the local project. The SAR results comprise the following files in the
S IMULATIONS directory:

Run*/output/status
Run*/output/SteadyStateOutput/*/*gsar.gz
Run*/output/SteadyStateOutput/*/*.infosar1g
Run*/output/SteadyStateOutput/*/*.infosar10g
Run*/output/SteadyStateOutput/*/*.infoseq
Run*/output/SteadyStateOutput/*/*.*gssq
Run*/output/SteadyStateOutput/*/*.stats
It is easiest to transfer all results as described in the previous section, but only the new SAR results
can be copied using a similar technique.

Notice that this command sequence retrieves all of the SAR averaging results, including those
done with your initial calculation engine run.

5. Refresh results. After copying results to the local project, make your results available from the
XFdtd GUI by clicking R EFRESH in the R ESULTS workspace window.

11.3 Calculation Considerations

The calculation portion of XFdtd may be quite lengthy depending on the application. A few guidelines are
provided here for estimating computer resources, monitoring the progress of the calculation, and avoiding
calculation instability.

Also refer to Section 11.1.1 for information about defining proper termination criteria to ensure that
the calculation has finished.

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11.3.1 Computer Resources Estimation

XFsolver will give a time estimate while the calculation is running. This is recalculated every time XFsolver
updates its status based on how much time passed since the last update and the remaining number of
timesteps. It is not a completely accurate estimation since it does not consider data such as near-field
samplings which may only be saved during certain portions of the calculation. Also, the estimate does
not include any post-processing which may occur. Of special note are the SAR averages since they are
computed in post-processing and may require a significant amount of calculation time.

The amount of memory required for a Simulation (and for each of its Runs) is provided in the
project.info file in the Simulation and Run directories. It provides the following estimates:
• estimatedMemory: A best estimate at the amount of system RAM required for a simulation that
is executed using CPU resources

• minimumMemory: A lower bound for the amount of system RAM required for a simulation that is
executed using CPU resources

• maximumMemory: An upper bound for the amount of system RAM required for a simulation that is
executed using CPU resources

• estimatedXStreamMemoryGpuPart: An estimate of the amount of GPU RAM required for a

simulation being executed using XStream
R

• estimatedXStreamMemoryCpuPart: An estimate of the amount of system RAM required for a

simulation

The estimates above are also shown in the tooltip of the Memory Estimation graphic on the right-hand side
of the Grid Editor and at the bottom of the Create Simulation dialog.

11.3.2 Multi-Processing Modules

XFsolver has the ability to do both threaded and Message Passing Interface (MPI) calculations in order
to utilize computational resources that include multiple CPU cores. The latter requires additional license
features, which can be obtained by contacting Remcom.

Multi-threaded simulations use shared memory and are intended for computers with multiple processors
and/or cores. This will generally increase performance at close to N times the number of cores, though
the overhead for the multi-threading routines can cause very small calculations to run slower when more
than one thread is selected. Therefore, the multi-threaded option should not be used when the number of
FDTD cells in the geometry is small (less than one million). (The number of cells is computed simply from
the X , Y , and Z dimensions (in cells) of the geometry space.)

The number of threads to use for a simulation is defined in the Q UEUE drop-down box of the S IMULATIONS
workspace window, as seen in Figure 11.17.

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Figure 11.17: Specifying the number of CPU cores to use for a simulation.

Specify the number of processor cores that are to be used for the simulation next to M AXIMUM # CPU
C ORES.

To specify the number of threads from the command line, the “--num-threads=N” option should
be used, where N is the number of threads.

See Section 11.2.2 for a summary of command-line options.

Simulations can be executed on cluster of computers that are connected by a high-speed network using
MPI. At present, HPMPI and OpenMPI on Linux computers is supported. To run a simulation using the MPI
version of XFsolver, see the documentation for the MPI library that is installed on all machines in the cluster.
This documentation will give instructions on how to start an application using the MPI tools. XFsolver is
launched from these tools using the command

{path to bin}/xfsolver -openmpi {other xfsolver options}

for the OpenMPI implementation, or

{path to bin}/xfsolver -hpmpi {other xfsolver options}

for the HPMPI implementation.

11.3.3 XStream Hardware Acceleration

XFsolver can also utilize hardware acceleration using its XStream

R
capability. The hardware is available in
the form of graphics cards, which can replace existing graphics cards or act from a stand-alone computer.
When this hardware is available, it may be enabled within the S IMULATIONS workspace window under
the Q UEUE drop-down box. To enable it from the command line, the “--use-xstream” option should be
used.

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Running Calculations 225

11.3.4 Monitoring Simulation Progress

While XFsolver is running, its progress will be updated periodically. When launched from the XFdtd in-
terface, the progress of the calculation will be shown in real-time in the O UTPUT tab located within the
S IMULATIONS workspace window, as seen in Figure 11.18. When running from a command line, simula-
tion progress will be printed to the window that was used to start the calculation if the “-v” option is used
and will not be updated automatically in the O UTPUT tab. However, the output can updated manually in
that tab at any time using the Update button as shown in the figure.

Figure 11.18: Monitoring simulation progress in the Output tab

11.3.5 Calculation Stability

Improper application of the outer boundaries can lead to unstable calculations. Typically the stability of a
calculation depends on a few simple guidelines involving boundaries and source placement. Because an
absorbing boundary condition like L IAO tries to simulate free space, it requires that a certain amount of
continuity be present in the cells leading to the boundary. The cross section at a boundary must be the
same for at least 10 cells in from the boundary.

For many problems, a free-space border of 10-20 cells is the best way to ensure stability and accu-
rate performance of the outer boundary.

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226 Running Calculations

Another rule for stability is that no source can be placed within 10 cells of an absorbing boundary. An
unstable calculation is easily determined by viewing the line plots of time domain data or by viewing the
field snapshots. When automatic convergence is enabled, XFsolver can automatically detect an unstable
simulation and terminate it.

In some cases instability can be introduced by a frequency-dependent material. If such materials are used
in the calculation and an instability results, it may be necessary to change the material parameters or
reduce the calculation timestep.

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Chapter 12

Viewing Output

In this chapter, you will learn...

→ how to read and filter your calculation results

→ the available tools to analyze 2-D (plotted) and 3-D (field display) results

Following an XFdtd calculation, the results may be reviewed in the R ESULTS workspace window. The
results that are available depend on the characteristics of the project, such as discrete sources, sensors,
external excitations, and other project criteria specified in the S IMULATIONS window.

This chapter details how to review the available results. Some results will be in the form of numerical
values. These are typically single-frequency results performed with a near-zone source. Other results
will be displayed in the form of plots. There are several types of plots available to view results based on
whether they are time-dependent, frequency-dependent, or angle-dependent. Finally, some results will
be available to review as colored field displays. Broadband results collected by S URFACE sensors and
S OLID sensors are viewed as individual “Field Snapshots” or “Field Sequences” (strings of snapshots).
Three-dimensional far-zone fields may also be available depending on simulation criteria.

12.1 Results Workspace Window

Figure 12.1 shows the R ESULTS workspace window.

227
228 Viewing Output

Figure 12.1: The Results workspace window

The R ESULTS workspace window stores all of the data collected by the S ENSORS during the calcu-
lation. Once the simulation is queued for calculation, the project will be listed in this window so that the
results can be viewed. Additionally, the results of any other saved project can be loaded by pressing the
L IST P ROJECT button in the upper-left of the dialog. This makes it possible to view and compare the
results of multiple projects without having to load several projects individually. Similarily, the results of any
project may be closed by selecting the project and clicking the U NLIST P ROJECT button.

By default, the data in the R ESULTS workspace window will automatically update as more and more
results become available while a simulation is progressing. Any results that are currently being plotted will
also update at the same time. An update can also be forced by clicking on the R EFRESH button when it
is enabled.

If there are results from a large number of simulations loaded in the R ESULTS B ROWSER, XFdtd R
can
become unresponsive while the update is occurring. In this case, it will be helpful to uncheck the “Check
for Updated Results” checkbox on the General tab of the Application Preferences dialog. After restarting
XFdtd R
, the R EFRESH button (which will always be enabled) will need to be clicked in order to manually
update results.

12.1.1 Filtering Data Results

It is possible to filter the data within the R ESULTS workspace window by searching or by categorizing.
The S EARCH box in the top right corner allows the user to search for the name of any field or data visible
within the window. The results will automatically appear in the list below.

The user is also able to customize the four columns at the top of the window, which filter data according to
the specified categories. The column headings are controlled by right-clicking on any of the current column
headings and selecting one of the available categories. Each category is described in Table 12.1.

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Viewing Output 229

Table 12.1: Data Filtering Options

DATA F ILTER
Description
P ROJECT ID
Displays the XFdtd project ID, which references the location of the loaded project in the file direc-
tory.
P ROJECT N AME
Displays the project name indicated by the user.
S IMULATION ID
Displays the simulation ID that refers to the simulation’s location in the file directory.
S IMULATION N UMBER
Displays the simulation number that is automatically generated based on how many simulations
have been created in a specific project.
S IMULATION N AME
Displays the simulation name specified in the S IMULATIONS workspace window.
RUN ID
Displays the run ID which references the location of the run in the file directory. Multiple runs
are created in the case that a simulation collects data for more than one variable or location
(i.e. during parameter sweeps, multiple ports, etc.).
RUN N UMBER
Displays the run number.
Table continued on next page. . .

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230 Viewing Output

Table 12.1: Data Filtering Options (continued from previous page)

R ESULT T YPE
Filters results by type. Any of the following results may be viewed depending on the project,
simulation criteria, and the type of data that was requested:
Electric Field (E) Magnetic Field (H)
Conduction Current (Jc) Magnetic Flux Density (B)
Rotating B- Rotating B+
Poynting Vector (S) Voltage (V)
Current (I) Impedance
Available Power Input Power
Instantaneous Power Component Loss
Reflection Coefficient S-Parameters
SAR (Specific Absorption Rate) Maximum SAR Value
Average SAR in Exposed Object Average Power
Net Input Power Net Component Loss
Net Available Power System Efficiency
Radiation Efficiency Dissipated Power
Dissipated Power in Tissue Dissipated Power in Non-Tissue
Dissipated Power per Material Radiated Power
Dissipated Power per Electric Material Dissipated Power per Magnetic Material
Component Component
Dissipated Power Density Axial Ratio
Gain Radar Cross Section
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) Active VSWR

S ENSOR
Filters results according to its S ENSOR, which refers to a specific sensor by name.
S ENSOR T YPE
Filters results according to the type of sensor that collected the data. The sensor is referenced
by its general type, rather than by its user-defined name (See S ENSOR for filtering data by sensor
name). The following is a comprehensive list of the sensors that may be listed within this filter:
Point Sensor - Retrieves data from any P OINT sensor in the project.
Surface Sensor - Retrieves data from any S URFACE sensor in the project.
Solid Sensor - Retrieves data from any S OLID sensor in the project.
Far Zone Sensor - Retrieves data from any FAR Z ONE sensor in the project.
Raw SAR Sensor - Retrieves raw SAR data.
Averaged SAR Sensor - Retrieves averaged SAR data.
Circuit Component - Retrieves data from a C IRCUIT C OMPONENT.
HAC Sensor - Retrieves hearing aid compatibility data from HAC sensors.
System - Retrieves ambient result data (not associated with a sensor object).
External Excitation - Retrieves data on the E XTERNAL E XCITATION waveform.
Raw Steady-State Far-Zone Data - Contains information which can be used to generate new
steady-state far zone patterns after a simulation is run.
Table continued on next page. . .

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Viewing Output 231

Table 12.1: Data Filtering Options (continued from previous page)

P ROJECT : S IMULATION : RUN
Displays the Project, Simulation, and Run name in one column.
D OMAIN
Filters data according to Time, Frequency or Discrete Frequencies domains.
F IELD T YPE
Filters data according to total-field or scattered-field.
S TATUS
Displays whether a result is complete or still being calculated while the simulation is running. This
status can be refreshed manually by pressing the R EFRESH button or automatically by selecting
AUTO - UPDATE RESULTS.
M ISC
Displays query-specific information. For example, for the circuit component voltage when col-
lecting S-Parameters, it could contain the active port. For S-Parameters, it could contain the
S designation or simply the active port. For System numbers, it could contain the number (such
as efficiency) or net input power.

Note that Rotating B is computed from Magnetic Flux Density (B) using the following convention:
B·v̂+jB·ŵ B·v̂−jB·ŵ
Bx+ = 2 Bx− = 2
B·ŵ+jB·û B·ŵ−jB·û
By+ = 2 By− = 2
B·û+jB·v̂ B·û−jB·v̂
Bz+ = 2 Bz− = 2

12.2 Viewing Numerical Results

When a single-frequency calculation has been performed with a near-zone source (voltage or current),
parameters such as input impedance, S-Parameters, VSWR and the reflection coefficient are displayed
as numerical values rather than as line plots since the data only is relevant for the input frequency. Other
numerical values are collected by means of a system sensor, which is automatically present in every XFdtd
project.

12.2.1 Numerical Data Collected by XFdtd

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232 Viewing Output

Table 12.2: Results Displayed as Numerical Data

Sensor Type Domain Result Type
Port Single Available Power
Frequency Current
Impedance
Input Power
Reflection Coefficient
S-Parameters
Voltage
VSWR
Active VSWR
System Single Dissipated Power
Frequency Dissipated Power in Non-Tissue
Dissipated Power in Tissue
Dissipated Power per Electric Material Component
Dissipated Power per Magnetic Material Component
Dissipated Power per Material
Net Available Power
Net Component Loss
Net Input Power
Radiated Power
Radiation Efficiency
System Efficiency

12.2.2 Power, Impedance, and Loss

XFdtd provides several quantities for individual ports and for the overall simulated system. These quantities
are defined here for reference.

Available Power Available Power is the power which can be delivered by an active port given a conjugate
impedance match between the source’s impedance (ZS1 in Figure 12.2 and the simulation space
(Zinput ).

Net Available Power Net Available Power is the algebraic sum of the Available Power of all active ports.

Input Power Input Power is calculated as the power delivered by an active port into the simulation space.

Net Input Power Net Input Power is the algebraic sum of the Input Power of all active ports, and is
therefore the total power delivered by the active port(s) into the simulation space.

Component Loss Component Loss is the power dissipated by an inactive port (ZL2 in Figure 12.2).

Net Component Loss Net Component Loss is the algebraic sum of the Component Loss of all inactive
ports.

Radiated Power Radiated Power is the difference between the Net Input Power and the dissipative losses
from conductive materials and resistive loads in inactive ports (the latter being Net Component Loss).

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Viewing Output 233

System Efficiency System Efficiency is the ratio of Radiated Power to Net Available Power.

Radiation Efficiency Radiation Efficiency is the ratio of Radiated Power to Net Input Power.

Figure 12.2: Active and Inactive Port schematic

When making calculations that include the input voltage, current and/or power in the calculation formulas,
such as antenna gain or input impedance, these quantities are provided at the terminals of the mesh edge.
Referring to Figure 12.2, the impedance at the port is the (complex) mesh edge voltage V divided by the
(complex) mesh edge current I. The complex values are obtained from an FFT for a broadband calculation
or from two samples of the voltage and current (electric and magnetic fields at the port mesh edge) for a
sine wave excitation.

The sign convention of these quantities in XFdtd is defined as:

For active ports, the quantities are interpreted as “looking” from the port into the simulation space.

For inactive ports, the quantities are interpreted as “looking” from the simulation space into the port.

Therefore, if an active port is delivering power into the simulation space, the Input Power at that port will
have a real positive part and the Input Impedance is the impedance the port sees looking into the simulation
space. Likewise, an active port that is absorbing power from the simulation space will have Input Power
and Input Impedance that have a negative real part. In contrast, an inactive port that is absorbing power
from the simulation space will have a Component Loss and Impedance that has a positive real part. Note
that an active voltage or current source can have an amplitude of zero– it is still considered active for the
computations above.

Since Net Input Power is defined as the algebraic sum of the Input Powers of all active ports, switching a
component from a Passive Load to an active source with zero amplitude in a simulation where multiple ports
are active will, in general, affect both the Radiation Efficiency and the Net Input Power results. To clarify
this, consider two different situations. An antenna composed entirely of perfect conductor that includes 2
ports, the first containing a 1 V source with a resistor, the second a passive port containing only the resistor.
Assuming that some current flows in the passive resistor, the radiation efficiency will be less than 100%. If
we repeat the same calculation, but with a 0 V source with a resistor replacing the formerly passive port,
and with both sources set active, the radiation efficiency will now be calculated as 100% even though the
0 V source will have negligible effect on the antenna currents and radiation. This discrimination is done so

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234 Viewing Output

that active ports may utilize lumped circuit elements to match to an antenna without changing the Radiation
Efficiency, Impedance, and Gain, while passive elements may be added to an antenna with their effects
included in the Radiation Efficiency and Gain results.

For active ports, Impedance is computed “looking” from the port into the simulation space (and thus the
terminology “Input Power”– the power into the simulation space), whereas for inactive ports, Impedance is
computed “looking” from the simulation space into the port (and thus a power “loss” from the space). For
an active port that is absorbing power from the simulation space, this results in that port having a negative
Re(Z), whereas a passive load that is absorbing power from the simulation space will have a postive
Re(Z). For Input Impedance calculations (“into” the simulation space), the resistance, capacitance and
inductance values of the active port will not be included in the input impedance. I.e., the input impedance
of an antenna as calculated using XFdtd should not change regardless of any changes in the active port
components (source/R/L/C). This is as it should be, since the antenna impedance is a function of the
antenna geometry/materials and not of how the antenna is fed.

12.2.3 TDR / TDT Impedance Results

Time-domain impedance values can be generated for each port, allowing impedance discontinuities to be
diagnosed in transmission lines as per the techniques of time-domain reflectometry (TDR). The impedance
reported at the active port follows the convention
Rt
V (τ ) dτ
ZT DR (t) = R0t
I(τ ) dτ
.
0

The time-domain transmission (TDT) impedance seen at a passive port is analagously defined as
Rt
V (τ ) dτ
ZT DT (t) = − R0t I(τ ) dτ .
0

The sign convention of these results is consistent with frequency domain impedance results, such that
resistive sources and passive loads will typically see positive TDR and TDT impedance values.

Note that TDR and TDT Impedance results are only available when a single active port is present in a run,
and only when the excitation waveform is a Gaussian pulse or an Automatic waveform with a 0 Hz lower
frequency bound.

12.2.4 S-Parameter Calculations

S-Parameter results (scattering parameters) are available for display for simulations configured with the
C OMPUTE S-PARAMETERS checkbox checked in the C REATE S IMULATION dialog (see Section 11.1.1).
At discrete frequencies, the S-Parameter data is typically displayed in tabular form, while broadband S-
Parameter data can be displayed on an XY Plot or Smith Plot. S-Parameter results can also be exported
to several output file formats.

The Common Instrumentation Transfer Interchange (CITI) file format is used to exchange data between
instruments and analysis tools. XFdtd can export S-Parameter results from different projects and runs to
the same CITI file, provided that the maximum resolvable frequency and time step are the same each run.
To export CITI file data, select one or more frequency domain S-Parameter results, then right-click and
choose Export > Export to CITI file... from the context menu.

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Viewing Output 235

The Touchstone file format can be used to export an NxN matrix of S-Parameter data from a single sim-
ulation to a .sNp output file (here, N is the number of ports whose data is written to the file). For this
to be possible, each port under consideration must be designated as an ACTIVE P ORT in the C REATE
S IMULATION dialog’s S ETUP S-PARAMETERS pane. To export Touchstone file data, select one or more
S-Parameter results from an S-Parameter matrix calculation, then right-click and choose Export > Ex-
port to Touchstone file... from the context menu. All of the selected results must have the same Domain
(either ”Frequency” or ”Discrete Frequencies”), and all must come from the same Simulation. The output
data contains a full NxN matrix of S-Parameter values for all N ports represented in the selection. Thus,
if only the S13 result is selected in the result browser, the output file will contain S11, S31, S13, and S33
data.

Frequency domain S-Parameter data is automatically written to disk in ’.s’ file format by XFsolver. For
example, a run with three ports where port 1 is active will typically generate the files ’project.s11’,
’project.s21’, and ’project.s31’ in the Run001 directory for that simulation. These results are com-
puted at a default FFT size. To export ’.s’ data with higher resolution on the frequency axis, right-click one
ore more Frequency domain S-Parameter results and choose Export > Export to ’.s’ file... from the
context menu.

12.2.5 Power Scaling Factor

When viewing single-frequency results collected by the System Sensor, the user can specify a power
scaling factor the calculation and determine the scaled result. For example, if the user wanted to know
what the output power would have been with an input of one mW, they can enter this value in the Available
Power (will be subject to mismatch loss) or in the Net Input Power (after mismatch loss) to see the overall
effect. Similarly, any of the output results may be scaled to determine the effect on input and output.
Clicking reset will return the values to the un-scaled state.

12.3 Viewing 2-D Plotted Results

There are three basic categories of 2-D plots in XFdtd, depending on the X -axis (abscissa) type:

• XY P LOTS - visualizes data in a Cartesian coordinate system.

• P OLAR P LOTS - represents data with an angle-independent axis.

• S MITH C HARTS - displays complex data vs. frequency, such as S-Parameters and reflection coef-
ficient.

The 2-D plots are viewed by right-clicking on the desired result type in the R ESULTS workspace window
and selecting C REATE L INE G RAPH, as seen in Figure 12.3.

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236 Viewing Output

Figure 12.3: Results right-click menu

Before the graph is displayed, the user has the option of adjusting the graph properties such as the com-
ponent, data transform, and complex part. The TARGET G RAPH option allows the user to view and edit
plots that were previously created (from the same data selected in the Results window). Figure 12.4 shows
samples of the create graph dialog for each plot.

Figure 12.4: Create graph dialog for XY, Polar, and Smith plots

For all calculations, the most important quantities are the time-domain plots of the fields in the
problem space. Always perform a quick review of these values to ensure that a calculation has
converged. Without convergence, most other results will be meaningless, particularly any plots
converted to the frequency domain such as S-Parameters or impedance.

Note that input impedance and S-Parameters may be plotted in rectangular form vs. frequency or
as a Smith chart.

12.3.1 Plotted Data Collected by XFdtd

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Viewing Output 237

Table 12.3: Results Displayed as Plotted Data

Sensor Type Domain Result Type
Port Broadband Current
Impedance
Input Power
Instantaneous Power
Reflection Coefficient
S-Parameters
VSWR
Active VSWR
Point, Broadband E-Field (E)
Surface, H-Field (H)
Volume B-field (B)
Conduction Current (Jc)
Poynting Vector (S)
System Broadband Net Component Loss
Net Input Power
Far Zone Sensor Broadband Radar Cross Section
Gain
E-Field (E)
Far Zone Single Radar Cross Section
Frequency Axial Ratio
E Theta, E Phi
Circular Polarization
Ludwig-2 Az, El
Ludwig-2 Al, Ep
Ludwig-3
Far Zone Single E-Field (E)
Post Processor Frequency

12.3.2 Customizing Plots

There are several ways to customize plotted data after it is opened from the R ESULTS workspace window.
The following sections detail the various tools that are available to modify plotted results.

Keep in mind that the tools available within the plot window depend on the type of graph you are
viewing (i.e., XY, P OLAR or S MITH plots).

Export Data

Select this option to export graphical data point values to a text file in a specified directory.

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238 Viewing Output

Export Image

Select this icon to save an image of the current plot to a specified directory.

The global shortcut key combination Ctrl+Alt+F12 can also be used to initiate this action. A screen shot of
the Geometry View or a Graph Window, whichever is “on top” in the application workspace, will be saved
to a file. If neither the Geometry View nor a Graph Window is on top, no action will be taken.

The global shortcut key combination Ctrl+Alt+F11 is also defined to save a screen shot as de-
scribed above to an automatically-named file in the folder defined in the Application Preferences
under “Screen Capture.”

Copy Image to Clipboard

This tool takes a screen shot of the geometry as it is currently shown in the G EOMETRY workspace
window and saves to to the clipboard for pasting into other applications.

The global shortcut key combination Ctrl+Alt+F10 can also be used to initiate this action. A screen shot of
the Geometry View or Graph Window, whichever is “on top” in the application workspace, will be copied to
the clipboard. If neither the Geometry View nor a Graph Window is on top, no action will be taken.

Pan tool

Select this tool, and drag the mouse within the plot to pan to the desired view of the plot. Press the
C TRL key and drag to pan along the independent axis. Press the S HIFT key and drag to pan along the
dependent axis.

Zoom tool

Select this tool to zoom-in and to zoom-out of the plot. The mouse wheel as well as the right and left mouse
buttons, can be used to perform zoom operations as described below.

Using mouse-wheel:

Roll the center wheel of the mouse forward to zoom-out of both axes simultaneously.

Press C TRL and roll the center wheel forward to zoom-out of the independent axis.

Press S HIFT and roll the center wheel forward to zoom-out of the dependent axis.

Roll the center wheel of the mouse backward to zoom-in to both axes simultaneously.

Press C TRL and roll the center wheel backward to zoom-in to the independent axis.

Press S HIFT and roll the center wheel backward to zoom-in to the dependent axis.

Using mouse buttons:

Right-click and drag the the mouse anywhere in the plot window to zoom-out of both axes simulta-
neously.

Press C TRL and right-click/drag to zoom-out of the independent axis.

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Viewing Output 239

Press S HIFT and and right-click/drag to zoom-out of the dependent axis.

Left-click and drag to define a rectangular view-window in the plot window to zoom-in to both axes.

Press C TRL and left-click/drag to zoom-in to the selected domain of independent axis values.

Press S HIFT and and left-click/drag to zoom-in to the selected range of dependent axis values.

Legend Visible

This button toggles the display of the legend within the graph.

Graph Properties tool

There are three tabs available for editing plot properties, as shown in Figure 12.5.

Figure 12.5: Tabs available for editing graph properties

Title properties Define the graph name and title as well as the background color of the graph in this
tab. A checkbox also toggles the legend display on and off.

Axes properties Define the title of the axes and the limits of the axes in this tab. The AUTO checkbox
may be selected to auto-select these limits.

If a graph only contains continuous data, the X -axis must be manually specified.

The U NITS drop-down menu is used to specify the units and apply a log scale, if necessary. Additionally,
users can normalize plots in a 2-D graph by selecting Relative Log from the Unit drop-down list within the
Units drop-down menu in the X-Axis section of the Axes Properties tab.

When Relative Log is selected, XFdtd will determine the maximum value, maxV alue, from all plots in
the graph and apply the following normalization

p0 (x) = log(p(x)/maxV alue)

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240 Viewing Output

Where p0 (x) is the normalized plot of p(x). maxV alue is automatically determined. It cannot be set by
the user. A common application for this feature is determining the -3dB level for far-zone radiation patterns.

For certain Smith plots, you will also have the option of modifying the R EFERENCE I MPEDANCE.

Figure 12.6 shows the axes properties editor for a 2-D XY graph.

Figure 12.6: Editing the axes of graphs

Plot properties Define the characteristics of the plotted lines in this tab. A list of every dependent
variable is listed with a customizable line color, line width, and line style. Any unwanted variables can also
be deleted in this tab.

Selection tool

Select this tool to move, delete, or edit a marker’s properties. To move a marker, click on the marker with the
selection tool (once selected, it will turn yellow) and roll the mouse-wheel forward or backward to move an
attached marker along its plot. Pressing C TRL and rolling the mouse-wheel will speed up the movement
of the marker.

To delete any marker, simply select the unwanted marker, right-click and press D ELETE M ARKER. All
markers may be deleted at one time by right-clicking anywhere in the plot area and choosing D ELETE ALL
MARKERS .

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Viewing Output 241

To edit a marker’s properties, click on the desired marker so that it turns yellow, then right-click and select
M ARKER P ROPERTIES. A window will appear with several different editing options, as seen in Figure 12.7.
The location coordinates of the marker can be adjusted by manually typing in the desired values in the
R EQUESTED L OCATION section of the dialog box.

Figure 12.7: Marker properties dialog

If the coordinate box you desire to edit is disabled, select the appropriate option in the ATTACHED
P LOT drop-down menu.

The marker may also be attached to a particular plot by selecting its name in the ATTACHED P LOT drop-
down menu and selecting an I NTERPOLATION M ETHOD. Depending on this definition, the marker will be
shifted to the nearest point on the selected function or linearly interpolated based on the independent axis
that is entered by the user in the R EQUESTED L OCATION dialog box. Finally, the type of marker can also be
redefined in this editor window in the M ARKER S TYLE drop-down list.

Additionally, this tool can be used to move or close the legend in the graphical space. (Any tool, however,
can be used to perform this function.)

Any marker tool may be selected by clicking on its icon or selecting it from the M ARKERS menu, as shown
in Figure 12.8.

Figure 12.8: Marker drop-down menu

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242 Viewing Output

Point Marker tool

Select this tool to mark any point on the plot by clicking on the desired marker location. A marker with the
location coordinates will appear above the point, depending on the type of plot:

XY P LOT: (X -location, Y -location)

P OLAR P LOT: (radius, angle)

S MITH P LOT: (real part of location, imaginary part of location, frequency)

When the mouse moves close to the plotted curve, it is snapped to the closest location on the interpolated
line or sampled point. Holding the C TRL key will disable the snapping action, allowing a point to be placed
anywhere. Holding the S HIFT key will snap the marker to sampled points only. Note that markers placed
on sampled points are blue, and markers placed on interpolated points are black.

Crosshair Marker tool

Select this tool to mark the location of a single point by two intersecting cross-hairs. The marker is placed
at the right edge of the plot. (Snapping actions are the same as the P OINT M ARKER described above.)

Figure 12.9 shows an XY P LOT with a Crosshair Marker (1.8873e-08 s, -6.0381e-06 A) and Point Marker
(1.4636e-08 s, 1.0573e-05 A).

Figure 12.9: 2-D XY graph with Crosshair and Point markers (highlighted in red)

Figure 12.10 shows a polar graph with a Crosshair Marker along a radius.

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Figure 12.10: Polar graph with Crosshair marker (highlighted in red)

Figure 12.11 shows a smith graph with a Crosshair Marker along a radius.

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Figure 12.11: Smith graph with Crosshair markers (highlighted in red)

Vertical Marker tool

Select this tool to place a vertical line that intersects with the X -axis. The marker (Y = constant) will be
placed along the top-edge of the plot area. (Snapping actions are the same as the P OINT M ARKER
described above.)

Horizontal Marker tool

Select this tool to place a horizontal line that intersects with the X -axis. The marker (X = constant) will
be placed along the right-edge of the plot area. (Snapping actions are the same as the P OINT M ARKER
described above.)

Figure 12.12 shows a 2-D XY Graph with a Vertical Marker (at X = 1e-08 s) as well as a Horizonal Marker
(at Y = 1.5e-05 A).

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Figure 12.12: 2-D XY graph with Vertical and Horizontal markers (highlighted in red)

12.4 3-D Field Displays

Colored 3-D field displays may be viewed in slices of the geometry by saving either single-frequency or
broadband field quantities. The fields may be viewed in with the geometry (solid or meshed) or by them-
selves.

Three types of fields may be viewed with the geometry:

• Time Domain Snapshots - available for any calculation, as they are simply snapshots of the near-
zone fields at specific steps in time.

• Complex Fields or Derived Quantities (such as SAR) - available at specific frequencies.

• Three Dimensional Far-Zone Fields - can be requested either before the calculation with a far-zone
sensor, or after a calculation through post-processing.

12.4.1 Data Collected With Near-Field Sensors

The field control panel enables the user to view 3-D results as a slice of data at a specific point in time,
or as a sequence. The field sequences are movies of the individual slices as the fields progress with time
in a particular slice of the geometry. Depending on what was saved, the results may display electric and
magnetic fields, current densities, Poynting vectors stored for each direction (X , Y and Z ) and a display
of the combined magnitude.

In order to view single-frequency data, the C OLLECT S TEADY- STATE DATA check box must be
checked in the S IMULATIONS workspace window (under the F REQUENCIES OF I NTEREST tab).

Table ?? shows all of the available results for each sensor. Note that this depends on what data was saved
during the simulation.

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Table 12.4: Results Plots Available For Each Sensor Type

Sensor Result Time Discrete
Type Type Domain Frequency Broadband
Point E-Field (E)
H-Field (H)
B-field (B)
Poynting Vector (S)
Conduction Current (Jc)
Scattered E
Scattered H
Scattered B
Average Power
Surface E-Field (E)
Solid H-Field (H)
B-field (B)
Conduction Current (Jc)
Scattered E
Scattered H
Scattered B
Poynting Vector (S)
Average Power
SAR (Avg) SAR
HAC E-Field (E)
H-Field (H)
HAC Max E-Field (E)
HAC Max H-Field (H)

(Scattered) Electric Fields (E): magnitude, normal, or X , Y or Z components of the (scattered) electric
field data at each cell edge.

(Scattered) Magnetic Fields (H): magnitude, normal, or X , Y or Z components of the (scattered) mag-
netic field data at each cell edge.

(Scattered) Magnetic Flux Density (B): magnitude, normal, or X , Y or Z components of the (scattered)
B-field computed from the magnetic fields and associated permeability at each cell edge.

Average Power Density (SAV): magnitudes of the average power density computed from the electric and
magnetic fields at each cell edge.

Conduction Current Magnitude (Jc): Conduction Current at an electric field cell edge.

SAR (Specific Absorption Rate): computed for each complete cell containing a lossy dielectric with a
non-zero material density.

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12.4.2 Data Collected by Far Zone Sensors

The R ESULTS workspace window also displays the data collected for Far Zone sensors. Any far-zone
request generated using XFdtd’s post-processing engine (run separately from the calculation engine) is
automatically added once the post-processing is complete. If steady-state far-zone data is enabled for
the sensor, the results will include the E-field and axial ratio in the discrete-frequency domain. Gain or
discrete-frequency radar cross section (RCS) will also be available when using a feed or external excitation,
respectively.

Note that the polarization (Theta/Phi, Ludwig-2, etc.) is selected through the S ETUP tab of the
Field Editing Toolbar. See Section 12.4.3.4 for details.

If broadband far zone data was requested and the sampling interval for the data was set to one timestep
(see the discussion in Section 10.3), time domain far zone fields will be available for each angle that was
was defined. To plot that data, right-click on the E-Field result for the far zone sensor in the R ESULTS
workspace window and choose “Create Line Graph...”. The “Independent Axis” in the dialog that appears
should be listed as “Time”. Near the top next to “Component”, the field component to be plotted should be
selected and near the bottom, the angle for which the data should be plotted should be chosen. The click
“View” to see the selected time domain field.

Steady-state far-zone result data can be exported by right clicking on the far-zone-sensor result type and
selecting Export to UAN file. The .uan file format is unique to Remcom products. It can be read directly
by Wireless InSite and XGtd as an antenna file. The file contains far-zone pattern data for a specific
frequency. If there is data for more than one frequency, the user must select the pattern data they want to
download.

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Figure 12.13: Exporting UAN far-zone data

12.4.3 Viewing 3-D Field Displays

XFdtd displays 3-D field data in the G EOMETRY workspace window. The following subsections discuss
how to configure and analyze the display, using the S CALE B AR, the F IELD R EADER TOOL, rescaling,
and the field editing toolbar.

12.4.3.1 The Scale Bar

The S CALE B AR, located at the top of the G EOMETRY workspace window, ”paints” the view with a range
of colors which correspond to the range of values displayed. By default, the S CALE B AR color palette is
shown in continuous mode within a default range of values. You can adjust these properties by right-clicking
on the scale bar and selecting D ISCRETE M ODE, to change the palette to discrete colors, or AUTOMATIC
R ANGE, to change the range of values to that which is actually present.

There is also a P ROPERTIES option under the right-click menu. Clicking this will bring up the S CALE B AR
E DITOR. Using this editor, you can manually set the S CALE B AR limits, units and colors to your preference.
Take note of several settings that may not be intuitive for the first-time user:

Ô Under the L IMITS section, it is possible to “clamp” values outside the defined scale bar limits to the
nearest color. This makes it possible to view outliers that otherwise would not be colored with the
Scale Bar.

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Ô Under the S CALE section, when R ELATIVE D B is selected, you can define its reference value or use
the value automatically selected by XFdtd.

Ô Checking U SE D ISCRETE C OLORS makes it easier to view contours in the 3-D results.
Ô F ONT C OLOR and B ACKGROUND C OLOR change the display of the S CALE B AR itself.
Figure 12.14 shows the Scale Bar Editor, and Figure 12.15 displays the S CALE B AR with the F IELD
R EADER tool.

Figure 12.14: The Scale Bar Editor

12.4.3.2 The Field Reader Tool

The F IELD R EADER tool is located in the toolbar to the right of the G EOMETRY workspace simulation
space. After selecting this icon, wheel the mouse over the geometry object to identify its field values. A
marker in the S CALE B AR will display the nearest known field value to the location of the mouse. This
location is represented by a small dot on the screen.

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Figure 12.15: The Field Reader tool

12.4.3.3 Rescaling

In the R ESULTS workspace window, filter the results in the Sensor column by S YSTEM. Double-clicking
on results such as D ISSIPATED P OWER or S YSTEM E FFICIENCY will bring up the S YSTEM S ENSOR O UTPUT
dialog. Changing any value in this table will rescale the other values shown.

The S HOW S CALED VALUES box must be checked to enable editing in the S YSTEM S ENSOR O UTPUT
dialog.

Scaling only affects results which are in the discrete frequencies domain.

When you change the scaling by editing values in the S YSTEM S ENSOR O UTPUT dialog, you only
scale the results for that particular calculation engine run at that particular DFT frequency. Any other
tables of data and plots associated with this run and frequency will also be affected.

Figure 12.16 shows the S YSTEM S ENSOR O UTPUT dialog for a sample SAR sensor project.

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Figure 12.16: System Sensor Output dialog

12.4.3.4 The Field Editing Toolbar

Located at the bottom of the G EOMETRY workspace window, the field editing toolbar is used to configure
the properties of the view. In the upper-left corner of this toolbar, a drop-down list will display any view that
you have opened from the R ESULTS workspace window. You can use the H IDE OTHERS and U NLOAD
buttons to single out certain view(s) if necessary. Figure 12.17 shows a drop-down list of such results in
the field editing toolbar.

Figure 12.17: The results drop-down list of the field editing toolbar

The tabs and configuration options below the drop-down list will change depending on the active view. A
comprehensive list of the available options are described below.

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The S ETUP tab

There are two main configurations for the S ETUP tab, depending on the type of sensor you are evaluating.

Keep in mind that not all fields listed will be available for every view.

Surface, Solid and SAR Sensor configuration

Figure 12.18 shows the S ETUP tab for a solid sensor configuration.

• S EQUENCE A XIS - Controls which independent variable which is swept while playing the field se-
quence from the S EQUENCE tab. Options are:

– T IME – Each frame in the sequence corresponds to a single instant in time. This option is
available for time-domain output data only.

– P HASE – The sequence mimics the time-domain playback of steady state results captured at
the frequency provided by the axis range controls. The sinusoidal response at this frequency
is shown over the phase angle range [0, 2π ]. Each frame in the sequence corresponds to a
fixed phase angle within that range. This option is available for discrete frequency output data
only.

– X – Each frame in the sequence corresponds to a slice value of the X-coordinate. This option
is available for Solid Sensor and SAR Sensor results only.,

– Y – Each frame in the sequence corresponds to a slice value of the Y-coordinate. This option
is available for Solid Sensor and SAR Sensor results only.

– Z – Each frame in the sequence corresponds to a slice value of the Z-coordinate. This option
is available for Solid Sensor and SAR Sensor results only.

– F REQUENCY – Each frame in the sequence corresponds to a single steady-state data collec-
tion frequency. This option is available for discrete frequency output data only.

• D ISPLAYED F IELD - Lists the available components of a vector field that can be shown in a plot
– V ECTOR M AGNITUDE – Displays the magnitude of the vector field

– X – Displays the X-directed component of the field

– Y – Displays the Y-directed component of the field

– Z – Displays the Z-directed component of the field

– V ECTOR N ORMAL – Displays the component of the field vector normal to the surface. This
option is available for Surface Sensor data only

• C OMPLEX PART - Used to transform complex-valued fields to real-valued data for plotting. This
control is not displayed for time domain output data, for real-valued steady state output data, or
when the S EQUENCE A XIS is set to P HASE.

– S PECIFY P HASE – Allows a phase angle to be entered with the P HASE axis range specifier.
For a complex field value F and specified phase φ, the real part of F ejφ is displayed.

– M AGNITUDE – The magnitude of the complex field value is dipslayed.

– R EAL – The real part of the complex field value is displayed. This is equivalent to choosing
S PECIFY P HASE with a P HASE value of 0 radians.

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– I MAGINARY – The imaginary part of the complex field value is displayed. This is equivalent to
choosing S PECIFY P HASE with a P HASE value of 3π/2 radians.

• Axis Range Specifiers - These controls enable the user to adjust the range of an independent vari-
able over which the field data will be displayed. Note that the independent variable corresponding to
the S EQUENCE A XIS is never represented with these controls.

– X R ANGE / Y R ANGE / Z R ANGE – Defines the range of the X-, Y-, or Z-coordinate over which
field data will be displayed. Click the neighboring M ODIFY TOOL button to edit the displayed
range for this coordinate. Spatial coordinate ranges are only editable for Solid Sensor and
SAR Sensor results.

– T IME – Defines the single value of time at which the result data is displayed. Click the
M ODIFY TOOL button to choose a different value of time. Time specification is available
for time domain output data only.

– P HASE – Defines the phase offset within the steady-state sinusoidal response at which to
display result data. This setting is only available when S PECIFY P HASE is selected as the
C OMPLEX PART, and behaves as described above.

– F REQUENCY – Defines the steady state data collection frequency at which the result data
is displayed. Click the M ODIFY TOOL button to choose a different frequency. Frequency
specification is available for discrete frequency domain output data only.

• D ISPLAY M ODE - Controls how XFdtd displays field data. The available display modes are V ECTOR
F IELD, P OINT C LOUD, F LAT, and 3-D O FFSET.

• D ECIMATION - Used to sample a subset of points for Solid sensors. The available display options
are N ORMAL, F INE, E XTRA F INE, S UPER F INE, and F INEST.

By default, data is decimated at the highest level (N ORMAL). Each succesively finer value will
display more data. F INEST displays all data. The amount of memory and time required to
render data is directly related to the amount of data displayed, which could be significant.

• S IZE FACTOR - Used to scale the indicator size for point clouds and vector display modes. This field
determies the maximum size of the points.

• S CALE P OINTS / S CALE V ECTORS - Selects whether or not to scale the size of points (in P OINT
C LOUDS display mode) or vectors (in V ECTOR F IELD display mode) according to the plotted data
values.

• S HOW B OUNDING B OX - If selected, the bounding box displays. The bounding box enables the user
to see the outer limits of the data being displayed The size and shape of the bounding box changes
as users change the values in the DATA R ANGE field.

• S URFACE R ESOLUTION - Used to sample a subset of points for Surface sensors. This control is only
available if the Surface sensor sampling method is configured as F IELD I NTERPOLATION.

• E NABLE S CALING - Enables the scaling factor as described in Section 12.2.5

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Figure 12.18: The Setup tab for a solid sensor configuration

Far-Zone Sensor configuration

Figure 12.19 shows the S ETUP tab for a far-zone sensor configuration.

• In the leftmost section, specify what data to plot with the following controls:
– V IEWING - When plotting E-fields, Gain, Realized Gain, Directivity, or Radar Cross Section,
this control lists field polarizations available for display. Choices include V ECTOR M AGNITUDE
(for E-field and Radar Cross Section only), TOTAL (for Gain, Realized Gain, and Directivity
only), T HETA, P HI, A LPHA (L UDWIG -2), E PSILON (L UDWIG -2), E LEVATION (L UDWIG -2), A Z -
IMUTH (L UDWIG -2), H ORIZONTAL (L UDWIG -3), V ERTICAL (L UDWIG -3), L EFT H AND C IRCULAR
P OLARIZATION, and R IGHT H AND C IRCULAR P OLARIZATION.

– C OMPLEX PART - Used to transform complex-valued fields to real-valued data for plotting. This
control is not displayed for real-valued output data.

∗ S PECIFY P HASE – Allows a phase angle to be entered in a P HASE editor below. For a
complex field value F and specified phase φ, the real part of F ejφ is displayed.

∗ M AGNITUDE – The magnitude of the complex field value is dipslayed.

∗ R EAL – The real part of the complex field value is displayed. This is equivalent to choosing
S PECIFY P HASE with a P HASE value of 0 radians.

∗ I MAGINARY – The imaginary part of the complex field value is displayed. This is equivalent
to choosing S PECIFY P HASE with a P HASE value of 3π/2 radians.

– F REQUENCY – Defines the steady state data collection frequency at which the result data is
displayed.

• In the second section, configure how the plot is drawn:

– S IZE - Controls the size of the plot on the screen

– S CALE R ADIUS - Determines whether the radius where each data point is drawn should be
scaled according to the size of that value.

– S HOW S CALED VALUES - Enables the scaling factor as described in Section 12.2.5

• The following options are present in the rightmost section:

– D ISPLAY T HETA /P HI A XES - Controls the display of an axis indicator on the graph

– D ISPLAY M AIN L OBE D IRECTION - Shows the direction of maximum total gain

– The E XPORT TO UAN F ILE - Click this button to export far-zone result data (subject to any
rotation specified on the C OORDINATE S YSTEM tab) to a .UAN file, for use by Wireless InSite

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or XGtd. Ranges for Theta and Phi angles to export must be provided on the Export UAN
dialog.

Figure 12.19: The Setup tab for a far-zone sensor configuration

The S EQUENCE tab

This tab is available when viewing output data from SAR, Solid, or Surface Sensors. Configure the settings
here to ”play through” a simulation. Figure 12.20 displays the S EQUENCE tab.

• M INIMUM /M AXIMUM - values entered here control where the sequence starts and stops.
• S HOWING - shows the currently plotted value of the sequence axis
• The scroll bar at the bottom of the window can be used to view any point along the sequence.
• The simulation buttons allow you to move through the sequence:
– The and buttons play the sequence forwards and backwards, respectively.

– The button pauses a playing sequence.

– The and buttons fast forward and rewind the sequence, respectively.

– The and buttons jump to the end or beginning of the sequence, respectively.,

• C OMPUTE B OUNDS - when this box is checked, XFdtd will automatically compute the bounds before
the sequence and adjust the S CALE B AR accordingly.

• - performs the C OMPUTE B OUNDS calculation when pressed

• The A DVANCED tab

– Checking the AUTO -R EPEAT S EQUENCE box will automatically replay the sequence continu-
ously.

– The S TEP S IZE determines whether each index of the sequence axis is shown while playing
the movie. A value of 1 means show every index, a value of 2 means show every other index,
and so on.

• When the S EQUENCE A XIS on the S ETUP tab is set to P HASE, an additional I NCREMENT control is
present. This defines the difference in phase angle between successive frames in the sequence.

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Figure 12.20: The Sequence tab of the field editing toolbar

The C OORDINATE S YSTEM tab for far zone resutls

The Coordinate System tab, shown in Figure 12.21, allows the far zone coordinate system to be manipu-
lated. The leftmost controls choose the location of the C ENTER P OINT of the spherical coordinate system
used to plot this far zone result.

• Enter the (X , Y , Z ) coordinates of the center, or

• Choose the center using the P ICK tool.

• The R ESET C ENTER O N drop-down allows you to center the plot at the center of the geometry or at
the location of any of the ports in your active project.

The R OTATIONS toolset adjusts the orientation of the far-zone results by setting the U P V ECTOR of the
view. Changing the Up Vector (which is the Z -axis by default), will set the reference point for the spherical
coordinate systems (e.g., theta/phi, alpha/epsilon, etc.) This affects field plots of single polarization com-
ponents, partial power efficiency and power computations, mean effective gain computations, and antenna
diversity. This is useful in cases where the geometry is aligned with an axis of the computation grid, but the
real-world position of the geometry is not axis-aligned.

• The U P V ECTOR P RESETS list allows you to select a pre-defined U P V ECTOR in the X -, Y -, or
Z -direction.
• The P ICK U P V ECTOR tool allows you to select geometry within the simulation space to create your
own U P V ECTOR.

• The button will undo an operation.

• The button will redo an operation.

• The button will reset the U P V ECTOR.

Figure 12.21: The Rotations tab of the field editing toolbar

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The XPD tab

The XPD tab allows the cross-polarization discrimination (XPD) value used in mean effective gain and
antenna diversity computations to be set. The XPD value gives cross-polarization discrimation of the
incident multipath field. It can be expressed by the ratio of time-averaged vertical power to time-averaged
horizontal power in the fading environment. A linear value or a decibel value can be entered here.

Figure 12.22: The XPD Tab

The PDF tab

The PDF tab controls the Probability Density Function (PDF) settings used in the computation of mean
effective gain and antenna diversity far zone results. Figure 12.23 shows the PDF tab. PDF is used to
model communciation channels. This function “weights” different directions in the far zone sphere such
that certain far zone directions are taken into account more than others in the mean effective gain and
antenna diversity calculations. A graphical depiction of the PDF is displayed in place of the field plot while
the PDF tab is open. XFdtd supports several varieties of PDF types:

• U NIFORM VALUE – In this case, a constant weighting is used over the far zone sphere.
• G AUSSIAN – This is most commonly used as a model of channels. T HETA M AX and P HI M AX are the
angles of the maximum incoming field. S IGMA T HETA and S IGMA P HI are the standard deviations of
the distribution in the θ and φ directions, respectively.

• U SER -D EFINED – This allows the user to import the probability density data from a text file. The file
must contain a grid of theta/phi angles and the corresponding non-negative probability density at
each angle. For example, to define the PDF at ten theta angles with twenty phi angles, the text file
data would look something like the following:

theta0radians phi0radians pdfAtTheta0Phi0

theta0radians phi1radians pdfAtTheta0Phi1
...
theta0radians phi19radians pdfAtTheta0Phi19
theta1radians phi0radians pdfAtTheta1Phi0
...
theta9radians phi19radians pdfAtTheta9Phi19
By default, the same Probability Density Function is applied to both theta polarized and phi polarized field
data. This is the case whenever the PDF T YPE control for the P HI P OLARIZED PDF reads “Use Theta
Polarized PDF”. Changing this control allows the Theta and Phi PDFs to be defined independently.

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Figure 12.23: The PDF tab in Gaussian mode

The S TATISTICS tab

There are two main configurations for the S TATISTICS tab, depending on the type of sensor you are
evaluating.

Far-Zone Sensor Statistics

Figure 12.24 shows the S TATISTICS tab for a far-zone sensor configuration.

When P OWER /E FFICIENCY is selected, power and efficiency computed for the far zone data (with rotations
applied) is displayed. The option selected in the drop-down box determines the set of angles that are
considered for this data.

• F ULL PATTERN specifies the use of a full far zone sphere.

• U PPER H EMISPHERE specifies the use of theta = [0, 90◦ ] and phi = [0, 360◦ ].
• O PEN S KY specifies the use of theta = [0, 80◦ ] and phi = [0, 360◦ ].
• PARTIAL PATTERN allows the user to specify an arbitrary solid angle. These angles are defined
relative to the coordinate system defined under R OTATIONS.

The OTHER S TATISTICS option presents a list of additional statistics.

Figure 12.24: The Statistics tab for a Far-Zone sensor, showing Power/Efficiency and Other statistics

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SAR Sensor Statistics

Figure 12.25 shows the S TATISTICS tab for an SAR sensor configuration. This tab is available when
looking at SAR data for both the SAR S ENSOR and the SAR AVERAGING S ENSOR.

• M AXIMUM L OCATION displays the global coordinates of the location where the SAR maximum values
are found for the full-sensor and for the currently displayed slice.

• The M AXIMUM VALUE fields give the maximum SAR value detected over the entire sensor and over
the range of the sensor data that is currently being displayed. Depending upon what type of SAR
was chosen for plotting in the R ESULTS browser, the displayed values are either the maximum
raw SAR values, the maximum 1-gram Averaged SAR values, or the maximum 10-gram Averaged
SAR values. A value entered here affects the power scaling for this run and frequency, in the same
manner as adjusting the P OWER S CALING FACTOR in the System Sensor Output dialog.

• The AVERAGE R AW SAR VALUE displays the average raw SAR value over the sensor. This is
computed directly from the mass of and power dissipated by the tissues within the sensor region.
An adjustment entered here affects the power scaling in the same way as adjusting the M AXIMUM
VALUE.

• The V IEW S LICE W ITH M AX VALUE button takes you to the planar slice of SAR data which contains
the maximum value.

• The V IEW A LL SAR S TATS button opens a separate window displaying the statistics for all the
SAR sensors defined in the project together in a table, as shown in Figure 12.26. In addition to
the quantities above, the mass of and power dissipated by tissues within the sensor region are
displayed. In this window, the scaling factor can be adjusted, which affects all SAR values in this
window, including data displayed in the SAR Sensor Statistics tab. The scaling factor and SAR
statistics values will also automatically update when the user manually changes (rescales) any other
statistics available through the R ESULTS workspace window, such as power and efficiency values.

See Section 12.4.3.3 for more on rescaling values in the System Sensor Output dialog.

Figure 12.25: The Statistics tab for an SAR sensor

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Figure 12.26: The complete list of SAR statistics

The D IVERSITY tab

The D IVERSITY tab is used to compute antenna diversity metrics between two far zone patterns. To
perform the diversity computations, you must load the data for both far zone patterns in the R ESULTS
workspace. Then go to the diversity tab for one of the two patterns. Figure 12.27 shows the D IVERSITY
tab.

• The PATTERN 2 drop-down list allows you to select the far zone result which your current far zone
result is compared against. The only choices listed here are results which have been loaded into the
R ESULTS workspace window.

• The statistics next to F ROM 3-D PATTERN show the diversity computation for the full far zone sphere.
The statistics next to F ROM 2-D PATTERN show the diversity computation at theta = 90◦ .

• Under D IVERSITY O PTIONS, you can set the A NTENNA 1 P HASE and A NTENNA 2 P HASE controls to
specify the phase difference between the two far zone patterns.

Note that the XPD and PDF settings under the PDF tab impact this computation, as well as the
settings under the R OTATIONS tab.

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Figure 12.27: The Diversity tab of the field editing toolbar

The H EARING A ID C OMPATIBILITY tab

Figure 12.28 shows the H EARING A ID C OMPATIBILITY tab.

The H EARING A ID C OMPATIBILITY tab allows wireless device manufacturers to determine how well their
wireless devices can be expected to perform with a hearing aid given the amount of electomagnetic inter-
ference generated by the device. The HAC Sensor feature in XFdtd causes XFsolver to save E- and H-field
frequency-domain data in a plane where the hearing aid should be located. XFdtd can then use that field
data to perform the M-rating computation as described in the IEEE HAC standard (ANSI C63.19-2006).
The M-rating range contains five results (No Rating [worst] - M4 [Best]). The ”No Rating” value may occur
if too much electromagnetic interference is generated.

After XFsolver runs, the sensor data is further processed according to the criteria in the standard. The user
can determine if the handset will pass based on the rating in the M-Rating field.

This tab, as the name suggests, is only available when viewing HAC sensors.

• F REQUENCY - Defines the frequency of interest for the hearing aid.

• D ISPLAY M ODE - The available diplay modes are P OINT C LOUD and F LAT. If P OINT C LOUD is
selected, the S CALE P OINTS checkbox appears. This checkbox enables XFdtd] to scale the points
according to the values of the data.

• S HOW S CALED VALUES - When checked, the displayed results are scaled by the scaling factor
entered by the user on the system sensor output table.

• S URFACE R ESOLUTION - Controls the resolution at which field data is shown for the sensor. The
higher the resolution setting, the more data points are shown (and the closer they are together).

• M-R ATING - Displays the M-rating of the sensor, or the suitability of the wireless device when used
with a hearing aid.

• T HRESHOLD - The maximum allowed field value given the current M-rating. The tooltip for this value
provides further information about the M-Rating threshold values.

• B AND - Displays the band type. Bands enable the user to create different sets of parameters for the
IEEE HAC computation and store them with the project. Under the E DIT button, you can configure
the properties of the band, or define a pre-set list of properties using the M ANAGE P RESETS button.
An editor dialog will appear where you can add a new preset or import presets from a text file. The
format of a HAC band definition file is as follows:

– Lines in the file starting with # or ! are comments and are ignored.

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– Otherwise, the line must contain six semicolon-delimited items in this order:

- Name: The user-supplied name for the HAC band preset.

- Probe modulation factor: Used to scale the measured E-field and H-field maximum
values to take into account the effects of the particular input waveform.

- E-field probe calibration factor: Used to scale the measured E-field values to take
into account the effects of the user’s labratory E-field measurement probe (i.e., the probe
attenuates signals by a known amount at a given frequency).

- H-field probe calibration factor: Used to scale the measured H-field values to take
into account the effects of the user’s labratory H-field measurement probe.

- Articulation weighting factor, in dB (must be either 0 or -5): Controls whether a

-5 dB modification is applied to the threshold E- and H-field values for the M1 through M4
ratings. Checking the box lowers the threshold values, thus making it more difficult to achieve
a given M-rating. Whether or not XFdtd should make this -5 dB adjustment is based on the
transmission protocol as defined by the HAC standard.

- Convert peak field values to RMS: If enabled,

√ the maximum E-field peak values are
converted to RMS values (i.e., by multiplying by 2/2) before being used in the HAC M-rating
computation.

An example of this format is as follows:

! This is a comment
Band 1 Name; 1.176; 0.9; 0.8; -5; 0
Band 2 Name; 1.0; 0.92; 0.33; 0; 1
• The 3 X 3 G RID R EGION - Shows the maximum field values in each of the 9 squares of the HAC grid.
The double-line on the top-level of the readout helps you orient in reference to the white grid on the
displayed field (it also has a double-line in the top-left corner). Three of the cells in the 3x3 grid will
have a dotted red border around them. These are the three cells chosen to be excluded from the
HAC rating computation as allowed by the IEEE HAC standard. Also, any cells with red text are cells
which exceed the field value threshold amount for the current M-rating.

Figure 12.28: The Hearing Aid Compatibility tab of the field editing toolbar

12.5 Post-Processing

Post-processing gives the user the ability to perform additional computations after the calculation engine
run is finished. Three types of post-processing are available.

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12.5.1 Far Zone Post-Processing

Far-zone post-processing is enabled by checking the S AVE DATA FOR POST- SIMULATION FAR ZONE
STEADY- STATE PROCESSING box under the F REQUENCIES OF I NTEREST: DATA S TORAGE tab of
the S IMULATIONS workspace window. When this configuration is set, there will be an entry for R AW
S TEADY-S TATE FAR Z ONE DATA in the R ESULTS workspace window. Double-clicking this entry will allow
you define a new far zone geometry at which the steady-state far zone pattern will be computed. Edit the
geometry exactly as you would edit a far zone sensor. When you click D ONE in the far zone sensor editor,
the Far Zone Post Processingwindow appears. Select one of the following options.

• Synchronous: Far Zone post processing is done via the GUI. Note that computation time increases
for a larger computation grid, and increases as the number of desired output far zone angles in-
creases. The calculation engine can generally perform this computation much faster than the GUI if
any of the following is true:

1. XStream acceleration can be used (i.e. the computation is done on the GPU)

2. Multiple processors can be used to do the computation multi-threaded

3. MPI can be used

• Queued: Automatically begins far zone post processing. This option is not recommended if the
following is true:

– Running XFdtd with MPI

– Running XFsolver from a different computer or from a different user name

• Manual: Enables you to run the Far Zone post processing engine manually

Figure 12.29: Far Zone post processing engine options

After selecting the appropriate option, click the OK button. Depending on your selection, the computation
of the far zone pattern may begin. Once complete, you can find a new result in the Results workspace
window which corresponds to the newly defined far zone pattern.

Section 11.1.1 describes the F REQUENCIES OF I NTEREST tab.

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12.5.2 SAR Averaging Post-Processing

Right-clicking on any Raw SAR Sensor entry in the R ESULTS workspace window will show an option
in the context menu to P OSTPROCESS R ESULTS. This allows you to perform SAR averaging. Edit the
geometry and averaging parameters exactly as you would in the SAR AVERAGING S ENSOR editor. Once
you click D ONE in the editor, you will be given the option to automatically run the post-processor. If you
say yes, the post-processing operation is queued as if you had created a new simulation. Otherwise, you
will have to do the post-processing run manually. Once the SAR averaging is complete, new SAR average
data will appear in the Results workspace window.

Section 10.6 describes the parameters in the SAR AVERAGING S ENSOR editor.

See Section 11.2.3 for instructions on manually running remote SAR post-processing.

12.5.3 SAR Combination

When two or more SAR results of the same variety (e.g. two 1-gram SAR Averages) are selected in the
R ESULTS workspace window, a C OMBINE SAR R ESULTS option will become available in the context
menu. This command allows multiple scaled SAR results to be summed to find a maximum combined SAR
value. A C OMBINE SAR R ESULTS dialog will display a table of the selected SAR results. For each result,
the F REQUENCY of the result should first be selected. If desired, the scaling factor for each result can be
specified by editing the N ET I NPUT P OWER value displayed for that run. Press the OK button to begin the
computation.

A workspace window displays the result of the computation, giving the maximum combined SAR value and
a list of one or more Yee cell locations where that maximum was found. The grid indices of the Yee cell
are also provided. If the calculation grids for the input runs were not identical (as noted at the bottom of
the result window), grid indices are provided for each input run. In that case, SAR for each of the input
distributions is considered constant per Yee cell for that run. When Yee cells for different runs are partially
overlapping, the combining process tests the SAR value at all possible overlapping combinations of Yee
cell voxels.

Unlike SAR averaging and far zone post-processing, SAR combination results are not saved to disk,
and therefore must be recomputed each time they are requested.

Once computed, a combined SAR result does not respond to scaling changes to its constituent
parts.

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Chapter 13

Additional Tools for Customizing and

Organizing Projects

In this chapter, you will learn how to...

→ use scripts to streamline virtually any task in XFdtd

→ define your own universal parameters
→ store object definitions externally to reuse them in multiple projects
→ organize objects in your XFdtd project for more convenient access

XFdtd provides several convenient tools to facilitate the creation and organization of projects.

Parameterization is a powerful tool that makes it easy to define variables and functions in one convenient
workspace window, which can be referenced anywhere within the XFdtd interface. Additionally, parame-
terization can be used in conjunction with scripting to sweep through a series of parameters (i.e. multi-
ple antenna lengths) to run a calculation at every swept point. In XFdtd, parameters are defined in the
PARAMETERS workspace window.

The S CRIPTING workspace window makes it convenient to write scripts to accomplish tasks that are
specific to an XFdtd project. It provides users with the ability to create fully-customizable functionality
within the XFdtd interface that is specific to their own tasks. Scripting may be useful for quickly performing
repetitive tasks, referencing external files, employing a series of modeling operations at once, or virtually
any task that is tedious with the standard XFdtd tools.

Libraries provide useful means of storing definitions and any types of objects created within an XFdtd
project. They are saved in the L IBRARIES workspace window as files that are not attached to a specific
project so that they can be referenced again and again. They are very useful for creating new projects
that reuse definitions and objects from past projects. Rather than having to rebuild a project from scratch,
pertinent libraries can be imported so that time is not wasted redefining similar objects and properties.

Several other features in XFdtd are available that are also very useful for grouping and organizing definitions
and objects. The G ROUPS branch of the P ROJECT T REE functions to store shortcut groups, which

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are groups of objects that are added and organized by the user. Similarly, A SSEMBLIES are user-defined
groups of geometric objects that are added to the PARTS branch of the Project Tree. They are convenient,
especially for projects that contain a large number of parts, so that objects in the tree remain organized and
easy to access.

13.1 Parameters Workspace Window

The PARAMETERS workspace window allows users to define parameters from a single value or formula,
which can be used in most edit fields. Parameterizing provides the ability to change many objects at once
by only varying a single value. This window is accessible by right-clicking in the tabbed workspace or
selecting the window in the V IEW menu of the Application Menu Bar.

Figure 13.1 shows the Parameters workspace window.

Figure 13.1: The Parameters workspace window

13.1.1 Defining Parameters

The PARAMETERS workspace window contains four fields: N AME, F ORMULA, VALUE, and D ESCRIPTION.
Note that a value named ’timestep’ is already present upon opening this window.

A new parameter is added by clicking the button above the table of parameters. A new line with default
values will be added to the list of parameters. These values can edited by double-clicking on any value.
The TAB key will scroll through the columns of the table and the E SCAPE key will cancel any changes
that have been made to a parameter entry.

The F ORMULA contains a mathematical expression or simple number which XFdtd will evaluate. The value
for each parameter is a unit-less quantity allowing it to be used in any field of the user interface which
accepts parameters. When parameter formulas are given a unit, the value is converted to SI units (meters,

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seconds, amperes, etc.) ensuring any mathematical operations performed using the parameters maintains
a consistent unit, independent of display preference.

Formulas can reference other parameters that have already been defined.

The VALUE column is a read-only column that displays the evaluated value of the parameter. If an invalid
formula is entered, an error message will appear within this field with a description of the invalidity.
Simply hold the mouse over the error message to view this description.

Similarly, a parameter is deleted by selecting the unwanted parameter and clicking the button above the
table. If a parameter is deleted that is referenced within another parameter’s definition, an error message
will appear since the parameter that is referenced is no longer defined.

Each parameter is referenced by its assigned name defined in the N AME column of this window. For
instance, a parameter named ’length’ can be referenced by typing ’length’ into any dialog box within XFdtd,
and it will assume this defined value.

A parameter sweep may be set up in the S IMULATIONS workspace window. See Section 11.1.

13.1.2 Parameters Syntax

There are several important syntax rules to keep in mind when defining parameters or formulas in XFdtd.

Parameter Names...

• Cannot start with a number.

• Can only contain alpha-numeric characters and underscores (no spaces).
Parameter Formulas...

• Must have separation between the value and the unit (i.e., “2 mm”, not “2mm”).
• Will bind units with the value immediately to their left (i.e., “2 + 3 mm” = 2.003 mm; “(2+3) mm” =
0.005 mm).

• Cannot be used to modify any scripting objects.

• Should be completely independent of everything but other parameters (i.e., its value should not
depend on random numbers or variables).

• Can be built from anything that is legal in the scripting language, QtScript.
For more information on QtScript, visit the Qt Software homepage at www.qtsoftware.com.

13.2 Scripting Workspace Window

The S CRIPTING workspace window allows users to create, edit, manage, and execute user-defined
scripts, which are capable of gathering and reporting information from the XFdtd project or making changes
to the project. Scripts are blocks of QtScript and are typically used to automate repetitive or tedious tasks
(that could otherwise be done through the XFdtd GUI) with speed and precision.

There are two types of scripts in XFdtd:

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• M ACRO scripts, which typically contain global-scoped code that is only executed on demand.

• F UNCTION scripts, stored in F UNCTION L IBRARIES, which contain function and class definitions
that are always available within the scripting engine.

Parameters that have been defined in the active parameter list of the PARAMETERS workspace window
may be referenced within any script. A consequence of this ability is that changing a parameter in the
parameter list may change the behavior of user-defined functions.

One very powerful capability of XFdtd is the ability to script systematic parameter sweeps. The following is
a simple example of a script that performs a single parameter sweep, varying the parameter ”length” from
zero to five inches in increments of one:

var simData = App.getActiveProject().getNewSimulationData();

var sweep = simData.getParameterSweep();
// Sweep over the parameter ’length’
sweep.parameterName = "length";
// Sweep ’length’ from zero to six in increments of one
sweep.setParameterValuesByIncrement( 0, 1, 6 );
// Turn on the sweep
simData.enableParameterSweep = true;
For more information on setting up parameter sweeps, refer to Section 11.1.1.

Figure 13.2 shows the S CRIPTING workspace window.

Figure 13.2: The Scripting workspace window

13.2.1 The XFdtd Scripting Language

XFdtd scripts are written in the language QtScript, a variant of ECMAScript.

For more information on QtScript, visit the Qt Software homepage at www.qtsoftware.com.

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New Macro Script

Select this icon to bring up a N EW M ACRO S CRIPT tab where a new M ACRO can be defined. The
macro is not executed until the E XECUTE M ACRO icon is pressed.

New Function Script

Select this icon to bring up a N EW F UNCTION S CRIPT tab where a new F UNCTION can be defined.
The function is not executed until the C ALL F UNCTION icon is pressed.

Commit Script

Select this icon to commit a change to a script after an edit. Any changes that have been made to the
script will become active. For instance, if a new function was added to the script, it will now appear in the
drop-down list of functions when the C ALL F UNCTION icon is pressed.

Revert

Select this icon to ”revert” or abandon an edit. Any changes that have been made in the editor will be lost,
and the editor will revert back to the script that was stored in the XFdtd project or application.

Clear Output Window

Select this icon to clear text in the output window where error messages and script output are written.

Search and Replace

Select this icon to search for text within scripts. By selecting the R EPLACE W ITH check-box, text can be
located and replaced with the desired text.

Call Function

Select this icon to execute a function from one of the user-defined scripts. Navigate to the tabbed function
that is to be called, or select the function from the drop-down menu to the left of this icon. The chosen
function will execute and generate any output or error messages in the output window below. If the function
takes longer than one half second to finish, a progress dialog box will pop up so that the operation may be
cancelled if desired. A message in the output window will indicate when the function call has completed.

Execute Script

Select this icon to execute a macro from one of the user-defined scripts. Macros are executed in the same
manner that is described under Call Function.

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13.3 Libraries Workspace Window

The L IBRARIES workspace window allows users to create libraries or collections of objects grouped
by category so that they can be easily referenced during a project and can be accessed in subsequent
projects. This makes it very easy to access commonly used objects and definitions so that they do not
have to be recreated during every project.

Figure 13.3 shows the L IBRARIES workspace window.

Figure 13.3: The Libraries workspace window

13.3.1 Creating a New Library

To create a new library directory or subdirectory, click on the button above the L IBRARIES space in the
workspace window. Specify the name of the location to store the new library file.

13.3.2 Accessing Existing Libraries

To access an existing library, click on the button, navigate to the appropriate directory, and select the
desired library to load into the project.

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13.3.3 Adding Objects and/or Definitions to a Library

To add objects of definitions to a library, simply drag the desired object from the P ROJECT T REE into
lower workspace entitled O BJECT /N OTES. The object will be placed in a library grouping that corresponds
to its original position in the Project Tree. For example, a M ATERIAL dragged from the Project Tree will
be placed in the M ATERIALS folder of the Library. Additionally, filters can be applied to library objects
to control the visibility of each group. They are controlled in the F ILTERS section of the L IBRARIES
workspace window.

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Appendices

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Appendix A

Appendix of Geometric Modeling

In this appendix, you will learn...

→ how to use all of the geometric modeling tools available within XFdtd

A.1 Basic Geometric Shapes

Cone

The C ONE creation tool allows the user to add a 2D (sheet body) or 3D (solid body) cone to the project.
The dimensions of the object can be specified by keying in numeric or parametric expressions in the H EIGHT
and R ADIUS fields. The user can interactively edit the cone by dragging the vectors in the geometry view.
The C REATE AS option toggles between creating sheet or solid geometry.

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Figure A.1: Interactive vectors for editing a cone

Cuboid

The C UBOID creation tool allows the user to add a 2D (sheet body) or 3D (solid body) cuboid to the
project. The dimensions of the object can be specified by keying in numeric or parametric expressions in
the W IDTH, D EPTH and H EIGHT fields. The user can interactively edit the object by dragging the vectors in
the geometry view. The C REATE AS option toggles between creating sheet or solid geometry.

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Figure A.2: Interactive vectors for editing a cuboid

Cylinder

The C YLINDER creation tool allows the user to add a 2D (sheet body) or 3D (solid body) circular cylinder
to the project. The dimensions of the object can be specified by keying in numeric or parametric expressions
in the H EIGHT and R ADIUS fields. The user can interactively edit the object by dragging the vectors in the
geometry view. The C REATE AS option toggles between creating sheet or solid geometry.

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Figure A.3: Interactive vectors for editing a cylinder

Frustum

The F RUSTUM creation tool allows the user to add a 2D (sheet body) or 3D (solid body) elliptical frustum
to the project. The dimensions of the object can be specified by keying in numeric or parametric expressions
in the H EIGHT, R ADIUS 1, R ADIUS 2 and TOP fields. The user can interactively edit the object by dragging
the vectors in the geometry view. The C REATE AS option toggles between creating sheet or solid geometry.

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Figure A.4: Interactive vectors for editing a frustum

Helix

The H ELIX creation tool allows the user to add a 2D (sheet body) or 3D (solid body) helix to the project.
The dimensions of the object can be specified by keying in numeric or parametric expressions in the
H EIGHT, M AJOR R ADIUS, M INOR R ADIUS and T HREAD S PACING fields. Additionally, the W INDING option
toggles between left and right handedness. The user can interactively edit the object by dragging the
vectors in the geometry view. The C REATE AS option toggles between creating sheet or solid geometry.

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Figure A.5: Interactive vectors for editing a helix

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Prism

The P RISM creation tool allows the user to add a 2D (sheet body) or 3D (solid body) prism to the project.
The dimensions of the object can be specified by keying in numeric or parametric expressions in the
H EIGHT, R ADIUS 1 and R ADIUS 2 fields. Control the number of sides using the S IDES field. The user
can interactively edit the object by dragging the vectors in the geometry view. The C REATE AS option
toggles between creating sheet or solid geometry.

Figure A.6: Interactive vectors for editing a prism

Pyramid

The P YRAMID creation tool allows the user to add a 2D (sheet body) or 3D (solid body) pyramid to the
project. The dimensions of the object can be specified by keying in numeric or parametric expressions in
the H EIGHT, R ADIUS 1, R ADIUS 2 and TOP fields. Control the number of sides using the S IDES field. The
user can interactively edit the object by dragging the vectors in the geometry view. The C REATE AS option
toggles between creating sheet or solid geometry.

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Figure A.7: Interactive vectors for editing a pyramid

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Sphere

The S PHERE creation tool allows the user to add a 2D (sheet body) or 3D (solid body) sphere to the
project. The dimensions of the object can be specified by keying in a numeric or parametric expression in
the R ADIUS field. The user can interactively edit the object by dragging the vector in the geometry view.
The C REATE AS option toggles between creating sheet or solid geometry.

Figure A.8: Interactive vectors for editing a sphere

Torus

The TORUS creation tool allows the user to add a 2D (sheet body) or 3D (solid body) torus to the project.
The dimensions of the object can be specified by keying in numeric or parametric expressions in the M AJOR
R ADIUS and M INOR R ADIUS fields. The user can interactively edit the object by dragging the vectors in the
geometry view. The C REATE AS option toggles between creating sheet or solid geometry.

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Figure A.9: Interactive vectors for editing a torus

A.2 Editing Cross-Sections for 2-D and 3-D Models

A.2.1 Shapes

Edge tools

Edge tools are used to create lines of various shapes within the XFdtd interface. Figure A.10 displays
the Edge Tools including the S TRAIGHT E DGE tool (upper left), P OLYLINE E DGE tool (upper right),
TANGENT L INE tool (lower left) and P ERPENDICULAR E DGE tool (lower right).

Pressing TAB while using these tools will bring up the S PECIFY P OSITION dialog, which is used
to enter relevant properties to the tool being used.

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Figure A.10: The Edge Tools

Straight Edge Creates a simple straight edge. To use this tool, click the S TRAIGHT E DGE button
and click two points in the sketching plane where the endpoints should be located.

Polyline Edge The P OLYLINE E DGE is similar to the Straight Edge tool except it allows multiple
points to create a series of connected straight edges. Click a starting point in the sketching plane and
continue clicking on the locations of subsequent endpoints to create desired polyline edge. Click on the
first vertex or press R ETURN to finish.

Perpendicular Edge Creates a straight edge perpendicular to an existing edge. To use, select the
P ERPENDICULAR E DGE button and click on the existing edge that will define the perpendicular direction.
This can be a straight or curved edge. Then click on the location of the first and second endpoints of the
perpendicular straight edge.

Tangent Line Similar to the Perpendicular Edge tool, but instead draws a line tangent to a pre-existing,
non-linear edge. To use, select the TANGENT L INE tool, and click on the existing curve that will define the
tangential direction. Then click on the location of the first and second endpoints of the tangential straight
edge.

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Closed Polygon tools

Figure A.11 displays the Closed Polygon tools including the R ECTANGLE, P OLYGON and N-S IDED
P OLYGON tools.

Figure A.11: The Closed Polygon tools

Rectangle Creates a simple rectangle. Click the desired location of the first vertex of the rectangle
and drag the mouse to the location of the second vertex.

Polygon Creates a polygon specified by the user. (For regular polygons, see N-S IDED P OLYGON).
It functions like the P OLYLINE E DGE tool. Click the starting point and all subsequent points, then click
R ETURN to close the polygon. This will draw a line from the last selected endpoint to the first endpoint.

N-Sided Polygon Creates a regular, N-Sided Polygon of a user-specified number of sides. Click the
location of the center of the polygon. Then press the left-bracket key ’[’, or the right-bracket key ’]’ to
decrease or increase the number of sides, respectively. Once the correct number of sides is selected, drag
the mouse until the desired size and orientation around the center point is achieved and click again to finish
the N-sided polygon.

Arc tools

Figure A.12 displays two of the arc tools: the 3-P OINT A RC and 2- POINT A RC tools.

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Figure A.12: The Arc tools

3-Point Arc tool Creates an open arc from three points. Click on the location of the first endpoint.
Click a second location to specify a point between the two endpoints (which helps determine size), and a
third location to specify the other endpoint.

2-point Arc tool Creates a semi-circle from two points. Click on the first endpoint location and drag
the mouse until the desired semi-circle size and orientation is achieved. Click this second end point location
to finish.

Arc center, 2 points tool Creates an open arc from three points. First, click on the location of the
center of the arc. Secondly, click a point to specify the radius of the arc. Finally, click the location of the
endpoint to specify the length of the arc.

Circle and Ellipse tools

Figure A.13 displays an example of the C IRCLE CENTER , RADIUS tool and the E LLIPSE tool.

Figure A.13: The Circle Center, Radius and Ellipse tools

Circle Center, Radius Creates a circle defined by its center point and radius. Click the location of the
circle’s center point, then select another point to define the radius and finish the circle.

3-point Circle Creates a circle based on three user-specified points, similar to the 3-P OINT A RC
tool. Click the first two points to set the location of the circle and the third to specify its size.

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2-point Circle Creates a circle based on the distance between two points. After selecting the first
point, choose the second to define the diameter and finish the circle.

Ellipse Draws an ellipse from three points: the center and two perpendicular radii. Click the center
point of the ellipse, then select the desired location of the first radii. Finally, select the desired length of the
second radii, perpendicular to the first.

A.2.2 Tools

Select/Manipulate

Enabled by default and used as the universal selection tool in geometry creation. It can be used to:

• move an object, edge, or vertex to a new position, by clicking-and-dragging

• select a vertex or edge and lock or edit its position, by right-clicking and selecting L OCK P OSTION or
E DIT P OSITION

• edit the value of an angle or distance constraint, by right-clicking and selecting the edit option
• delete an edge or constraint, by right-clicking and selecting the delete option
Note that this tool is different from the S ELECT tool in the V IEW TOOLS menu.

Figure A.14: Select/Manipulate tool

Trim Edges

Deletes segments of edges until they intersect with other edges. To use this tool, click on the section of the
edge that is to be deleted.

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Figure A.15: The Trim Edges tool, used to combine two shapes into one

Insert Vertex

Inserts a vertex onto an already existing edge. Click the desired location of the new vertex on the existing
edge.

Figure A.16: Insert Vertex tool

Fillet Vertex

Converts a sharp corner into a rounded corner between two curves. Click on any sharp corner and drag
until the desired fillet radius is achieved and click to finalize fillet.

Figure A.17: Fillet Vertex tool

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Copy Cross Section Edges

Copies the edges formed by the intersection of the cutting plane and any solid geometry it intersects. Click
on a single edge to copy it into the current sketch, or click on the part containing the intersection to copy all
of the formed edges.

Figure A.18: Copy Cross Section Edges tool

A.2.3 Constraints

The geometry Constraints tools are used to modify pre-drawn shapes to the desired specifications.

Some of the ”before” images below have been marked with white arrows to show which edges are
constrained in the ”after” image on the right.

Horizontal Constraint

Constrains a segment to the horizontal direction.

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Figure A.19: Polygon before (left) and after (right) two sides are constrained horizontally

Vertical Constraint

Constrains a segment to the vertical direction.

Figure A.20: Polygon before (left) and after (right) two sides are vertically constrained

Collinear Constraint

Constrains two straight segments so that they are in line with each other.

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Figure A.21: Polygon before (left) and after (right) after two sides are constrained to be collinear

Parallel Constraint

Constrains two straight segments so that they are parallel to each other.

Figure A.22: Polygon before (left) and after (right) two sides are constrained in parallel

Perpendicular Constraint

Constrains two straight segments so that they are perpendicular to each other.

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Figure A.23: Polygon before (left) and after (right) two sides are constrained perpendicularly

Tangent Constraint

Constrains a straight segment so that it is tangent to a circular segment at a point.

Figure A.24: Circle and polygon before (left) and after (right) a side of the polygon is constrained tangen-
tially in reference to the circle

Concentric Constraint

Constrains two circular segments so that they are centered upon the same point.

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Figure A.25: Two circles before (left) and after (right) they are made concentric

Angle Constraint

Constrains an angle to a user-specified value between two straight lines. Click once to select angle, then
click a second time to place label and enter the angle size.

Figure A.26: Polygon before (left) and after (right) an angle has been constrained to a user-defined value

Distance Constraint

Constrains the distance between two points, the distance between a point and a line, or the length of a line
to a user-specified value. After selecting the object(s) to constrain, click a final time to place label and enter
distance.

As shown in Figure A.27, there are three different constraint “modes”: parallel, vertical and horizontal. The
mode is determined by the location of the mouse cursor when you click to specify where the constraint
should be drawn.

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Figure A.27: Polygon (A) before line has been constrained, (B) with a parallel distance constraint, (C) with
a vertical distance constraint and (D) with a horizontal distance constraint.

Equal Length Constraint

Constrains selected segments to an equal length (assumes the length of the segment selected second).

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Figure A.28: Polygon before (left) and after (right) two sides are made equal length to one another

Equal Distance Constraint

Constrains two pairs of points so that each pair assumes a distance from each other equal to the distance
between the original pair.

Figure A.29: Polygon before (left) and after (right) two sides are made equal distance from each other

Radius Constraint

Constrains the radius to a user-specified value.

Equal Radius Constraint

Constrains selected radii to an equal length.

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Figure A.30: Two Circles before (left) and after (right) their radii are made equal

A.2.4 Snapping

Snapping tools are used to snap the mouse to a specific point or edge in the XFdtd geometry.

The blue lines in the images below highlight the ”snap-to” landmarks.

Snap to Grid Line

Mouse is snapped to the nearest point on the nearest grid line.

Figure A.31: Snap to Grid Line Tool

Snap to Grid/Edge Intersections

Mouse is snapped to the nearest intersection between the grid and the sketch edge.

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Figure A.32: Snap to Grid/Edge Intersections Tool

Snap to Vertices

Mouse is snapped to the nearest vertex of the sketch or edge mid-point within range.

Figure A.33: Snap to Vertices Tool

Snap to Edges

Mouse is snapped to the edges of a pre-defined object.

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Figure A.34: Snap to Edges Tool

Snap to Edge/Edge Intersections

Mouse is snapped to the vertices of intersecting edges.

Figure A.35: Snap to Edge/Edge Intersection Tool

Snap to Part Cross Sections

When the cutting plane is active and the sketching plane intersects existing geometry, this tool will snap
the mouse location to the edges and vertices formed by the part cross section.

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Figure A.36: Snap to Part Cross Sections Tool

A.3 2-D Modeling Options

The 2-D Modeling tools are used to outline or fill-in a simple geometry object.

Wire Body

The W IRE B ODY tool is the simplest geometry object. Any of the Shape tools can be used to create the
desired wire geometry.

Sheet Body

The S HEET B ODY tool is similar to the W IRE B ODY tool except its interior is filled with a material.

It is also possible to create a sheet body using advanced options with 3-D modeling operations.

Sheet Body from Faces

The S HEET B ODY FROM FACES tool allows the user to create a S HEET B ODY from one or more faces
of a pre-existing geometry object. The user will prompted to select one or more object faces by selecting
them in the view (using CNTL -click for multiple selection) or by clicking on the Select All Faces button
to select all faces.

If the ”Detach Faces” checkbox on the ”Select Faces” tab of the editor is checked, the new object will be
detached from the source geometry. This means that if the source geometry is changed, the new Sheet
Body will not change. Conversely, if the checkbox is not checked, the new Sheet Body will change if the
source geometry changes.

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A.4 3-D Solid Modeling Options

The 3-D Modeling tools are used to create simple solid geometry objects from 2-D forms.

For solid body creation, the 2-D sketch must be closed so that there are no lingering endpoints.

Extrude

E XTRUDE is used to sweep a face in the normal direction from its center. Once a 2-D form in made
in the E DIT CROSS SECTION tab, select the E XTRUDE tab to its right to perform an extrusion. For a
default extrusion, define the distance in the E XTRUDE D ISTANCE dialog box by typing in a numerical value,
parameter name, or equation.

If units are not entered next to the numerical value, the default units are assumed.

See Section 13.1.1 for more information about defining distances with parameter names.

Additionally, the D IRECTION dialog box specifies the axis along which the extrusion will occur. Clicking
done after the desired geometry is created will add the object to the project. It can now be seen in the
P ROJECT T REE.

Figure A.37: Extrusion Tool

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Revolve

R EVOLVE is used to sweep a face in a circular path. Once a 2-D form is made in the E DIT CROSS
SECTION tab, select the R EVOLVE tab to perform a revolution. For a default revolution, define the angle
in the A NGLE dialog box by typing in a numerical value, parameter name, or equation. The A XIS R OOT
P OSITION dialog specifies the location of the root of the axis around which the shape will revolve. The
A XIS D IRECTION box specifies the direction along which the revolution will occur. Clicking D ONE after the
desired geometry is created will add the object to the project. It can now be seen in the P ROJECT T REE.

Figure A.38: Revolution Tool

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Figure A.39: Creating a sphere with the Revolution Tool

A.5 Advanced 3-D Solid Modeling Operations

The Advanced 3-D Modeling tools are used to modify a pre-defined 3-D geometry object. They are available
within the E XTRUDE and R EVOLVE operations.

Twist

Twist options control how much the face is twisted as it is swept. They can be specified by angle or law.

B Y A NGLE : Specify the total number of degrees that the face will twist while it is swept.

B Y L AW : Specify a mathematical expression to control the rate of twist as a function of the variable
X.

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Figure A.40: Twist Tool defined by A) Angle (90 degrees) and B) Law (0.8x2 ).

Draft Type

Draft Type options control the expansion or contraction of the edges of the face as it is swept from its initial
position.

N O D RAFT : No expansion or contraction of edges during sweep.

D RAFT A NGLE : Specify the expansion or contraction angle from initial position.

Figure A.41: A cylinder sweep with Draft By Angle (10 degrees)

D RAFT L AW : Specify a mathematical law to control the shape of the sides as the face is swept from
initial position as a function of the variable X .

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Figure A.42: A cylinder sweep with Draft By Law (.5sin(2x))

E ND D ISTANCE /S TART D ISTANCE : Specify the offset distance in the plane where the sweep
ends/begins.

Figure A.43: A cylinder sweep with Draft By End Distance (1 mm) and Start Distance (1 mm)

Hole Draft Type

Hole Draft Type options control the expansion and contraction of a hole. They are therefore only valid
during sweeping operations applied to a faces that contain holes. Hole Draft Type can be defined based on
the values assigned to the edges in Draft Type options, or by angle.

N O D RAFT : No expansion or contraction is applied to the hole, even if the face has a D RAFT T YPE
applied to it.

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D RAFT A NGLE Specify the expansion or contraction angle from initial position.

Figure A.44: Hole with no Draft (left) and a defined Draft Angle (right)

W ITH P ERIPHERY: The expansion or contraction of the hole will be the same as the outside edges
of the face as specified in D RAFT T YPE.

AGAINST P ERIPHERY: The expansion or contraction of the hole will be the opposite to the outside
edges of the face as specified in D RAFT T YPE. (i.e.: the hole will contract as the face expands and
expand when the face contracts.)

Figure A.45: Hole with Draft Angle against (left) and with the Periphery (right)

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Gap Type Modeling Operations

The G AP T YPE specifies how to close the gap created by an offset. Use this feature when specifying a
draft angle while creating an extrude. When you click the Done button to create the extruded part, the draft
angle for the part often creates gaps. The G AP T YPE option you select tells the solid modeler how to fill
those gaps. The default gap type is N ATURAL, but the following options are available for filling gaps in the
geometry.

N ATURAL : Extends the two shapes along their natural curves until they intersect.

R OUNDED : Creates a rounded corner between the two shapes.

E XTENDED : Draws two straight tangent lines from the ends of each shape until they intersect.

Figure A.46: 2-D Illustration of gap types, showing A) the original gap, B) Natural, C) Rounded and D)
Extended

Figure A.47: 3-D Illustration of the Natural gap type

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Figure A.48: 3-D Illustration of the Rounded gap type

Figure A.49: 3-D Illustration of the Extended gap type

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Cut Off End

Controls the orientation of a face that does not follow its normal during a straight sweeping operation.
Select this option to chop the end of the swept 3-D object so that the normal of the end face is aligned with
the line used for sweeping.

Figure A.50: Original Model (Left) and Model After Cut Off End (Right)

Make Solid

This option makes the model entirely solid. If this option is not selected, the model will be hollow.

A.6 Modifying Existing Geometry

Specify Orientation

The S PECIFY O RIENTATION button is used to position the selected geometry in the simulation space.
Clicking this icon will bring up the S PECIFY O RIENTATION tab.

See Section 5.5 for more on using the S PECIFY O RIENTATION tab.

See Section 5.2 for descriptions of the tools used to rotate, translate and zoom into the geometry.

Chamfer Edges

C HAMFER E DGES operation creates a beveled edge between two surfaces. After selecting the edge,
it will be trimmed at a 45◦ angle if C ONSTANT DISTANCE is selected in the S PECIFY D ISTANCE tab.
Otherwise, the user enters the chamfer distance for the surfaces on the left and right sides of the edge.

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Figure A.51: A Chamfer operation applied to a cylinder edge

Blend Edges

The B LEND E DGES operation rounds the selected edge of the geometry. Under the S PECIFY R ADIUS
tab, the user can enter the B LEND R ADIUS to adjust the rounding factor.

Figure A.52: A Blend operation applied to a cylinder edge

Shell

The S HELL operation creates a shell from existing geometry. After selecting the faces to keep open, the
user can enter the S HELL T HICKNESS under the S PECIFY T HICKNESS tab.

By definition, the shell operation is used on geometry which is intended to have volume. This oper-
ation is not for use an object such as a S HEET B ODY, whose volume is insignificant in the XFdtd
calculation.

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Figure A.53: A Shell operation applied to a cylinder

Offset Sheet Faces

With the O FFSET S HEET FACES operation, the user enters a positive or negative offset distance to
increase or decrease the length of the S HEET B ODY, respectively.

Figure A.54: An octagon with an edge offset in the positive direction (left) and the negative direction (right)

Thicken Sheet

The T HICKEN S HEET operation is used to add thickness to a S HEET B ODY .

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Figure A.55: The Thicken Sheet operation applied to an octagonal sheet body

Loft Faces

The L OFT FACES operation creates a new geometry by making a new solid that connects two chosen
faces. Under the S PECIFY L OFT tab, the user can adjust the S MOOTHNESS FACTOR to adjust how closely
the newly created edges match the trajectory of the existing geometry. When two faces of a single part are
chosen, two options are available in the A DD L OFT A S drop-down list.

• A Feature: Adds a new feature to the part’s modeling sequence. XFdtd uses this addition to contain
the geometry within a single part.

• A Separate Part: Xfdtd adds the newly created loft geometry to the project as a new part.
When the faces are chosen from separate parts, two additional options are available in the the A DD L OFT
A S drop-down list.

• Part 1 Addition: The new loft geometry is combined with the part from the first chosen face.
• Part 2 Addition: The new loft geometry is combined with the part from the second chosen face.
After the loft has been created, modifications to the original parts will cause the loft geometry to reapply to
match the adjusted shapes.

Figure A.56: Two objects within a geometry with faces selected (left) and later connected by a Loft (right)

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Twist

The T WIST operation twists an existing part around an axis. The axis is specified by defining two points
in space by direct entry of their coordinates or by using the picking tools. These points are rendered in the
scene along with a plane at each point normal to the axis that denote the extents of the twist operation.
I.e. The twisting will occur between the two planes. The amount of twist to apply at each plane as well as
a continuity condition between twisted and untwisted sections of the part are also specified.

Figure A.57: An object with a twist applied, before (left) and after (right)

Stretch

The S TRETCH operation stretchs an existing part along an axis. Like the T WIST operation, the axis is
specified by defining two points in space by direct entry of their coordinates or by using the picking tools.
These points are rendered in the scene along with a plane at each point normal to the axis that denote
the extents of the stretch operation. I.e. The stretching will occur between the two planes. The amount of
stretch to apply at each plane as well as a continuity condition between stretched and unstretched sections
of the part are also specified.

Figure A.58: An object with a stretch applied, before (left) and after (right)

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Remove Faces

The R EMOVE FACES operation removes a blend or chamfer that was previously applied to a geometry
edge. This operation must be applied before the user can offset the length of an object. When a face is
removed, a gap occurs and the object becomes a sheet body. To close the gap, click the C LOSE GAPS
LEFT BY REMOVED FACES checkbox in the P REVIEW tab. When selected, XFdtd connects the faces around
the gap. The part remains a solid object.

This operation is useful for modifying objects that have been imported from CAD files.

Figure A.59: An object (left) with several faces removed. With open gaps (center) and with closed gaps
(right)

Offset Faces

With O FFSET FACES, the user enters a positive or negative offset distance to increase or decrease the
length of the selected model, respectively.

Figure A.60: A cylinder with an applied negative offset (left) and positive offset (right)

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A.7 Boolean Operations

Existing Parts Boolean Operation

The E XISTING PARTS Boolean options perform operations on multiple geometric parts. In each case, at
least one or more objects are identified as the TOOL (the part(s) used to perform the modification), and at
least one or more objects are identified as the B LANK (the part(s) to be modified). There are four types of
operations:

• S UBTRACT

• I NTERSECT

• U NION

• C HOP

In the S UBTRACT and C HOP operations, the TOOL is subtracted from the B LANK. In the I NTERSECT
and U NION operations, the part(s) selected first is inconsequential.

With the C HOP operation, the B LANK turns out the same as in a S UBTRACT operation. A new object is
added to the PARTS branch, which is the shape of the I NTERSECTION.

Figure A.61: Original objects (Upper Left), selection of the Blank (Upper Middle), objects after Boolean
Subtraction (Upper Right), objects after Boolean Intersection (Lower Left), objects after Boolean Union
(Lower Middle), and objects after Boolean Chop (Lower Right)

Extrude Boolean Operation

The E XTRUDE Boolean option performs an operation on a geometric part (or parts). In this case, the user
chooses the B LANK, and then creates the object to use as the TOOL. The user then specifies the orientation
of the extrusion and the nature of the operation ( S UBTRACT, I NTERSECT, U NION, or C HOP). In
essence, this operation is a shortcut for the E XISTING PARTS Boolean operation.

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Figure A.62: A boolean extrude operation

Revolve Boolean Operation

The R EVOLVE Boolean option performs an operation on a geometric part (or parts). The user chooses
the B LANK, and then creates the object to use as the TOOL. The user then specifies the orientation of the
revolution and the nature of the operation ( S UBTRACT, I NTERSECT, U NION, or C HOP).

Figure A.63: A boolean revolve operation

A.8 3-D Patterns

Linear/Rectangular Pattern

The L INEAR /R ECTANGULAR Pattern option allows the user to select a part in the geometry and replicate
it in a linear pattern. After selecting the part to modify, define the S PACING and N UMBER OF I NSTANCES in
the U 0 , V 0 and W 0 directions. Spacing refers to the distance between objects in the specified direction,
and Number of Instances refers to the number of objects in the specified direction. For example, if three
cylinders are to be spaced at 2-mm intervals in the U 0 -direction, the Spacing in the U 0 -direction is 2 mm

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and the Number of Instances in the U 0 -direction is 3. Additionally, the S TAGGER check-boxes apply a
stagger in the specified direction at every other instance in that direction.

Spacing refers to the distance between each object’s center point in the specified object. So, for ex-
ample, if the spacing between two cylinders does not exceed the distance of the cylinder’s diameter,
the cylinders will overlap.

Figure A.64: A linear pattern applied to a cylinder

Circular/Elliptical Pattern

The C IRCULAR /E LLIPTICAL Pattern option allows the user to select a part in the geometry and replicate
it in a circular or elliptical pattern. After selecting the part to modify, navigate to the S PECIFY C IRCU -
LAR /E LLIPTICAL PATTERN tab and define the following fields:

• A XIS P OINT - specifies the position of the axis

• A XIS N ORMAL - specifies values to define the direction of the pattern
• ROOT P OSITION (available in E LLIPTICAL M ODE) - specifies a point (usually the center of a part) to
use as the reference to replicate in the elliptical pattern.

• M AJOR A XIS (available in E LLIPTICAL M ODE) - specifies the direction of the major axis
• PATTERN O PTIONS
– I NSTANCES - specifies the number of objects in the pattern

– A NGLE - specifies the angle across which the objects are patterned (i.e., 180◦ means that
objects are patterned across half of the ellipse)

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– R ATIO (available in E LLIPTICAL M ODE) - specifies the ratio of the minor axis to the major axis

Figure A.65: An elliptical pattern applied to a small cylinder

A.9 Geometric Transformations

T RANSFORMATIONS are geometric operations available for use on imported CAD models and parts
created through the feature-based modeling mechanism.

Scale

The object is scaled according to the values entered in the dialog. The user can choose to scale uniformly
(all 3 axes at once) or choose the individual axes to scale.

Figure A.66: Scaling an imported CAD cube to 50% of its original size

Translate

The object is translated according to the values entered in the dialog. The user can choose to translate
along any or all of the 3 major axes.

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Figure A.67: Translating an imported CAD cube closer to the cone

Rotate

The object is rotated according to the values entered in the dialog. The user can choose to rotate around
any or all of the 3 major axes.

Figure A.68: Rotating an imported CAD cone

Reflect

The object is reflected according to the values entered in the dialog. The user can choose to reflect across
any or all of the 3 major axes.

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Figure A.69: Reflecting an imported CAD cube across the U’ axis

Shear

The object is sheared according to the values entered in the dialog. The user can choose to shear along
any or all of the 3 major axes.

Figure A.70: Shearing an imported CAD cube at a 0.8 ratio

A.10 Flattening a Modeling Sequence

Using the feature-based modeling techniques available in XFdtd, it is possible to generate modeling se-
quences that are quite long or complicated. In some cases, it may be desirable to apply this entire modeling
sequence as a permanent action, treating the resulting geometry as if it were an imported CAD object. This
can be done using the F LATTEN operation.

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Figure A.71: Flattening a modeling sequence into a CAD object

Flattening a Modeling Sequence has the secondary benefit of allow you to heal the resultant geometry (i.e.
remove its geometric irregularities), by right-clicking on the object in the P ROJECT T REE and selecting
H EAL.

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Appendix B

Grid Appendix

In this appendix, you will learn...

→ the theory behind creating a grid in XFdtd

→ how to choose a cell size to optimize your XFdtd project calculation
→ methods for varying the XFdtd grid
→ how to debug the XFdtd grid

B.1 Grid Concepts Overview

The grid consists of three sets of points, one set for each axis: X , Y and Z . At each point is a plane. For
example, consider the point at X = 3, which defines a plane in Y and Z . The point Y = 4 defines a plane
in X and Z . The point Z = 5 defines a plane in X and Y . Where two planes intersect is a line. Planes
from the remaining axis cut that line into edges. These edges are called “cell edges”. Building the grid
consists of defining the appropriate set of plane-defining points for each axis. Meshing, which occurs after
gridding, is the act of assigning materials to each cell edge.

Figure B.1 displays intersecting planes in 3-D with lines and cell edges highlighted.

323
324 Appendix: Grid

Figure B.1: Intersecting planes with lines (in yellow) and sample cell edges in the upper-left corner of the
XY -plane (in red)

Except for some special features associated with components, which are discussed below, the grid is made
up of the following elements:

• Fixed points
• Grid regions
• Target cell sizes
• Automatic fixed point minimum distances
A fixed point is a point on an axis at which a plane, in the other two axes, exists. Edge-on, that plane is
seen as a line. That is what is meant by a “grid line”. A grid region is a bounded part of the grid. Grid
lines are placed at the grid region boundaries. Within a grid region the target cell size and the fixed point
minimum distance can be different from the project’s default target cell size and/or minimum distance. One
fixed point is placed at the beginning of each grid region and another fixed point is placed at the end of
each region.

Figure B.2 displays intersecting planes in 3-D with fixed points, grid lines and a grid region highlighted.

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Figure B.2: Intersecting planes with fixed points (in red), grid lines (in blue) and a grid region (in green)

Manual fixed points and manual grid regions are specified in the G RID TOOLS dialog. Other grid regions
and fixed points, associated with individual parts, may be specified using the G RIDDING P ROPERTIES
E DITOR. Grid regions associated with a part are called part grid regions. Fixed points associated with
parts are called automatic fixed points, because they are automatically extracted from the geometry of the
part.

See section 8.1 for more on the G RID TOOLS dialog.

See section 8.2 for more on the G RIDDING P ROPERTIES E DITOR.

Taking these elements together, the grid is made up of manual fixed points, automatic fixed points, manual
grid regions and part grid regions. Each kind of grid region contains a target cell size and an automatic
fixed point minimum distance. Those values are used when creating the grid.

It is important when building a grid to control the size of the smallest cell in the grid. The project’s
timestep is derived from the smallest grid cell’s edge length. Smaller timesteps result in longer runs
and larger timesteps result in faster runs. For that reason it is important to prevent the grid from
having a cell edge smaller than what is necessary to get the desired results.

Automatic fixed points and part grid regions are extracted from geometry and may result in points so close
that the timestep is smaller than desired. The fixed point minimum distance is used to merge automatic

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fixed points in order to provide control of the timestep. Automatic fixed points are merged so that they
are no closer than the minimum distance. If a grid region start or end boundary is too close to another
grid point, the grid region may be expanded to prevent the too-small timestep. The grid region is always
expanded, never contracted, in these situations.

The grid is created in the following steps. Each axis, X , Y and Z , is considered separately. Note that
when considering only a single axis, a cell size is really just an edge size.

Ô Create a set containing manual and automatic fixed points and the fixed points from the borders of
manual and part grid regions. If the S PECIFY PADDING option is chosen, then fixed points for overall
bounds of the geometry are added to the set.

Figure B.3: Editing the grid with the Specify Padding option chosen

Ô Automatic fixed points are merged according to the minimum distance. The fixed point minimum
distance can have different values at different points on the grid. There is a “main grid” fixed point
minimum distance that is specified on the S IZE tab (see Figure B.3 above). Each grid region,
including both manual and part grid regions, has its own fixed point minimum distance. The smallest
fixed point minimum distance for a given point on the grid is chosen from all manual and/or part grid
regions covering the given point. If no grid region covers the given point, the main grid fixed point
minimum distance is chosen. Note that this allows grid regions to specify a minimum distance greater
than the main grid fixed point minimum distance. Notice that in Figure B.4, a smaller minimum
distance is specified in the grid region than that of the main grid.

Figure B.4: Adding a grid region with a smaller cell size than the main grid

Ô The movable points, i.e. automatic fixed points and grid region start/end boundaries, are moved
away from unmovable points. Unmovable points include manual fixed points and some entries as-

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sociated with components, as described below. Remember that grid regions never shrink in order to
ensure that regions needing improved accuracy get it.

Ô The set of grid points is examined. Transition regions are added to prevent adjacent cell size ratios
from violating the maximum cell step factor specified on the L IMITS tab. For example, a transition
region is generated if the maximum cell step factor is 2, and 2 adjacent cells have sizes 5 mm and
1 mm. A transition region contains the fewest number of cells required to reach the desired cell size.
Each cell in the transition region has a progressively larger size.

Figure B.5: The Maximum Cell Step Factor shown is never exceeded by adjacent cell size ratios

Ô The set of grid points, including the transition regions, is examined. Gaps greater than the target
cell size at the given point are filled evenly with the fewest number of cells required such that the
cell size is less than or equal to the target. For example, consider a gap of 9.7 mm with a target
cell size of 1 mm. In this case, 8 new points must be added to the 2 points surrounding the gap.
The distance is 9.7 mm − 1 mm = 8.7 mm, bridged by 9 cell edges. Each cell edge will be
8.7mm
= 0.9667 mm per edge.
9edges
That completes the calculation of grid points. There are some key facts to note:

No matter what the fixed point minimum distance may be, it is always possible for there to be two
fixed points a distance of (minimumdistance + ) apart after the merging has been completed.
If the target cell size at the given point is less than (minimumdistance + ), then this distance
must be subdivided into two or more cell edges.
0.7mm
Consider a 0.7 mm minimum distance with a .2 mm target size. Given that = 3 remain-
0.2mm
der 1, there must be 3 grid lines in the 0.7 mm gap. Those 3 grid lines create 4 spaces in the gap.
0.7mm
The gaps are = 0.175 mm each. The formula is:
4
minimumdistance
d minimumdistance
target e

The target cell size may be greater than the automatic fixed point minimum distance. Consider a
minimum distance of 0.7 mm and a target distance of 1 mm. If the automatic fixed points are dense
then every gap is exactly 0.7 mm. No gaps are greater than 1 mm, so the work is done. If there was
at least one region of sparse automatic fixed points then there may be a gap greater than 1 mm.
target
That gap must be bridged using one or more extra grid lines. The smallest such gap is , or
2

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328 Appendix: Grid

0.5 mm in our example.

minimumdistance target
The smallest cell in the grid will be the smaller of minimumdistance
and . Any given grid
d target e 2
may not encounter one or both of those situations, so that grid’s smallest cell size may be larger.

B.2 Choosing an Appropriate Cell Size

Since smaller cells require longer calculation time, it may be advantageous to also define the lower limit
of the cell size in the S IZE tab of the G RIDDING P ROPERTIES E DITOR window. The minimum cell size
can be defined as a M INIMUM distance (i.e., a specific distance with units), or as a ratio of the M INIMUM
value to the TARGET base cell size (i.e., a M INIMUM value of 0.8 would restrict the minimum cell size from
dropping to a value below 80% of the TARGET base cell size.)

See the equations at the end of the previous section (B.1) to learn about the factors that affect the
smallest cell size.

When defining the TARGET base cell size, ensure that the cell size is much less than the smallest wave-
length for which accurate results are desired. A commonly applied constraint is ten cells per wavelength,
meaning that the side of each cell should be less than one-tenth of the wavelength of the highest frequency
(shortest wavelength) of interest. If the cell size is much larger than this, the Nyquist sampling limit is
approached too closely for reasonable results to be obtained. Significant aliasing is possible for signal
components above the Nyquist limit.

Choosing a cell size of one-tenth of a wavelength is a good starting point, but other factors may require a
smaller cell size to be chosen, such as small geometry features and material characteristics.

Grid definitions can be customized for specific objects in the G RIDDING P ROPERTIES E DITOR window, so
that smaller features are considered, without having to apply smaller, memory-intensive cells to the whole
grid.

See Section 8.2 for more information about assigning grid deinitions to specific object.

Material characteristics will also influence cell characteristics since XFdtd is a volumetric computational
method. If some portion of the computational space is filled with penetrable material, the wavelength in
the material must be used to determine the maximum cell size. Geometries containing electrically dense
materials require smaller cells than geometries that contain only free space and perfect conductors. For
this reason, a material definition must be applied to PARTS objects to generate a valid mesh. An error
message will appear in the case that a material is not assigned to an object.

See Section 6.1 for information on applying material definitions to objects.

B.3 Grid Regions vs. Fixed Points

There are two primary means of varying the grid in XFdtd. A grid region is a region within the grid that is
assigned its own target cell size, which is different from the default grid size defined in the main S IZE tab
of the G RID TOOLS button. A fixed point is a point on an axis where a grid line will be placed. Cell sizes
are adjusted to flow smoothly between fixed points, never exceeding the TARGET cell size.

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Appendix: Grid 329

The target cell size can vary within different grid regions along a given axis. The main grid’s target cell size
applies everywhere except within grid regions. A grid region has start and end boundaries on an axis. Grid
regions can have target cell sizes and automatic fixed point minimum distances that differ from the main
grid and from other grid regions. Grid regions can overlap. When they do, the smallest target cell size and
the smallest automatic fixed point minimum distance are chosen from all of the overlapping grid regions at
the given point.

Grid regions, like fixed points, can be manual or automatic. Manual grid regions are defined on tabs
associated with the main grid editor. Automatic grid regions are associated with parts and so are also
called part grid regions. Part grid regions are defined by right-clicking on a part in the tree and choosing
Gridding Properties.

Any grid region includes fixed points for the grid region boundaries. Between the bounds, the target cell
size and automatic fixed point minimum distances can be different than their values outside the grid region
bounds.

The grid flows as evenly as possible between fixed points, using at each point the appropriate target cell
size and automatic fixed point minimum distance for that point.

Figure B.6 shows a simple shape that has a uniform grid size of 1 m.

Figure B.6: Simple extrusion with uniform grid

Figure B.7 applies an automatic grid region to this simple shape. Note that the edges of the rectangle are
now aligned with the edges of the grid. Also note that, because the height of the rectangle was not evenly
divided by 1 m, the main grid spacing adjusted slightly to accommodate for this.

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330 Appendix: Grid

Figure B.7: Simple extrusion with applied grid regions

Figure B.8 applies automatic fixed points to the shape (all default settings in the G RIDDING P ROPERTIES
E DITOR are applied). Note that the edges, like in the case of the applied grid regions, are aligned with the
rectangle’s edges. The cells within the shape, however, are auto-generated, and therefore vary from the
default target cell size as little as possible.

Figure B.8: Simple extrusion with applied fixed points

Figure B.9 applies a user-defined grid region to cover the area of the shape, with cell sizes significantly
smaller than the main grid. Note the transition region of cells surrounding the shape. This region contains
cells of non-uniform size, which vary from the C ELL S IZE defined for the specific grid region to the C ELL
S IZE defined for the entire grid, at a rate which is limited by the M AXIMUM C ELL S IZE S TEP FACTOR defined
in the L IMIT tab of the E DIT G RID dialog in G RID TOOLS.

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Appendix: Grid 331

Figure B.9: Simple extrusion with a manual grid region defined in Grid Tools

B.4 Debugging the Grid

There may be times when one does not understand how certain XFdtd grid features in a given grid came
to exist. The individual grid features may be turned off so that the grid becomes, in essence, a blank slate.
Individual grid features can then be turned back on one at a time. Seeing how the grid changes in this
step-by-step fashion makes it possible to locate the cause of any given grid feature.

The following steps outline how to turn off individual grid features.

Ô Be sure to save a copy of the project and open the copy for use in the debugging process.
Ô View the mesh and use the M EASURE tool to measure the geometry’s largest extent.

Ô Open the G RID TOOLS dialog:

— Under the S IZE tab, set the X, Y, and Z TARGET sizes to something just larger than the geometry’s
largest extent.

— Set the M INIMUM sizes for each axis to e.g. 1e-12 mm (not a ratio).

— Set the F REE S PACE PADDING cell values to zero or possibly one.

— Delete all entries under F IXED P OINTS and G RID R EGIONS.

Ô If your project includes any C IRCUIT C OMPONENTS, ensure that the box labeled E VENLY
SPACED IN ORTHOGONAL DIRECTIONS is unchecked in the C IRCUIT C OMPONENT P ROPERTIES:
P ROPERTIES tab.

Be sure to turn this property back on (where applicable) later in the debugging process, as
accurate results in many cases depend on even component spacing.

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332 Appendix: Grid

Ô Right-click on a part under P ROJECT T REE: PARTS and choose V IEW PARTS L IST

— Click on the (Grid Region) column heading to bring parts with Grid Regions to the top of the list.

– Right-click on the part in the flat parts list and select G RIDDING P ROPERTIES. Turn off the
part’s AUTOMATIC G RID R EGIONS and/or F IXED P OINTS.

— Click on the (Fixed Points) column heading to bring parts with Fixed Points to the top of the list.

– As was done for parts with grid regions above, turn off any remaining parts with automatic
fixed points chosen.

Ô Under the G RID TOOLS: L IMITS tab, set the M AXIMUM C ELL S TEP FACTOR to something large,
e.g. 20000. Set the M INIMUM C ELL S IZE to something very small, e.g. 1e-12 mm.

After performing those steps the grid should be relatively bare, consisting only of the geometry bounds and
padding cells, if any were retained.

Now begin turning on grid features one at a time.

Ô Choose an important part and turn on its fixed points (in its
G RIDDING P ROPERTIES editor). Turn
off all AUTOMATIC D ISCOVERY O PTIONS except one, clicking A PPLY. Turn off that extraction type
and turn on the next one, examining each type in turn.

— As you examine the fixed points for the part, experiment with its automatic grid region. Turn it on
and initially set its TARGET value to the same value as the main grid’s target (under G RID TOOLS).
Experiment with different M INIMUM distances, clicking apply each time. At first, leave the part grid
region’s target cell size the same as the main grid’s target cell size.

— Choose the best combination of fixed point extraction types and minimum distances for the part.

Ô Go to another important part, in turn, until all parts for which automatic fixed points have been
examined. Ensure that automatic fixed points are turned on for those parts and that an appropriate
minimum distance was chosen for each.

Ô Review each important part. Experiment with the target cell sizes for each part, setting the target
cell size to the value desired for the final grid.

At this point the grid probably contains adjacent cells whose widths vary by more than is allowed by FDTD
theory. Go to the G RID TOOLS: L IMITS tab and change the M AXIMUM C ELL S TEP FACTOR to 2.0,
being sure to tab out of the field to make the new setting take effect. Transition regions will appear. You
may wish to experiment with values lower than 2.0, although the value must be greater than 1.0. If the
M AXIMUM C ELL S TEP FACTOR is too low, the grid will report that a grid could not be created. Choose a
higher step factor that is not greater than 2.0.

The grid probably will contain large gaps even after the transition regions have been added. Change the
main grid’s target cell size to its final desired value to see the remaining gaps filled with grid lines spaced
appropriately.

XFdtd 7.3.0 Reference Manual

Appendix C

Transitioning From Previous Versions

In this appendix, you will learn...

→ where to find tutorials on transitioning to XFdtd 7

→ what to expect when importing Version 6 files

The aim of XFdtd 7 is to improve workflow efficiencies and save time in the process of creating and simulat-
ing electromagnetic calculations. For users of previous versions of XFdtd, there will be a transition period
to becoming acquainted with the new user interface and XFdtd 7’s most notable features. This appendix is
meant to help users that are familiar with former versions so that they can quickly transition from the older
interface to the newer interface.

C.1 Informational Videos

In order to assist you in learning about XFdtd 7, several transition movies are available which demonstrate
finding and executing key tasks in XF7 as compared to how they were done in Version 6.

These narrated movies are three to six minutes in length, and offer an overview of several broad topics:

• The Interface
• Modeling
• Components/Ports
• Sensors
• Gridding/Meshing
• Simulation
To access the transition movies, please visit the following URL address:
http://www.remcom.com/xf7/transition

333
334 Appendix: Transitioning From Previous Versions

C.2 Importing Files From XFdtd Version 6.X

XFdtd version 6.X files can be imported into XFdtd 7if they were created in Version 6.5 or later. Files
created with earlier versions can be loaded in Version 6.5 and resaved. To import such files into XFdtd,
navigate to F ILE > I MPORT > XF DTD V ERSION 6 F ILE and select the desired file. Three types of
Version 6.X files can be imported into Version 7:

• Version 6.X project files (*.fdtd). Most project parameters will be imported, including C IRCUIT
C OMPONENTS, WAVEFORMS, B OUNDARY C ONDITIONS and requested R ESULTS (see excep-
tions below). It will also load the associated geometry file.

• Version 6.X geometry files (*.id). Most geometry parameters will be imported, including
M ATERIALS, G RID definitions and model information (see exceptions below).

• Version 6.X material library files (*.idm). Loading this file will import all M ATERIAL definitions in the
file.

S URFACE C ONDUCTIVITY C ORRECTION and E VALUATION F REQUENCY values for imported materials will
be saved as parameters and can be edited in the PARAMETERS workspace window.

Some project parameters will not be imported from Version 6.X. They include:

• H EARING A ID C OMPATIBILITY (HAC) sensor definitions

• U SER - DEFINED WAVEFORMS

• S-Parameters and Total-Field Scattered-Field (TFSF) P LANE WAVES

• Static solver
• Area source specifications
• Temperature rise requests
• Steady-state Far Zone requests
Some geometry parameters will not be imported from Version 6.X. They include:

• M ESH edits

• M ESH objects with adaptive grid regions

• A helix with zero width

• TOUCHING OBJECT tests

XFdtd 7.3.0 Reference Manual

Appendix D

Output File Formats

In this appendix, you will learn...

→ The format of XFdtd output files.

→ The format of XFsolver output files.

The appendix covers the following topics:

• Point sensors
• Multi-point sensors
• System .ssout files
• SAR sensor statistics
• Volumetric SAR data
• Far zone output file formats
• Miscellaneous XFsolver information
• UAN files

Starting with XFdtd 7.3, all output files, including project.log and project.diag, are written to the
subdirectory output of the Simulation and Run directories. This facilitates easy copying and cleanup of
output files. The layout, structure and format of the output files is unchanged. Previously, they were all one
level up in the directory structure.

335
336 Appendix: Output File Formats

D.1 Point Sensors

Each enabled Point Sensor in a project causes XFsolver to write one binary file of output data.
This file is written in the output directory where project.input exists. The file name is
NearZonePoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ].bin

Here, ModifiedSensorName is the name of the sensor in the XFdtd project, with all characters other than
letters and numbers replaced by ’ ’. The uniqueNumber is an arbitrary integer.

The contents of the file are as follows. Multi-byte integers are all little endian.

• ’Rnzp’ (4 x 1-byte char)

• version indicator (1-byte unsigned int)
Only version indicator 0 is currently defined. For version 0, the remainder of the file is as follows:

• X ,Y ,Z location (3 x 4-byte float)

• bitmask of fields (2-byte unsigned int). This tells which field value types are stored in the file. If the
corresponding bit is set, the field is contained. From most significant to least significant, the bits are
:

- (0) Scattered E

- (1) Total E

- (2) Scattered H

- (3) Total H

- (4) Scattered B

- (5) Total B

- (6) J

- (7-15) Zero (reserved for future use).

• A record for each timestep at which field values were recorded by the Point Sensor. Each record
contains the following items, most of which are optional, based on whether or not the coresponding
bit in the fields bitmask is set:

- time in seconds (4-byte float)

- Scattered Ex , Ey , Ez (3x 4-byte float)

- Total Ex , Ey , Ez (3x 4-byte float)

- Scattered Hx , Hy , Hz (3x 4-byte float)

- Total Hx , Hy , Hz (3x 4-byte float)

- Scattered Bx , By , Bz (3x 4-byte float)

- Total Bx , By , Bz (3x 4-byte float)

- Jx , Jy , Jz (3x 4-byte float)

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Appendix: Output File Formats 337

D.2 Multi-point Sensors

Surface Sensors and Solid Part Sensors both cause XFsolver to write the same type of output files.

The first file to look at for a Multi-point Sensor is the ”info” file. A binary file, it is written
in the output directory where project.input exists. The name of this file is: Multi-
Point [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] info.bin.

ModifiedSensorName is the name of the sensor in the XFdtd project, with all characters other than letters
and numbers replaced by ’ ’. The uniqueNumber value is an arbitrary integer.

All multi-byte ints in the file are little endian. The file contains:

• ’Rmpt’ (4 x 1-byte char)

• Version (1-byte unsigned int)
Only file version 0 currently exists. For version 0, the following additional information appears in the info
file:

• Fields bitmask (4-byte unsigned int). This determines which field types had values written to disk by
the sensor. If the corresponding bit is set, the field values should be on disk. From most-significant
to least-significant, the bits are:

(0) Time Domain Scattered E

(1) Time Domain Total E

(2) Time Domain Scattered H

(3) Time Domain Total H

(4) Time Domain Scattered B

(5) Time Domain Total B

(6) Time Domain J

(7) Discrete Frequency Total E

(8) Discrete Frequency Total H

(9) Discrete Frequency J

(10) Discrete Frequency Total B

(11) Dissipated Power Density

(12 - 31) Zero, reserved for future use

• Number of points (4-byte unsigned int). This indicates the number of grid indices at which field
values were recorded (the grid indices themselves are given in a separate geometry file which is
described below).

Version 0 creates many additional files, all of which are currently stored in the same directory as the ”info”
file. For version 0, information about the geometry of the sensor is stored in a binary file, which is named

• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName ] [uniqueNumber ] geom.bin

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338 Appendix: Output File Formats

The geometry file consists of a list of locations where the sensor has collected data and written it to file. It
contains:

• For each grid index where field values are written out, a record is written to the file. The (i)th record
contains:

- X -index in the calculation grid for the (i)th vertex (4-byte unsigned int)

- Y -index in the calculation grid for the (i)th vertex (4-byte unsigned int)

- Z -index in the calculation grid for the (i)th vertex (4-byte unsigned int)

Note that the ordering of the grid indices as they are found in this and the other result files is not in general
lexicographic, and is not guaranteed to follow any predictable pattern.

If time domain data has been requested for the sensor, a timestep file is written. The timestep file lists
every timestep for which time-domain field data has been reported. The name of the file is

MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName ] [uniqueNumber ] timesteps.bin

For each timestep where field data is reported, the timestep file contains the time in seconds, as a 4-byte
float.

Time domain field data is stored in many files, such that different field types, different timesteps, and
different components of the field vector are in different files. For instance:

MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName ] [uniqueNumber ] \

transient Ex scattered [timestepIndex ].bin
Note: timestepIndex is not the number of the timestep computed by XFsolver. It corresponds to a zero-
based index into the time values reported in the ”timestep” file described above.
The full set of possible files at any reported timestep depends on which bits are set in the fields bitmask:

• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] transient Ex scattered [timestepIndex].bin

• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] transient Ey scattered [timestepIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] transient Ez scattered [timestepIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] transient Ex total [timestepIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] transient Ey total [timestepIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] transient Ez total [timestepIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] transient Hx scattered [timestepIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] transient Hy scattered [timestepIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] transient Hz scattered [timestepIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] transient Hx total [timestepIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] transient Hy total [timestepIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] transient Hz total [timestepIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] transient Bx scattered [timestepIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] transient By scattered [timestepIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] transient Bz scattered [timestepIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] transient Bx total [timestepIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] transient By total [timestepIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] transient Bz total [timestepIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] transient Jx [timestepIndex].bin

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Appendix: Output File Formats 339

• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] transient Jy [timestepIndex].bin

• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] transient Jz [timestepIndex].bin

Each time-domain-field data file contains one field value for each grid index listed in the ”geometry” file
described above:

• Field value (4-byte float)

If single-frequency (steady-state) data has been requested for the sensor, a ”frequencies” file is written.
This file lists every frequency that steady-state field data has been reported for. The name of the file is:

MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName ] [uniqueNumber ] frequencies.bin

The contents of the file are as follows:

• For each steady-state frequency:

- Frequency in Hz (4-byte float)

Single-frequency field data is stored in many files as different field types, different frequencies, different
components of the field vector, and the real and imaginary parts of complex values are in different files. For
instance:

MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName ] [uniqueNumber ] \

steady Exr total [frequencyIndex ].bin
gives the real part of the X-component of the total E-field. Dissipated power density result files are a special
case – the result is not complex, and is split among components centered on the Ex, Ey, Ez, Hx, Hy, and
Hz grid edges sharing the same index.

The frequencyIndex value is the zero-based index into the frequency values reported in the ”frequencies”
file described above.

The full set of possible files at any reported frequency depends on which bits are set in the fields bitmask:
Note: “r” is the real part of the complex field value. “i” is the imaginary part of the complex field value.

• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady Exr total [frequencyIndex].bin

• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady Exi total [frequencyIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady Eyr total [frequencyIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady Eyi total [frequencyIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady Ezr total [frequencyIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady Ezi total [frequencyIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady Hxr total [frequencyIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady Hxi total [frequencyIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady Hyr total [frequencyIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady Hyi total [frequencyIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady Hzr total [frequencyIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady Hzi total [frequencyIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady Bxr total [frequencyIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady Bxi total [frequencyIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady Byr total [frequencyIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady Byi total [frequencyIndex].bin

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340 Appendix: Output File Formats

• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady Bzr total [frequencyIndex].bin

• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady Bzi total [frequencyIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady Jxr [frequencyIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady Jxi [frequencyIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady Jyr [frequencyIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady Jyi [frequencyIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady Jzr [frequencyIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady Jzi [frequencyIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady PddEx [frequencyIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady PddEy [frequencyIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady PddEz [frequencyIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady PddHx [frequencyIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady PddHy [frequencyIndex].bin
• MultiPoint [ModifiedSensorName] [uniqueNumber ] steady PddHz [frequencyIndex].bin

Each single-frequency field data file contains one field value (4-byte float) for each grid index listed in the
”geometry” file described above.

D.3 system.ssout Files

Each steady state output frequency directory has a system.ssout file which contains a number of useful
pieces of steady-state data for that frequency.

Note: There is some possibility that this file may be phased out in the future in favor of a different file format
or multiple files.

The system.ssout file contains ASCII data with four main sections:

• Power Data
• Efficiency Data
• Port Data
• S-Parameter Data

D.3.1 Power Data

Power data in the file is contained in a block beginning with the following line:

begin_<ComputedPower>
It ends with the line:

end_<ComputedPower>
In between, each line reports a power value in Watts, in the followng format: [Name] [Value]. The Value
field provides the numeric value in Watts.

• AvailablePower (The net available power)

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Appendix: Output File Formats 341

• NetInputPower (The net input power)

• FeedLoss (The total loss from all inactive ports)
• DissipatedPower (The amount of power dissipated by lossy materials in the simulation space)
• DissipatedPowerInTissue (The amount of power dissapated due to losses in tissue materials)
• DissipatedPowerInNonTissue (The amount of power dissipated due to losses in materials other than
tissue materials)

• RadiatedPower (The amount of power radiated from the simulation space)

D.3.2 Efficiency Data

Efficiency data is contained in a block beginning with the following line:

begin_<Efficiency>
It ends with the line:

end_<Efficiency>
In between, each line reports an efficiency percentage in the followng format: [Name] [Value]. The Value
field contains either the radiation efficiency or the system efficiency.

• RadiationEfficiency (The radiation efficiency)

• SystemEfficiency (The system efficiency)

D.3.3 Port Data

For each port in the simulation, there is a block that begins with the following line:

begin_<Feed_N>
It ends with the line:

end_<Feed_N>
Here, N is the zero-based index of the port. This is one fewer than the port index reported by the XFdtd
GUI, and also one fewer than the index numbers in the S-Parameter values reported below.

The first line within the block gives the name of the circuit component, as

Name [The Component Name]

Each subsequent line within the block contains a name-value pair in the following format: [Name] [Value].
The Value field contains a complex number in the appropriate SI unit for the value. Complex numbers are
reported in two possible formats:

• RIFormat: [RealPart ] j[ImaginaryPart ]

• RIMFormat: [RealPart ] j[ImaginaryPart ] = [Magnitude]
The following name-value pairs exist:

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342 Appendix: Output File Formats

• AvailablePower (RIMFormat analytic available power in Watts)

• MeasuredPower (RIMFormat computed input power in Watts)
• Voltage (RIMFormat voltage in Volts)
• Current (RIMFormat current in Amperes)
• Impedance (RIFormat impedance in Ohms)
• CharacteristicImpedance (RIFormat analytic characteristic impedance value in Ohms)

D.3.4 S-Parameter Data

S-Parameter data is reported in a block that begins with the following line:

begin_<SParameters>
It ends with the line:

end_<SParameters>
Within the block are a number of name-value pairs, in the following format: [Name] [Value]. Each pair gives
an S-Parameter value in the RIMFormat described above.

Each Name is in the following format: S[PortNumber ][ActivePortNumber ]. Thus, if the active port is port
#1, and there are two ports total, you would have values for ”S11” and ”S21.”

D.4 Transient Voltage and Current Data

For each circuit component designated as a port in the simulation, XFsolver writes out a file with time
domain voltage and current values. This file is written in the output directory where project.input
exists. The file name depends on the name of the circuit component in the XFdtd project. For example:
CircuitComponent [name ].vc.
The file has the following format:

• ’!remcomfdtd’ (11 x 1-byte char)

• ’L’ (indicates little endian multi-byte integer formats follow)
• 3, as a 2-byte unsigned int
• Version number, as a 2-byte unsigned int
Only version number 0 is presently defined. For version 0, the remainder of the file contains 12-byte records
giving the time, voltage, and current at each timestep. Each record is:

• Time in seconds, 4-byte float

• Voltage in Volts, 4-byte float
• Current in Amperes, 4-byte float

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D.5 SAR Sensor Statistics Files

A Raw SAR statistics file SAR Raw Sensor.stats is written out for each steady state frequency for each
SAR Sensor in the project. XFsolver places the file(s) in the appropriate steady-state frequency directory.

The file contains the following data:

• ’!remcomfdtd’ (11 x 1-byte char)

• ’L’ (indicates little endian multi-byte integer formats follow)
• 9, as a 2-byte unsigned int
• Version number, as a 2-byte unsigned int
Only version number 0 is defined. For version 0, the remainder of the file is:

• Max SAR value, W/kg (4-byte float)

• X , Y , Z zero-based cell index of the cell with the maximum SAR value (3x 4-byte unsigned int)
• Average SAR value, W/kg (4-byte float)
• Number of voxels (4-byte unsigned int)
• Total mass in grams (4-byte float)
A SAR statistics file is written out for each steady-state frequency for each Averaged SAR Sensor in the
project. XFsolver places the file(s) in the appropriate steady-state frequency directory. For 1-gram averag-
ing, the Averaged SAR Sensor statistics file is named:

SAR Averaging [ModifedSensorName ] [uniqueNumber ].1g.stats

For 10-gram averaging, the Averaged SAR Sensor statistics file is named:

SAR Averaging [ModifedSensorName ] [uniqueNumber ].10g.stats

Its contents are:

• ’!remcomfdtd’ (11 x 1-byte char)

• ’L’ (indicates little endian multi-byte integer formats follow)
• 10, as a 2-byte unsigned int
• Version number, as a 2-byte unsigned int
Only version number 0 is defined. For version 0, the remainder of the file is:

• Max SAR value, W/kg (4-byte float)

• X , Y , Z zero-based cell index of the cell with the maximum SAR value (3x 4-byte unsigned int)
• Total mass in grams (4-byte float)
• Mass of the max constructed cube, grams (4-byte float)
• Lower corner X , Y , Z zero-based cell index (3 x 4-byte unsigned int)
• Upper corner X , Y , Z zero-based cell index (3 x 4-byte unsigned int)

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D.6 Volumetric SAR Data Files

XFsolver writes multiple output files of volumetric SAR data per steady-state frequency. Each file gives
the SAR value (raw or averaged) for any Yee cell where SAR was computed in a single planar slice of the
mesh. This file is written to the appropriate steady-sate frequency directory. Each file is named as follows:

For raw SAR data:

SAR Raw Sensor.[SliceDirection ][SliceIndex ].sar.bin

For 1-gram averaged SAR:

SAR Averaging [ModifiedSensorName ] [uniqueNumber ]. \
[SliceDirection ][SliceIndex ].1gsar.bin

For 10-gram averaged SAR:

SAR Averaging [ModifiedSensorName ] [uniqueNumber ]. \
[SliceDirection ][SliceIndex ].10gsar.bin

Here, the SliceDirection is either ’xy’, ’yz’, or ’xz’, indicating the planar direction of this slice of the
mesh. The SliceIndex indicates the magnetic calculation grid index of that planar slice. For instance
SAR Raw Sensor.xy 5.sar.bin contains raw SAR data for the Yee cells with magnetic calculation grid index
k = 5.

ModifiedSensorName is the name of the sensor in the XFdtd project, with all characters other than let-
ters and numbers replaced by ’ ’. For SAR Averaging sensors, this is typically ’SAR Averaging Sensor’,
although a different name may have been assigned during SAR post-processing. The uniqueNumber is an
arbitrary integer.

The contents of any planar slice SAR data file (raw or averaged) are as follows:

• ’!remcomfdtd’ (11 x 1-byte char)

• ’L’ (indicates little endian multi-byte integer formats follow)
• 13, as a 2-byte unsigned int
• Version number, as a 2-byte unsigned int
Only version number 0 is defined. With version 0, all SAR values reported in the file must be contained in
a single planar slice of Yee cells (either grid index i, j, or k is constant for the file). The remainder of the file
data is as follows:

• Plane normal direction (1-byte unsigned integer): A value of 0 means that this is a plane of constant
x (grid index i is fixed). A value of 1 is used for a plane of constant y (grid index j is fixed). A value
of 2 indicates a plane a constant z (grid index k is fixed). This value is similar to the ’xy’, ’yz’, or ’xz’
SliceDirection used in the output file naming convention given above.

• Plane normal grid index (4-byte unsigned integer): This value tells where the planar cut exists in the
mesh, defined in the same manner as the SliceIndex of the file naming convention given above.

• Number N of SAR value records reported in this file (4-byte unsigned integer).
• N SAR value records, specifying a location and computed SAR value. Each record is 12 bytes,
comprising the following:

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Appendix: Output File Formats 345

– X-index in the magnetic calculation grid for the measurement point (4-byte unsigned integer).
This value is not present if the plane normal direction is 0 (in which case the X-index is the
plane normal grid index).

– Y-index in the magnetic calculation grid for the measurement point (4-byte unsigned integer).
This value is not present if the plane normal direction is 1 (in which case the Y-index is the
plane normal grid index).

– Z-index in the magnetic calculation grid for the measurement point (4-byte unsigned integer).
This value is not present if the plane normal direction is 2 (in which case the Z-index is the
plane normal grid index).

– SAR value in W/kg (4-byte float)

Note that the SAR records are not in any predefined order. Also, some Yee cells within the plane have
no corresponding value for SAR (e.g. cells in freespace, or cells which touch a perfect conductor
edge), and as such, are omitted.

D.7 Far Zone Files

When a far-zone sensor with steady-state data collection enabled is placed in a project, it will generate a
data file for each steady-state frequency used in the computation. Each data file is written in the appropriate
steady-state frequency directory (e.g. SteadyStateOutput/f0).

The name of a single-frequency far zone output file is

FarZone steady [ModifiedSensorName ] [uniqueNumber ].fz

where

[ModifiedSensorName] is the name of the sensor in the XFdtd project, with all characters other than letters
and numbers replaced by ’ ’, and [uniqueNumber] is an arbitrary integer.

The file is binary and contains the following data:

• ’!remcomfdtd’ (11 x 1-byte char)

• ’L’ (indicates little endian multi-byte integer formats follow)
• 1, as a 2-byte unsigned int
• Version number, as a 2-byte unsigned int

Only version number 0 is presently defined. For version 0, the remainder of the file contains N 24-byte
records, where N is the number of requested far zone angles. Each record contains:

• Theta in radians (4-byte float)

• Phi in radians (4-byte float)
• Real part of Etheta (4-byte float)
• Imaginary part of Etheta (4-byte float)
• Real part of Ephi (4-byte float)

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346 Appendix: Output File Formats

• Imaginary part of Ephi (4-byte float)

Note: It is possible to predict the order in which far-zone angles will appear in the output file. If the far-zone
sensor is defined in the theta/phi coordinate system, angles are represented in the following order:

• theta0 phi0
• theta0 phi1
• theta0 phi2
...

• theta1 phi0
• theta1 phi1, etc.

Here, theta0 and phi0 are the Theta/phi start angles defined for the sensor. The theta-increment and
phi-increment for the sensor determine the differences in angle between successive theta or phi values.

For sensors defined in Alpha/Epsilon or Elevation/Azimuth coordinate systems, angles appear in similar
order, either

• alpha0 epsilon0
• alpha0 epsilon1
• alpha0 epsilon2
...

• alpha1 epsilon0
• alpha1 epsilon1, etc.
or

• elevation0 azimuth0
• elevation0 azimuth1
• elevation0 azimuth2
...

• elevation1 azimuth0
• elevation1 azimuth1, etc.

Broadband Far Zone Sensor Output Files

A far zone sensor with broadband data collection enabled will generate a single data file in the output
directory where project.input exists.

The name of the broadband far zone output file is:

FarZone transient [ModifiedSensorName ] [uniqueNumber ].fz

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Appendix: Output File Formats 347

where

[ModifiedSensorName] is the name of the sensor in the XFdtd project, with all characters other than letters
and numbers replaced by ’ ’, and [uniqueNumber] is an arbitrary integer.

This text file contains one line for each timestep in the simulation. Each line of text gives space-delimited
values for Ephi and Etheta for each requested angle (e.g. Ephi-angle-0, Etheta-angle-0, Ephi-angle-1,
Etheta-angle-1, Ephi-angle-2, Etheta-angle-2).

In order to make sense of this data, users need to know which far-zone angle corresponds to each set of
Ephi/Etheta values. See the Steady State Far Zone Sensor Output File explanation (above) for a description
of how angles are ordered in the output files.

D.8 Geometry.input File Format

The geometry.input file is an ASCII file that contains grid size and deltas and material information. It
uses the following template:

Line 1: Geometry file version 3.20 (indicates file format)

Line 2: (always empty)
Line 3: mesh defined (ignore)
Line 4: 0 0 0 (ignore)
Line 5: 0 0 0 (ignore)
Line 6: 0 0 0 (ignore)
Line 7: 0 0 0 (ignore)
Line 8: 0 0 0 (ignore)
Line 9: 0 (ignore)
Line 10: begin <materials> (the list of materials are contained within
this delimited section)
...
Line ??: end <materials>
Line ??: begin <GridDefinition>
Line ??: GridOriginInMeters # # # (indicates the spatical location of the
lower bounding box of the grid)
Line ??: NumberOfCellsInX # (indicates the number of grid lines in the X
direction)
Line ??: NumberOfCellsInY # (indicates the number of grid lines in the Y
direction)
Line ??: NumberOfCellsInZ # (indicates the number of grid lines in the Z
direction)

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Line ??: end <GridDefinition>

Line ??: begin <Deltas>
Line ??: begin <DelX>
Line ??: 0 #Del (indicates the length of the electric cell edge at that
index and all following indices until another index is provided. always
starts at 0)
...
Line ??: end <DelX>
Line ??: begin <DelY>
Line ??: 0 #Del
...
Line ??: end <DelY>
Line ??: begin <DelZ>
Line ??: 0 #Del
...
Line ??: end <DelZ>
Line ??: end <Deltas>
begin <AveragedMaterialBins> (always empty)
end <AveragedMaterialBins>

D.9 Mesh.input File Format

The mesh.input file is a binary file that contains mesh information.

It starts with a 16-byte file header to specify its file type (similar to the Transient Voltage and Current Data
section in this appendix):

• ’!remcomfdtd’ (11 x 1-byte char)

• ’L’ (indicates little endian multi-byte integer formats follow)
• ’0’ (as a 2-byte unsigned int to indicate the mesh.input file)
• ’#’ (as a 2-byte unsigned int to indicate the version number of the mesh file. Always 0 for now)
Next, the file provides a mesh file header containing information on how many mesh data points to read:

• ’0’ (as a 1-byte unsigned int to indicate the mesh data is in BinaryEndPoints format. Only 0 is
supported now)

• ’#Ex’ (as a 4-byte unsigned int to indicate the number of electric x-directed mesh points to read)
• ’#Ey’

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Appendix: Output File Formats 349

• ’#Ez’
• ’#Mx’ (as a 4-byte unsigned int to indicate the number of magnetic x-directed mesh points to read)
• ’#My’
• ’#Mz’
• ’#AveEBins’ (as a 4-byte unsigned int to indicate the number of electric averaged material bins to
read)

• ’#AveMBins’ (as a 4-byte unsigned int to indicate the number of magnetic averaged material bins to
read)

• ’#AveEEdges’ (as an 8-byte unsigned int to indicate the number of electric averaged material edges
to read)

• ’#AveMEdges’ (as an 8-byte unsigned int to indicate the number of magnetic averaged material
edges to read)

Mesh data appears next. Read it in the same order as in the mesh header. For example, first read all
#Ex points, then read all #Ey points, and so on. #M* will be zero unless magnetic materials are used in
the mesh. #Ave* will be zero unless a voxel object exists in the mesh and averaged material meshing is
enabled. The #Ave* format is not documented in this appendix.

Each #E* and #M* point consists of 17 bytes. For an #Ex or #Mx point,

• ‘#xStart’ (as a 4-byte unsigned int to indicate the x cell edge start index)
• ‘#y’ (as a 4-byte unsigned int to indicate the y cell index)
• ‘#z’ (as a 4-byte unsigned int to indicate the z cell index)
• ‘#xStop’ (as a 4-byte unsigned int to indicate the non-inclusive x cell edge stop index)
• ‘#material’ (as a 1-byte unsigned int to indicate the material number)
For an #Ey or #My point,

• ‘#x’ (as a 4-byte unsigned int to indicate the x cell index)

• ‘#yStart’ (as a 4-byte unsigned int to indicate the y cell edge start index)
• ‘#z’ (as a 4-byte unsigned int to indicate the z cell index)
• ‘#yStop’ (as a 4-byte unsigned int to indicate the non-inclusive y cell edge stop index)
• ‘#material’ (as a 1-byte unsigned int to indicate the material number)
For an #Ez or #Mz point,

• ‘#x’ (as a 4-byte unsigned int to indicate the x cell index)

• ‘#y’ (as a 4-byte unsigned int to indicate the y cell index)
• ‘#zStart’ (as a 4-byte unsigned int to indicate the z cell edge start index)
• ‘#zStop’ (as a 4-byte unsigned int to indicate the non-inclusive z cell edge stop index)
• ‘#material’ (as a 1-byte unsigned int to indicate the material number)

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350 Appendix: Output File Formats

Here the material integer maps to the list of materials read from the geometry.input file.

Sample code for reading Ex edges on the mesh

for( p = 0; p < #Ex; ++p )
{
read( xStart );
read( y );
read( z );
read( xStop );
read( material );
for( i = xStart; i < xStop; ++i )
{
xElectricMesh[x][y][z] = material;
}
}
The following are all read from geometry.input.

• numberOfCellsInY
• numberOfCellsInZ
• list of materials

D.10 Miscellaneous XFsolver Information

Introduction: This section contains miscellaneous XFsolver information. Remcom will add more con-
tent as it becomes available.

How to retrieve the steady state frequency values from XFsolver:

To retrieve steady state frequency values from XFsolver, follow the procedure below.

1. Open the project.input file

2. Search for the following line of text:

begin_<SteadyStateFrequencies>
This line begins a block of text, wherein each line in the block lists both a steady state frequency and the
name of the directory containing many of the output files for that frequency.

Each line of text has the following format:

FrequencyFolder [frequencyHz ] [directoryName ]

(e.g., FrequencyFolder 1.5e+10 SteadyStateOutput/f0/).

The block of steady state frequency lines ends with:

end_<SteadyStateFrequencies>

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D.11 UAN File

The user-defined antenna format is primarily used to share antenna pattern information between Remcom
products (XFdtd, Wireless Insite R
, XGtd R
). However, since it is an open, text-based format, users of
these products are free to read amd create files in this format or use it for their own applications.

The full (.uan) format specification is described below. Note that XFdtd only writes complex output in
mag phase format. XFdtd outputs an additional output keyword of NetInputPower followed by the Net
Input Power in Watts for the simulation from which this pattern was obtained. This parameter is currently
ignored by Wireless Insite and XGtd.

A .uan file starts with a parameter section:

\begin_<parameters>
format free
phi_min 0
phi_max 360
phi_inc 4
theta_min 0
theta_max 180
theta_inc 3
[complex, real]
[mag_phase, real_imag]
pattern [gain, power, field]
magnitude [dB, linear]
maximum_gain 0
phase [degrees, radians]
direction [degrees, radians]
polarization [theta_phi, phi_theta, theta, phi]
\end_<parameters>
where brackets ([ ]) indicate that one of the set of words within the brackets should be chosen. Note
that the [mag phase, real imag] keyword is required only when complex is being used and that the
maximum gain keyword is optional and is measured in dBi. Also note that the * min, * max and
* inc values must be in integer format.
Following the parameter section, the data section follows which provides angle-based pattern data, one
row per angle.

For example, the first four lines of complex data specifiation might be:

90.000 0.000 -10.0 -25.0 90.0 172.50

90.000 4.000 -11.5 -24.0 92.0 174.50
90.000 8.000 -12.0 -24.0 94.0 176.50
90.000 12.00 -13.5 -20.0 97.0 178.50
where the data format is theta, phi, gain (theta component), gain (phi component), phase (theta compo-
nent), phase (phi component).

If phase is not given, the keyword complex should either be omitted from the parameter section, or re-
placed by real (which is the default). Further, the mag phase or real imag keyword, which specifies
the format of the complex values, is not required in the header.

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352 Appendix: Output File Formats

The data in the file would be:

90.000 0.000 -10.0 -25.0

90.000 4.000 -11.5 -24.0
90.000 8.000 -12.0 -24.0
90.000 12.00 -13.5 -20.0

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Appendix E

Application Change Log

This appendix lists the the changes, bug fixes and enhancements (in reverse chronological order) for each
release of XFdtd. It is intended to inform the user of newly added features and, if the user has experi-
enced any issues or bugs in previously releases, to aid in determining if those issues or bugs have been
addressed.

XFdtd is versioned with four numbers as major.minor.feature.bugfix. A change in any number except the
bugfix number indicates that new features have been added to the software.

7.3.x

7.3.0.x

7.3.0.3

Fixes

• Included additional third-party licenses.

• Resolved issue where solving for waveguide modes would cause the application to exit unexpectedly
on Linux.

• Resolved issue on Linux where non-.sat or non-.sab CAD files could not be imported due to a
missing executable in the distribution.

• Resolved issue where geometry picking tools might not be deactived properly when picking waveg-
uide port integration line endpoints.

• Fixed issue where attempting to use the object returned by View.getCamera() could cause the ap-
plication to exit unexectedly.

• Resolved an issue where the meshing process could continue after cancellation and subsequently
possible cause the application to exit unexpectedly.

353
354 7.3.0.2

• Fixed issue where a simulation could go unstable when a matched termination was present.
• Resolved issue in 7.3.0.2 only that would cause XFsolver to crash when an MPI rank was located
entiredly within the PML boundary. The solver now exits cleanly with an error message instead as in
7.2.x and previous versions.

• Fixed issue where some number of MPI ranks could cause bad simulation resuls. This is like to
affect only y- or z-directed waveguides or simulations where the number of MPI ranks is more than
half the number of cells in the x-direction.

• Fixed issue that could cause slight differences in waveguide port S-Parameters and input power
results depending on the number of MPI ranks. This affected only simulations being executed using
MPI.

• Resolved issue where XFsolver could crash when running a simulation with averaged materials
present. This problem was fixed in 7.2.3.4 as well.

• Fixed issue where the Degradation Level meshing parameter for voxel objects was not restored
properly when reloading a project. This problem was fixed in 7.2.3.4 as well.

7.3.0.2

Important Notes

All output files, including log files, from XFsolver are now placed in a single folder named output in the
simulation and run folders to facilitate being able to easily copy or remove simulation results. The names
and structure of the files remain the same. If you have outside processes that look for files from XFsolver,
they will need to be modified accordingly.

Legacy XStream R
is no longer supported. If you encounter difficulties because of this, please contact
Remcom tech support.

Licenses issued for previous releases of XFdtd R

will not work for this release. Users with current support
contracts should automatically receive new licenses; otherwise contact Remcom tech support to update or
obtain your new license file.

The Linux platforms for which XFdtd R

is delivered have been changed due to changes in usage as well
as technical issues with building for older platforms. Dropped platforms are SLES9 64-bit, RHEL4 64-bit
and RHEL5 32-bit. Added platforms are SLES10 64-bit. The RHEL5 64-bit builds should work for all Linux
platforms that are no older than RHEL5, including Mandriva, Ubuntu, Fedora, CentOS and RHEL. If you
encounter difficulties because of this, please contact Remcom tech support.

New Features

• Waveguide ports are now available in addition to lumped components. See Section 7.4 to get started
with Waveguide ports.

• The creation of simulations can now be cancelled.

• Dissipated Power Density is now an available result quantity for surface and solid sensors.
• Added ability to scale steady-state results across all Runs in a Simulation. This is achieved by
choosing “Entire Simulation” from the “Apply Edits to Which Scope” dropdown in the steady-state
results editors.

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7.3.0.2 355

• Magnetic Ferrite and Thin Wire materials are now supported for XStream
R
simulations.

• Periodic Boundary Conditions are now supported for XStream

R
simulations.

• Added new result type of Active VSWR. See Section 10.5 for more information.
• The static electric field solver has been updated and optimized, including the ability to calculate and
assign static potentials to uninitialized conductors. This new setting can be selected when creating
an XFdtd simulation in the Create Simulation dialog on the Static Solver tab.

• Licensing has been simplified so that only the license location need be specified. XFdtd
R
will check
out a Pro XFdtd R
license, and then automatically attempt to check out a BioPro if a Pro license is
unavailable or when it is needed. The end result is less confusion about which license to choose in
the License dialog if both Pro and BioPro licenses are available. Additionally, there is no longer a
need to install a license server except for the case of floating licenses.

• Screen capture capability has been enhanced by 1) Providing the global hotkey Ctrl+Alt+F12 to open
the existing export-to-file dialog for the Geometry View and Graph Windows; 2) Adding the global
hotkey Ctrl+Alt+F10 and View menu items to copy a screen shot to the clipboard; and 3) Adding the
global hotkey Ctrl+Alt+F11 to save a screenshot to an automatically-named file in the folder specified
in the “Screen Capture” section of the Application Preferences. See Sections 4.1.2, 5.2 and 12.3.2.

• Voxel models for the Visible Male and Visible Female are now provided as part of the installation.
They can be imported into a Project using File→Import→Voxel Object→MMF from the main menu
and browsing to the data/BioModels directory of the XFdtd R
installation folder.

Usability/Performance Improvements

• Simulation memory estimator now better estimates amount of memory required for simulations that
use Debye/Drude materials.

• Extra licensing information at the end of XFsolver’s .diag file was removed as it provided no useful
information.

• Tooltips for the pre-defined views have been clarified.

• Dramatically improved performance of loading results for solid volume and SAR sensors.
• Ability to manipulate the camera in the Geometry View by selecting the triad in the lower left has
been disabled in order to eliminate a common source of confusion. To re-enable, select “Interact
with Triad” on the Modeling tab of the Application Preferences.

• Added “Visible when Enabled” checkbox to the cutting plane menu in order to be able to hide the cut
plane even when it is active. Also added the ability to change how the cutplane is rendered under
“Cutting Plane” on the Modeling tab of the Application Preferences.

• Added Zoom-to-Selection to augment Zoom-to-Extents. This new button is available by clicking on

the down-arrow next to Zoom-to-Extents. These two zoom buttons work the same as the other
“view” buttons in that the last-used operation stays on top and using ctrl-click iterates through them.
Additionally, using shift-click on either of these will perform the other operation but not cause it to
come to the top.

• Meshing now utilizes multiple CPU cores, improving performance by nearly N (where N is the
number of available logical cores).

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356 7.3.0.2

• An appropriate Sensor definition is now automatically created and/or assigned when creating a new
Sensor.

• Added tooltips to both the “View Slice with Max Value” and the “View All SAR Status” buttons of the
SAR field viewer to describe what they do.

• Added ability to add the Simulation Notes as a column in the Results Browser. Right-click on the
header of the lower part of the Results Browser to show it.

• Average Power (Sav) is reported as a complex number in the Field Viewer. Viewing the phase of
this number doesn’t make sense, so the ability to specify phase as the sequence axis or viewing the
phase is disabled in the Field Viewer.

• Viewing circularly polarized far zone results with the sequence axis as phase and viewing the phase
is disabled since these quantities do not make sense.

• Renamed the option “Compute Dissipated Power” to “Dissipated Power Algorithm” to more accu-
rately reflect its purpose and remove confusion.

• Static solver now outputs time elapsed and time estimates similar to that shown when FDTD
timestepping.

• Added the ability to add frequency lists to Frequencies of Interest in addition to replacing existing
ones in the Create Simulation dialog’s Frequencies of Interest tab.

• The description of output ordering in the file format for multi-point sensors has been clarified in
Appendix D.2.

• Removed redundant text “Locator:” in the name of Locators in the Project Tree.
• Improved performance of selecting faces when creating a sheet body from faces. Now geometrical
operations are performed when selecting the “Preview” tab instead.

• ODB++ import no longer requires the step attribute list and now supports rotation and mirror of
user-defined symbols.

• Added ability to specify which XStream

R
devices should be available for simulation and whether or
not to fall back to CPU when XStream
R
is now available in the Advanced Options for the simulation
queue. These options map to the --xstream-use-devices and --use-cpu command line
options of XFsolver.

Scripting

• NewSimulationData.getFieldInterfaces(), NewSimulationData.getStaticSolverEnabled() and

NewSimulationData.getSParametersEnabled() are now properly documented.

• Added Assembly.getAncestorsOfPart() and Assembly.getFullPartName().

• Expanded the documentation for LinearPattern to make usage of its various methods more clear.
• Several methods of TerminationCriteria are now documented that previously were not. Additionally,
fixed typos in method names (old names will still work) and fixed an error where calling Termination-
Criteria.{s,g}SpatialDensity() would result an error about an invalid value.

• Resolved crash when cloning the a Discrete1DForwardFftDataSet.

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7.3.0.2 357

• Added Camera, CameraList, Project.getCameraList(), View.setCamera() and View.getCamera() to

allow manipulation of the camera in the view through scripting.

• Added the global System object to provide system information. Initially, this object provides the
method getOsType() to determine what operating system is being used.

• Added numerous methods to the global View object to allow the visibility and opacity of objects
view, analogous to the visibility toggle buttons in the user interface. Also added methods to capture
images of the view to file. See the online reference of the View object for a full listing.

• Added FOIParameters.getSavedFrequencyListNames() and FOIParameters.getSavedFrequencySet()

to access the frequency of interests sets that have been saved through the user interface (on the
Frequencies of Interest tab in the Create Simulation dialog).

Fixes

• The message from XFsolver when “flatline” is detected is now more descriptive and consistent with
other simulation termination messages, which should make it more clear how the simulation was
terminated.

• Resolved issue where the convergence computation for sinusoidally-excited simulations could be
slightly different between CPU and XStream
R
simulations.

• Resolved issue where interopolated point sensors reporting H-Fields could report results that were
slightly shifted from the actual requested location.

• Resolved issue where the application could crash when modifying the direction of a planar sensor if
the specified normal’s length was extremely small.

• Fixed problem where the Maximum Simulation Time in timesteps wasn’t always obeyed when XACT
objects were present. In these cases, the number of timesteps may be been reduced so that the
simulation did not run as long as the specified real time.

• Increased the precision of floating point numbers written to project.input. One manifestation
of the truncated precision was a change in phase of far zone results between result computed by
XFsolver and those computed synchronously in the user interface.

• Resolved issue where an “Unexpected Condition” was encountered when reloading a project that
used a boolean parameter type with a value of true or false.

• Fixed issue where whether or not ports/non-ports could be outside the simulation space without
causing project invalidity. Now, for a project to be valid, all enabled lumped components must be
inside the simulation space.

• Fixed crash when attempting to load SAR results where some of the datafiles are corrupt.
• Changed handling of lumped components that are not ports so that their losses are now always
included in system loss calculations (Net Component Loss, Gain, etc.). Effectively, “Port” status now
make S-parameters computation available and ensures that time domain voltage and current and
broadband frequency quantities, like impedance and component loss, are available.

• Fixed incorrect dielectric thicknesses in certain cases for ODB++ import.

• Fixed crash when creating a sinusoidal simulation with a large maximum number of timesteps (1e9).
• Removed choice of export to CATIAv4 on Mac since it is not supported.

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• Fixed issue where the Twist and Stretch geometry editors did not change the cursor when the at-
tachment type was toggled, status messages were not displayed and the picking buttons were not
rendered as depressed during picking.

• Resolved issue where the validity of a Sampled Passive Load could be incorrect.
• Resolved an issue where an incorrect edge could be highlighted when sketching.
• Fixed problem where the rendering of manual fixed points was not updated while editing the fixed
points.

• Fixed incorrect units of the amplitude of an External Excitation. (The unit conversion is the same, so
results are unaffected.)

• Resolved problem where it could be difficult to grab an edge or vertex in the sketcher and move it.
• Fixed issue where selecting more than one mesh operation and deleting them would leave at least
one mesh operation in place.

• Fixed issue where the title for a dataset in the Field Viewer would not use “Scaled(X)” correctly in all
cases. Datasets are now never named this way to make their use consistent throughout. Reference
the “Show Scaled Values” checkbox instead.

• Fixed issue where picked endpoints of the Twist operation are interpreted in the coordinate system
of the object being twisted, not the coordinate system of the picked object. This would be seen only
if the two object had different working coordinate systems.

• Resolved issue where exporting an image from the Geometry View or a Graph Window resulted in
an image with what was in the background of the window rather than the window itself when certain
themes (such as the Aero theme) were used in Windows Vista and above.

• Resolved issue where the evaluated list of values for parameter sweeps could be edited when they
are not actually editable.

• Fixed problem where the description text in the Macro Descriptions window would sometimes be
wider than the window, forcing the user to scroll to read the entire description.

• Resolved issue where Locators could not be pasted. Locators are allowed to be pasted into the
same list from which they came.

• Resolved issue where a copy and paste of a Part would cause the application to exit unexpectedly
on Linux.

• Modified Locator picking so that they are now not attached by default. There are known issues with
Locators attached to Parts that are pulled from Libraries or pasted from other instances (matching
them may not produce the correct result); detaching them works around those issues.

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7.2.x

7.2.3.x

7.2.3.4

Fixes

• Resolved issue where a Component’s lead could be meshed in certain circumstances if the lead
was connected to a Part meshed with XACT.

• Resolved issue where XFsolver could crash when running a simulation with averaged materials
present.

• Fixed issue where the Degradation Level meshing parameter for voxel objects was not restored
properly when reloading a project.

7.2.3.3

New Features

• Though this release is technically a bugfix-only release, a change was made so that the simulations’
project.info files now contain the version of XFdtd that wrote the simulation. The new line is
similar to: “writtenWithVersion 7.2.3.3 (64-bit)”.

Fixes

• Resolved issue where simulations could become unstable when run using XStream
R
if XACT ge-
ometry existed in a cell adjacent to a lumped component.

• Resolved issue where adding a result to the Field Viewer did not make it the currently selected
result.

• Fixed issue where a warning of an unexpected condition would appear when switching from a Sam-
pled Passive Load to a Feed in the Circuit Component Definition editor.

• Resolved issue where materials were not assigned during import of non-‘af man’ MMF files.
• Fixed issue where ODB++ crop functionality could incorrectly crop surfaces with curved vertices
near the edge of the substrate.

• Fixed issue where plots of single frequency data would not update accordingly when the scaling
factor for those results was changed.

• Resolved issue where the ’Status’ field in the Results Browser would not be refreshed until the
window was redrawn.

7.2.3.2

Fixes

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• Fixed issue where sketcher constraints would be missing when editing Parts in projects created in
previous versions of the application.

• Fixed issue with migration tool where newer projects could be migrated when they really didn’t need
to be.

7.2.3.1

Important Note on Migrating to Version 7.2.3

Changes to the way XFdtd R

handles geometrical features have been made in 7.2.3 to resolve a specific
class of modeling problems. In order to do this, certain geometry in projects last saved with 7.2.2 or
earlier needs to be prepared for the transition to 7.2.3. Such geometry may be in existing projects, libraries
or templates. This migration process is implemented in a special Migration Tool which is automatically
launched from XFdtd if needed when loading projects. If XFdtd determines that the project you are loading
requires migration, you will be presented with a dialog asking if the migration tool should be launched. If
so, the migration tool will have the Source and Destination fields pre-populated with the input path and a
suitable output path. In many cases, you will only need to click the “Migrate” button. Once the migration is
complete, click “Close” to dismiss the migration tool and resume using XFdtd.

If you do not perform this migration, or if the migration process fails, objects that reference faces, edges
and vertices (such as Modeling Features and relative positions and directions) may become invalid or may
not update as expected.

The migration tool can be used to update libraries and templates as well as projects and can perform “batch”
processing. If you manually start the migration tool (found in the “migration tools” subdirectory of the
XFdtd installation directory or in XFdtd’s start menu in Windows), you will be able to specify the Source
and Destination fields. When using objects from a library or using templates that need to be migrated, a
dialog will notify you of the need to manually run the migration tool on that library or template. For detailed
information on how to use the migration tool, use your mouse cursor to point at the various input fields to
display tooltips.

New Features

• The Parts List now contains a column that indicates whether Parts have Locators or not. A tooltip
listing the names of the Locators will appear when hovering over the indicator.

• Two new Modeling Features have been added: Twist and Stretch. See Section A.6 for more infor-
mation.

• Added the ability to specify RLC values sampled as a function of frequency for Passive Loads. See
Section 7.2.1 for more information.

• Added the ability to display user-generated (custom) log information from simulations in the Sim-
ulations Window in the “Custom Output” tab. All information in “project.clog” files in a Simulation
directory and/or its Run directories will be displayed in this tab.

• SAR Averaging was updated to comply with recent changes to the IEEE 1528.1 standard with re-
gards to more stringent mass accuracy in the averaging volume and the way “unused” voxels are
handled.

• Simulations with Debye/Drude materials are now supported on XStream

R
.

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• Plane wave excitation can now be used in conjunction with active sources. Note that results are
limited to voltage, current and near zone field data in this configuration.

Usability/Performance Improvements

• Improved performance of writing simulation data up to 4x (depends upon what capabilities are being
used).

• Resolved case where the Material context menu item “Voxel Material Assignments” would open a
dialog entitled “Tissue Material Assignments”, which was inconsistent. The latter text is now used in
both places.

• Implemented a change where XFsolver now uses the FFT size defined in the Application Prefer-
ences when creating that S-Parameter and .cti file output. Additionally, XFsolver also has a new
commane-line option, --fft-size={n} to override the input file’s FFT size setting.

• Plot Point Markers can now show the name of the plots they are attached to. Turn this on in the
marker’s properties by selecting “Show Plot Name when Point and Attached.”

• Added an Application Preference to turn off automatic checking for updated results. Please refer to
the tooltip on this item before disabling it. Additionally, removed the “Auto-update Results” checkbox
in the Results Browser window to remove confusion.

• XFsolver now always prints “Processing finished. xfsolver exiting.” as its last line of output before
exiting, under all conditions.

• The “Choose Line Graph...” dialog now displays more significant digits when displaying the actual
value for axis values, and a tooltip has been added to show the full precision when there still are not
enough digits being displayed.

• XFsolver now prints out what version of of XFdtd

R
was used to write a simulation as well as the
version being used to run the simulation.

• The Simulation Window’s Output tab will now concatenate all available project.log files in Run
subdirectories in the same way that project.diag files have been treated for the Diagnostic
Output tab. This is useful when simulation runs are executed independently on remote machines.

• The performance of the Output tab of the Simulation Window has been improved. Previously, sig-
nificant delays could be experienced by the user when the Output tab was updated if a simulation’s
output log was large.

• When a simulation cannot be created due to material/XACT conflicts, the names of the Parts involved
are now reported in the error message.

• The list of Projects loaded in the Results Browser is now saved with a Project. When the Project
is reloaded, the user is asked if those Projects should be reloaded into the Results Browser. This
is especially useful for the case where results from other projects are being plotted since otherwise
those plots would be invalid until the user manually re-adds those projects to the Results Broswer.

• The format of .uan files is now documented in Appendix D.11.

• Improved performance when refreshing the Results Browser when graphs with many FFT-based
plots exist. Previously, the user interface could become unresponsive for a significant amount of
time while the Results Browser refreshed due to the creation of a simulation or from the user clicking
on the “Refresh” button in the Results Browser.

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• Drastically improved meshing performance when meshing geometry consisting of many individual
lumps, such as Parts created as patterns and via Parts created from importing a PCB design.

• Added “Macro Information” menu item to Macros menus to display information about the macros
provided in the menu. See Section 4.1.4 for more information.

• Section 7.7.7 on User-Defined Waveforms has been updated to be more clear.

Scripting

• Added Simulation.getDiagnosticOutput() and Simulation.getCustomOutput().

• RampedSinusoidWaveformShape has been modified to be configured automatically to match the
configuration required by the solver. Previously, it was the responsibility of the user to properly
configure the ramping time.

• Resolved issue where sometimes running a script would result in the error message “Cannot use
defunct object” that could occur when deleting objects from the project between two script execu-
tions.

Fixes

• Resolved issue where XFsolver would cause a Qt Warning message to appear stating “QString::arg:
Argument missing: Failed to write file ’%s’ ”. This was not a fatal message and occurred only when
there was a problem writing an output file.

• Resolved an issue where a hollow, closed PEC object meshed with XACT could have fields propa-
gate into the body if it was touching a PEC boundary.

• Fixed issue where reorienting Assemblies that have Parts relative to objects within the Assembly
were not rendered correctly when previewed, but would be placed in the correct location after the
orientation change was applied.

• Resolved issue where a face that was part of a sphere in an imported CAD model was misrepre-
sented after import.

• Resolved issue where the application would exit unexpectedly while re-adding blends on geometry
that had previously had blends removed.

• Corrected the computation of the characteristic impedance for RL-parallel-C components.

• Fixed issue where the Grid would be valid even though the specification of a Part Grid Region was
invalid due to a bad formula, for example. In this case, the Part’s Grid Region specification was
silently ignored.

• Resolved issue where an invalid entry for the Boundary Extensions of a Part’s Grid Region specifi-
cation would cause a dialog to appear stating that an Unexpected Condition was encountered. After
that, the application would not behave well, such as not being able to save a Project.

• Fixed problem where the Mesh would be invalid when XACT objects were near PEC boundaries,
even though it should have been valid.

• Resolved issue where Parts with self-intersecting lumps would not mesh properly if XACT was en-
abled for those Parts.

• The scripting methods Extrude.setDirection() and Extrude.getDirection() can now be called without
receiving an error message.

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• Fixed Group Delay equation that caused result to be off by a factor of roughly 40.
• Improved performance of adding fixed points and grid regions. This improvement is particularly
noticable when making changes to the grid through scripting.

• Fixed problem where the top-level “Component Loss” field in the State State Component results
table was not editable.

• Resolved issue where sorting by date in the Project Load and Save dialogs would sort alpha-
numerically instead of numerically.

• Resolved issue where clicking the “Enter” or “Open” button to load a project in the Project Load
dialog would enter the project directory rather than load it. There are currently two known issues
with entering paths: 1) UNC paths on Windows do not appear to work properly. The workaround is
to map UNC paths to a drive letter. 2) Typing in a path using “C:\{path...}” does not work properly.
The workaround is to use forward slashes instead of backslashes if possible (e.g. ”C:/{path...}”

• Fixed issue where resizing the scale bar for a nano-scale project when in the Field Viewer would
cause the scale bar to disappear.

• Resolved issue where the application would fail when right-clicking in the Parts List when items in
the project tree that were not selectable objects (such as the Project item) were selected.

• Resolved issue where convergence detection could become disabled when using the “Analyze
Project Contents” setting for the Termination Criteria of a Simulation. When this happened, the
simulation would run to the maximum number of timesteps.

• Due to user feedback, the computation of Rotating B-Fields has been reverted back to the same
that was used in 7.2.1 and before. Previously, B+/B- could be visualized in ways that did not have
real meaning since they are scalar quantities. Therefore, the following additional changes have been
made to reduce the confusion of how B+/B- field results are presented: 1) Vector Magnitude is not
available; 2) Vector display is not available; 3) Phase cannot be used as a Sequence Axis; and 4)
Phase cannot be selected in the Complex Part.

• Resolved problem where application would fail when using the measuring tool when a cut plane
intersected the location of a Part that had been previously deleted.

• Fixed issue where XACT contours would not be rendered correctly in mesh cutplane views for small
objects.

• Resolved issue where editing the Raw SAR Total Power Dissipated would not adjust the scaling
factor as it should have.

• Fixed issue where the first feature in a modeling sequence could be deleted using the delete key
shortcut.

• Resolved crash caused by double clicking on Model with an empty modeling sequence.
• Fixed crash activing Select Shortcut Target right click menu aciton when both Shortcut Group and
child Shortcut were selected.

• Resolved issue where application was failing when changing the dimensions of a parameterized
piece of geometry.

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7.2.2.x

7.2.2.8

Fixes

• Changes to ensure that projects/templates/libraries saved in 7.2.2.8 are properly migrated when
loaded in 7.2.3 and above. Added a tool to migrate projects/templates/libraries from XFdtd
R
7.2.2.7
and before to 7.2.3 and above.

7.2.2.7

Fixes

• Resolved issue where saving a valid Project could result in an error message during save that said
“Failed to save recipe for part name”.

• Resolved issue where selecting geometry could result in the application to exit unexpectedly.

7.2.2.6

This version was not released.

7.2.2.5

Fixes

• Fixed issue where projects saved in 7.2.2.4 would be reported as corrupt when reloaded if they
contained sensors that referenced more than one face (in total) of geometry. No data is lost, however
there is no way for the user to proceed. This release fixes the cause of the problem as well as allows
projects saved in 7.2.2.4 to be reloaded normally.

7.2.2.4

New Features

• Though this release is technically a bugfix-only release, an XFsolver for Open MPI has been added
to the Linux distribution. See the Installation Guide for more information.

Fixes

• Fixed issue where Parts extracted from a Boolean operation using Extract Parts would lose their
Modeling Sequence when the undo stack was cleared of that operation. If the project was saved
in this state, XFdtd R
would crash when reloading the project. This fix includes handling reloading
such a project so the application will not crash, but the previously-extracted Parts are not recoverable.
However, their existence is detected and a placeholder Part named ”Unrecoverable Part” is added
in their place.

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• Updated the saving of sensors for proper migration to 7.2.3 of modeling fixes. Previous 7.2.2 re-
leases addressed these changes for geometry.

7.2.2.3

Fixes

• Resolved issue where simulations with a SAR Averaging Sensor and a PEC boundary condition
would fail.

• Fixed issue where running a secure script would result in a parse error.

7.2.2.2

Note: 7.2.2.2 is the initial public release of the 7.2.2.x series

New Features

• Simulations excited by the static solver are now able to be run with XStream
R
.

• XFdtd’s CAD Merge functionality has been extended for ODB++ import as well. Multiple simultane-
ous ODB++ databases are supported, as well as a “crop-to-substrate” capability. See Section 5.4.4
for more information.

• New options for XFsolver allow more control of over result post-processing. sar-any,
sar-request and sar-project were added to the --post-process option, and the option
--post-process-off was added. See Table 11.1 or use xfsolver --help for more
information.

• Ordinary TDR/TDT and Group Delay are now provided for ports. See Section 12.2.3 for more infor-
mation.

• XFdtd now supports the import ICRP, NICT and Virtual Population voxel models, with the assignment
of tissue-appropriate EM parameters. See Section 5.4.2 for more information.

• Average SAR, mass and dissipated power are now reported for the volume over which raw SAR is
computed as well as the volume over which averaged SAR is computed.

Usability/Performance Improvements

• DFT sampling information is now printed to the XFsolver log files.

• Section 10.3 was expanded to clearly document how to visualize time-domain far-zone electric
fields.

• Library names are now displayed so that they are easier to read.
• The License Dialog now shows hardware keys in the Host ID section.
• Added materials to the Material Library that is provided with XFdtd for the SAM phantom head and
hands. The EM parameters for these materials was obtained from the CTIA OTA Test plan rev. 3.1;
the materials are named “CTIA Phantom Head [ND]” and “CTIA Phantom Hand [ND]”.

• Improved performance when loading very large projects.

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• Added a Notes tab to the Material editor to view and edit notes for a material.
• When many plots are added to a graph there are now more combinations of colors and linetypes to
distinguish them from each other.

• Improved performance when changing the meshing priority of Parts.

• Lock files named writing.lock are now created in the Simulation and Run directories while a
Simulation is being created indicating if that directory (and its subdirectories) is still being modified.

• Feedback is now provided in the Orientation Tab by an icon on the left-hand side of both the Basic
and Advanced modes to indicate whether the WCS is attached to any geometry. Mouse over the
icon to get a tooltip describing exactly what part of the WCS is attached.

• Added support for being able to save and subsequently load and run encrypted scripts.
Scripting

• Fixed point settings for CircuitComponent are now properly documented.

• The enabled attribute of UI elements is now properly documented.
Fixes

• Fixed condition where the S-Parameters reported in the *.cti and *.s* output files from XFsolver
could be incorrect if the components involved in an S-Parameter matrix had different impedances or
had reactive impedances. Data displayed and exported from the UI was not affected.

• Resolved issue where SAR results could be incorrect if SAR results were requested for a very large
volume. When this happened, the results were obviously incorrect.

• Resolved several issues where reflections from the boundary were higher than expected, were not
symmetric, or varied between CPU and XStream
R
simulations.

• Resolved issue where static field solutions gave different results depending upon number of threads
used.

• Fixed an issue where specifying the bounding box for raw SAR computations and not requesting
averaged SAR would cause SAR results to be unavailable.

• Resolved issue where simulations using Negative Index Materials (NIM) could go unstable when run
on Windows.

• Fixed scripting APIs LinearPattern::getRepeatCounts() and getSeparationDistance(), which previ-

ously reported errors when they were called.

• Fixed bug where descrete frequency results may be missing in the Result Browser when one or
more runs in a parameter sweep fail to generate XFsolver input files due to invalidity.

• Resolved issue where the focus point for a Gaussian Beam excitation was not provided to XFsolver.
• Resolved issue where ExtendedComponentArithmeticDataSet was not serialized properly such that
when it was read back into the application it would be in an invalid state.

• CAD merge now properly positions parts even if the main assembly was moved prior to the merge
operation.

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• Resolved issue on Windows where pasting from the clipboard would result in an item being pasted
that we previously copied to the clipboard instead of the latest item copied to the clipboard. Once
this happened, the application would need to be restarted for copy-n-paste to work again.

• Fixed situation where, under certain circumstances, snapping and automatic constraints could inter-
fere with each other causing ”Profile not closed” or ”Profile has self-intersecting edges” errors when
sketching that were difficult to find and correct.

• Fixed issue where sometimes interferring Parts were rendered when they shouldn’t be during picking
operations when using the ’lock-on-Part’ capability. Now, during picking, once a Part is hidden it stays
hidden until picking is complete.

• Resolved issue where the icon for a Part in the Parts List could be different from the one displayed
in the Parts Tree.

• The vector representation of Rotating B-Fields has been modified such that the vectors lie and
rotate in the XY plane. The equations implemented in XFdtd also now properly documented in the
Reference Manual.

• Fixed problem where manipulating graph markers could sometime generate a pop-up message box
stating that “XFdtd has encountered an unexpected condition....Attempting to use flat index access
with an index larger than the size.”

• Wire Body tree item no longer expands when double clicked, but instead opens the editor for it.
• Fixed an issue where the maximum SAR values from several simulations could not be plotted to-
gether in a single operation.

• The text color of the field value readout of the scale bar in the Geometry View is now always black.
Previously, it followed the font color for the scalebar, which could make it unreadable.

• Fixed a problem where the rendering of External Excitations and Far Zone sensor and field data was
sized incorrectly when using the nanomater-scale template.

• Resolved issue where if multiple waveforms of different types exist in the project but the first one in
the list isn’t used, the incorrect convergence algorithm could be selected for a simulation.

• Resolved issue where the context menu for the Scale Bar may be shown when right-clicking in the
view even when output fields have been hidden.

• Fixed problem where after undoing the deletion of an Assembly with relatively positioned Parts, not
all Parts would be rendered until selected or modified.

• Resolved issue where very small mesh edges might not be rendered.

7.2.1.x

7.2.1.2

Note: 7.2.1.2 is the initial public release of the 7.2.1.x series

New Features

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368 7.2.1.2

• Geometry creation has been enhanced with the addition of tools to directly create and manipulate
the following primitive geometric shapes: Sphere, Cylinder, Cone, Cuboid, Torus, Pyramid, Prism,
Frustum and Helix.

• Nanometer-scale geometry can now be properly modelled. Previously, such geometry could be
created and simulated but could not be visualized. To create a project for nanometer-scale geometry,
select “New Project from Template” from the “File” menu and select the “Nanometer” template.

• A standard materials database is now included with the XFdtd installation. The materials can be
found by opening the Libraries window and selecting one or more of the “Materials” libraries in the
list in the upper left.

• SAR can now be computed for multiple transmitters by choosing “Combine SAR Results...” from the
context menu when two or more SAR results are selected in the Results Browser.

• Independent PDFs can now be specified for Eφ and Eθ when computing antenna diversity.
• New options for the Termination Criteria of simulations are now available (and are used by default)
to provide better and more automatic convergence control. See the Reference Manual for more
information.

• Voxel models can now be scaled. To do so, right-click on the Model in the Project Tree or the
Geometry View, select “Modify”, “Transform” and “Scale.”

• Time-dependent materials are now supported for XStream

R
simulations.

Usability/Performance Improvements

• Sensors collecting time domain data can now automatically determine an appropriate sampling in-
terval or be set manually globally. See “Use Project Value” in each Sensor Definition and the Time
Domain Sampling settings in the Project Properties.

• Manual fixed points are now visualized when selected in the Manual Fixed Point table in the Grid
Editor.

• Wire bodies can now easily be Covered, Revolved or Extruded by right-clicking on them in the Project
Tree.

• Tweaked the graphical range display in the Field Viewing controls to be more clear when there is
only one value available in the range.

• Added button to swap Circuit Component endpoints.

• Simulation Notes are no longer copied automatically from the last Simulation that was created. Use
the “Use Last” button on the Notes page of the Create Simulation dialog instead.

• Rotated Far Zone patterns can now be exported directly when viewing them by clicking on the
“Export to UAN File” button on the Far Zone Viewer’s Setup tab.

• Made optimizations to unit processing to provide an overall improvement in performance.

• HAC values are now shown in multiple units in their tooltips in addition to those specified by the
Project’s Unit Preferences.

• The validity of a Part is no longer dependent upon the validity of the Material assigned to that Part
(with the exception of Voxel and Grid Space Volume Parts).

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• One can now also align along the global X-, Y- or Z-axis when using the “Align Directions” tool to
specify the orientation of a Part by pressing ’x’, ’y’, or ’z’ when choosing the second direction instead
of picking another reference with the mouse.

• The features in a Part’s Modeling Sequence and now be edited directly through the context menu of
a Part under “Edit Feature.”

• Changed the behavior of the auto-reference value calculation in the Field Viewer so that when “Auto
reference value” is checked in the scale bar settings, when one toggles between showing scaled
values and unscaled values, the reference value also changes as expected. Previously, this occured
only if “Automatic Range” was also selected.

• Feed names are now output to the system.ssout file.

• Steady-state frequency results for multiple frequencies can now be scaled simultaneously by select-
ing the “Apply Edits to All Frequencies” checkbox in a Steady-state result window before editing a
value.

• The process of shutting down the application has been improved so that situations where it may
take a long time for the application to actually stop running after the window goes away should be
resolved.

• A context menu item (Extract Parts) has been added to Boolean modeling features to break the
boolean back into its constiuent Parts.

• Materials using the Sampled parameter type can now be used with XACT.
• The Project will now be invalid if the geometry being too close to a Liao boundary.
• XFsolver will now pause and wait when its connection to the license server is lost rather than exit.
• Made optimizations to the results scaling to reduce dependence on file operations.
Scripting

• Simulation.getCreationDate() is now available.

• Added methods to CoordinateSystem to convert between Global, Local and Reference coordinate
systems.

• Added methods to CircuitComponent to query and modify a component’s fixed point settings.
• Added getter methods to PartGridParameters and GridRegionParameters.
Fixes

• Fixed bug where simulations using XACT may go unstable or give incorrect results when XStream
R

is requested but cannot be used (e.g. due to unsupported materials or boundary conditions).

• Fixed crash that could occur in certain situations when writing sensor data for a simulation being
executed with multiple threads.

• Fixed a problem where the loss computed for a lumped component that was a resistor in series
with an inductor was incorrect. This was causing incorrect results for the Net Component Loss and
therefore for efficiency calculations.

• Resolved bug where the reported percent complete during SAR processing was incorrect when
more than 1 thread was specified.

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• Removed incorrect solver message about multi-threads applying only to XACT update process when
multiple threads is specified and XACT is being used.

• SAR postprocessing will now properly handle Simulations with multiple Runs where the Run being
postprocessed isn’t the first one.

• Far Zone postprocessing now prints an appropriate error message when the required input file is not
available rather than failing silently.

• Fixed issue where the mesh was updated twice when viewing a mesh plane.
• Fixed meshing of Circuit Components for several cases where connectivity was broken between a
Component and a Part that the Component touched.

• The scripting API now properly takes Total intead of VectorMagnitude for RadarCrossSection.
• DataSetOperation.isCompatible(), which gave an error about not being callable when used.
• The DraftOption enumeration for SweepOptions is now properly documented.
• Fixed bug where the parameters Es and Eo for non-linear electric parameters were reversed.
• The simulation memory estimate has been modified to fix the case where, in certain situations, the
actual amount of memory required to run a simulation could be significantly underestimated.

• Fixed issue where creating a surface sensor from invalid geometry would silently fail when creating
the simulation, and no results would then be available for that sensor after simulation. The problem
will now be reported at simulation creation time.

• Resolved issue where using saveCurrentProjectAs() without having “.xf” at the end of the specified
filename resulted in the error ”Failed to create new simulation directory” when creating a simulation.

• Resolved case where Parts with the default name would not be named the same as in the Project
Tree when listed using “click-through” in the Geometry View (using the middle mouse button in the
view).

• Fixed several issues with visual representation of SAR and SAR Averaging sensors.
• Simulation memory estimates no longer go away when only the mesh is invalid.
• Fixed bug where one would need to click twice on the Advanced button to enter Advanced mode
when in the Orientation tab if the coordinate system was parameterized.

• The HAC field viewer now provides full controls for how the data is displayed (flat/point/vector with
sizes, etc.) just like all other field viewers.

• Fixed an issue where dragging and dropping Parts in the tree would sometimes delete them instead
of moving them to another position.

• Fixed problem where post-processing SAR would always compute both 1g and 10g averages if the
current project’s SAR Averaging Sensor was disabled.

• Fixed incorrect name and tooltip for the ”Evaluation Frequency” of the Sampled Parameters material
types. The Evaluation Frequency is always used to determine the properties of the material.

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7.2.0.x

7.2.0.5

Usability/Performance Improvements

• Improved performance when using the Pick Tool with very large/complicated geometric models.
• Projects created in XFdtd 7.1 or before that reference faces on booleaned geometry (such as fea-
tures on a boolean or a surface sensor on a boolean) may be invalid when loaded in XFdtd 7.2 due
to changes in the solid modeling kernel used by XFdtd. While XFdtd can detect this situtation, it can-
not automatically correct it. A dialog is now shown on project load when this situation is detected.
There are two possible solutions for this situation. One is to open the project in the previous version
of XFdtd, perform a flatten operation on the booleans in the project, save and then load that into
XFdtd 7.2. The other is to respecify the items that have become invalid in XFdtd 7.2 as the dialog
suggests.

Fixes

• Fixed problem where Shift-Click on a View Orientation button did not work. The fix also addressed
issues where rotating in the view while zoomed in did not behave as expected.

• Fixed situation where a message stating “Cannot pass null widget if rect is set” was shown, followed
by a crash after that popup was dismissed.

• Resolved issue that caused a message to appear on stdout under Linux stating “Application asked
to unregister timer 0xnnnnnnnn which is not registered in this thread. Fix application.”

• Corrected XFsolver messages about the required CUDA version that stated CUDA 3.1 was required
when really CUDA 3.2 is required.

• Resolved XFsolver crash attempting to process steady state fields for a sinusoidal run when only a
small number of timesteps were complete.

• Resolved issue where in rare instances, a Gaussian Beam-excited simulation could go unstable.
• Fixed crash after undoing the deletion of a Separate Objects in Mesh operation.
• Tweaked simulation memory estimator to provide better estimates.

7.2.0.4

Note: 7.2.0.4 is the initial public release of the 7.2.0.x series

New Features

• The direction of incidence of External Excitations is now rendered in the Geometry View, which
greatly aids in correctly identifying and specifying the correct direction. As part of this change, the
properties of an External Excitation are now edited in the Geometry View in the same way as Circuit
Components, for example, instead of in their own window.

• The solid modeler has been upgraded to ACIS R21sp2, which is now the default format when saving
and exporting geometry. With this upgrade, XFdtd now supports the import of Pro/E Wildfire 5.0
files.

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• Several improvements to the XACT algorithms make it more accurate and stable.
• A new view alignment button has been added to the Geometry View to orient the view such that
the user is looking straight-on (normal) either to the Top or Bottom of the cutting plane. Since the
cutting plane defines the sketching plane when creating geometry, this is particularly useful when
sketching.

• XFsolver now uses the same syntax as the user interface for specifying command-line options;
therefore a new set of command-line options is now used. Although all previous options are still
supported, users are encouraged to begin using the new options. See the Reference Manual or
type xfsolver --help for a list of command-line options.

• XFsolver has a new capability to track device usage when using XStream
R
. This new
capability allows one to simply specify the number of XStream R
devices to use (with the
--xstream-use-number= option) and whether or not to use devices that are already
in-use (with the --xstream-availability= option). Along with the ability to specify
which devices to make available to XStream R
(the --xstream-use-devices= option),
complete flexibility is provided to choose what devices are used for a simulation. For example,
specifying xfsolver --xstream-use-devices=0,1,3 --xstream-use-number=2
--xstream-availability=free --no-use-cpu --use-xstream will use 2 XStream R

devices that do not already have a simulation running on them and only devices 0, 1 and 3 will be
used. If 2 free devices cannot be allocated, the simulation will not fall back to running on CPU.

• When in the Sketcher with the cutting plane visible, previous versions of XFdtd allowed the sketching
tools to snap to the edges and vertices created by intersecting existing geometry with the cutting
plane. This version now adds a new tool in the Sketcher to copy those edges into the current
Sketch.

• Added the command-line option --fft-size to XFsolver in order to specify the size of the FFT
to use when computing data for its frequency output data (such as S-Parameter output files). This
option can be used to increase the frequency resolution of the output data.

• XFsolver now outputs CITI files along with .s?? files.

• Simulations using averaged materials (volume mesh objects meshed with a Meshing Method of
“Averaged Material”) are now supported on XStream
R
.

• Added automatic DFT sampling interval computation based on the frequency content of the active
waveforms and the simulation’s specified Frequencies of Interest. New projects have the automatic
sampling interval enabled by default and older projects retain the sampling interval previously spec-
ified.

Usability/Performance Improvements

• Optimized broadband far-zone computations by introducing a sampling interval that can either be
set manually or computed automatically. This setting can be found in the Far Zone Sensor editor’s
Properties tab. When the broadband sampling interval is set to “Use Project Value” and the Project’s
value is set to “Use Automatic Time Domain Data Sampling Interval” (in the Project Properties), the
project’s Frequency Range of Interest and active waveforms are examined to compute the sampling
interval. A sampling interval greater than one (which the automatic setting will usually do) disables
the computation of time domain far-zone results. In order to receive the time domain data, make
sure the Broadband Sampling Interval in the Far Zone Sensors’ properties is set to “1*timestep”.
When an automatic sampling interval is used, the solver’s diagnostics file will report the value used

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in the simulation. Old projects will retain their sampling interval of “1*timestep” but new projects will
enable the automatic computation of the sampling interval.

• Made several optimizations for CAD import to improve performance.

• Added a line to XFsolver output stating which Run it is on, which is useful when performing parameter
sweeps.

• Added the ability to specify how many XStream

R
devices to use when running simulations from
the UI. This is specified in advanced Queue options of the Simulations window. Devices that do not
have simulations currently running on them are allocated first. Additionally, the items of the Queue
options have been reordered to reduce confusion about which items pertain to which.

• The licensing subsystem no longer uses cached license locations to find licenses for XFdtd, but
instead uses only what is provided by the LM LICENSE FILE and REMCOMINC LICENSE FILE
environment variables and what is provided in the licensing dialog. This change will not affect users
whose licenses are properly configured, but will alleviate confusion when licensing is misconfigured
but XFdtd still launches.

• Along with the change to licensing above, the “Browse” button in the License Dialog now browses
for a ‘.lic’ file instead of a folder path. The specifications of a path to a folder containing one or more
‘.lic’ files and ‘port@server’ are still also accepted.

• Along with the new feature of External Excitation visualization, Static Voltage Points and External
Excitations now also have a Visibility attribute.

• The behavior of the cutplane (when applicable) is now consistent when editing Sensors, Circuit
Components, etc. The cutplane no longer ever cuts an object being edited.

• Improved XFsolver performance for simulations with steady-state output by optimizing the on-disk
storage format for temporary steady-state field files.

• A simulation can no longer be created in the Create Simulation dialog if Parameter Sweeps are
enabled but no sweeps are defined. Previously, one could click to Create a simulation and receive
the message “No xfsolver files were written.”

• Unchecking the Automatic context menu for the scale bar in the Field Viewer now disables the
automatic reference value as well as the automatic data range. This behavior should now match the
intent of setting all automatic behavior when that context menu item is chosen.

• The scripting editor now has an option to enable/disable word wrap. This option can be found in the
“Edit” menu of the Scripting Editor and defaults to ‘enabled’.

• Added appropriate tooltip text for Assembly Transform undo/redo operations.

• Added more information about HAC thresholds to the tooltips for the M-rating and Threshold labels
when viewing HAC data in the Field Viewer.

• The default for storing data on the Data Storage tab under Frequencies of Interest in the Create
Simulation dialog has been changed from “On Disk” to “In Memory”.

• The size of bounding boxes is now displayed in the view addition to its corner coordinates.
• When the formula for a constraint in the Sketcher is invalid, the contraint is rendered in red and
“<Invalid Formula>” is displayed for the value. Additionally, the formula is now shown in parenthe-
ses as well, just like when the formula is valid.

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• Added text to Meshing Properties and Set Meshing Priority dialog to indicate that a higher meshing
priority number means a higher meshing priority.

• Added complete memory estimate information for XStream

R
simulations to the tooltip message for
the memory estimate shown in the Grid Editor and the Create Simulation dialog.

• Added a button in the Geometry View to flip the cutting plane, which can be found in the dropdown
menu of the Cutting Plane button. This is a handy shortcut to inverting the cutting plane by editing it
and rotating it 180 degrees.

• Improved the ‘Find’ capability in the Scripting Editor by adding a “Find Again” capability, binding
Ctrl+F to open the Find dialog, Ctrl+G to Find Again, and remembering the settings of the Find
dialog.

• Added the ability to create a Sheet Body from Faces and have the faces remember their source so
that if the source changes, the faces change as well. To completely detach the new Sheet Body
from the source (as was the previous behavior), check the “Detach Faces” checkbox on the “Select
Faces” tab when creating the Sheet Body from Faces.

• Improved the Frequencies of Interest table in the Create Simulation dialog by displaying the current
number of frequencies defined, adding a “Delete All” button, and enabling multiple selection.

• Passive Loads with R=L=C=0 are now treated as PEC shorts, which matches the schematic diagram
that is presented in the UI as well as users’ expectations.

• Additional notes have been added to Sensor Definition editors regarding the availability of Poynting
Vector, Average Power and Rotating B-Fields.

• Renamed “Transient Far-Zone” to “Broadband Far-Zone” in the user interface to eliminate confusion
with the term “transient”.

• With the change to the command-line options for XFsolver noted above, the type of XStream
R
im-
plementation has been divided into separate executables. Which type of XStream is to use, specified
in the advanced XStream R
settings in the Simulation Queue, has been expanded. Users desiring
to use Acceleware version 9-based XStream R
should select “Use Legacy XStream Acceleration
(Ax9)”. At the command line, the Ax9 XStream executable can be found in the ax9 subdirectory of
the appropriate platform’s bin directory. The XFsolver launch script for Linux has been updated to
accept the -ax9 option in addition to the -ax8 option that has existed for some time.

• The search dialog in the Scripting Window now remembers its previous settings.
Scripting

• Added ability to create Shortcuts and Shortcut Groups through scripting. New API classes: Shortcut,
ShortcutGroup and ShortcutTree.

• Added ability to get and set the edges of Blends with Blend.{get,set}Edges(Array).
• Added method getNumberOfMarkers() to XYGraph, PolarGraph and SmithGraph.
• Added ability to access the parameters (all parameters as well as swept parameter values)
used in a simulation. See Project.getSimulationIds(), Simulation.getParameterNames() and
Simulation.getParameterValue().

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• Added the accessors for the project’s timestep manipulation attributes. See the following meth-
ods on Project: isUsingCustomTimestepMultiplier(), setUseCustomTimestepMultiplier(), getCus-
tomTimestepMultiplier(), setCustomTimestepMultiplier(), getXactTimestepMultiplier() and setXact-
TimestepMultiplier()

• Resolved issue where LawEdge was not using the correct units (they were ‘mm’ instead of ‘m’).
• The Grid Region sort order in the Parts List was modified to be more useful– it is now “No Grid
Regions” followed by “Grid Region on Parent” and then “Grid Region on Part”.

• Documentation for some global objects (such as FarZoneUtils and ResultUtils) was missing.
• Resolved issue where attempting to create an AutomaticRangeBasedWaveformShape resulted in
an error.

• Added methods to the global ResultUtils object to obtain tabular sensor data similar to what is
shown in the user interface. See the following methods on ResultUtils: getSystemSensorTable(),
getHacTable(), getSarStatisticsTable(), getExternalExcitationTable() and getComponentTable().

• Added methods to the global ResultUtils object to easily convert between the various ResultQuery
enumeration values and a string. These are useful when presenting these values in dialogs for user
input. See the set of methods StringTo() and ToString() on ResultUtils.

• Simulation is now derived from Selectable which provides access to a Simulations’s name, notes
and metadata.

• Project and Simulation notes as well as parameter values are now available for all Projects loaded
in the Result Browser. Previously, they were available only for the currently loaded Project.

• Added methods to access the list of deleted CAD IDs that is used during CAD merge operations.
See Assembly.getDeletedCadIds() and Assembly.clearDeletedCadIds().

Fixes

• Resolved crash in specific situation when geometry intersected ±X boundary, planar J data was
requested, scattered-field formulation was used and excitation was a plane wave propagating in the
-Z direction.

• Fixed bug (introduced 7.1.2) where a switch component always behaved as open when running the
simulation using XStream
R
.

• Fixed bug (introduced in 7.1.2) which may cause XFsolver to crash of all of the following are true:
XACT is being used; a point, solid or surface sensor is being used to capture time-domain J-Field
data; and XStream
R
is being used.

• Resolved issue where the dissipated power of a good conductor meshed with XACT was too low.
• Fixed issue where XFsolver always opened project.log file, even if XFsolver was called with the
-version option to print the version an exit.
• Fixed several places where a message was printed by all nodes of during an MPI simulation when it
should have been printed only by one node.

• Fixed issue where sometimes the CPU memory estimate for XStream
R
simulations could be less
than zero in the project.info file.

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• The FDTD meshing algorithm now accounts for facets that share only a single endpoint edge. Pre-
viously, certain CAD geometry could cause a single mesh line to extend across large gaps in the
geometry.

• Resolved issue where the Automatic waveform did not update properly when the Grid was invalid.
(This was not a common situation.)

• Resolved issue where accessing graph markers through scripting could cause an exception that
blocked all project modifications.

• Fixed problem where Scale Transform Features were sometimes not applied after loading project.
• The Net Available Power dataset no longer has the name “Unknown Result Type”.
• Fixed crash when enabling XACT on a Part while the Grid Editor was open.
• Fixed crash when opening an empty Graph.
• Resolved issue where running simultaneous CAD imports on the same machine could cause the
import(s) to fail.

• Fixed issue where importing some CAD files would take a very long time and use an inordinate
amount of system RAM or would result in a Project that would take a very long time to save and use
a great deal of disk space.

• Some .sat CAD files would import into XFdtd with names “Object 1”, “Object 2” ... “Object N”
instead of the names they had in the tool from which they were exported. This has been resolved
for certain cases.

• Fixed issue where the size of vectors or points could be too small to be seen when rendering field
data.

• An object that was cut from the project could be pasted into a Shortcut Group, which created the
situation where one could have Shortcuts to objects that weren’t in the project.

• Fixed issue where, when multiple results of different units were loaded into the Field Viewer, the
Field Reader tool would report the highlighted value on whichever scale bar was visible, even if it
was the wrong scale bar.

• Added a scroll bar to the warning dialog that is shown when simulation creation is complete in order
to handle the case where many warnings are generated (e.g. for a large parameter sweep).

• Fixed problems where the wait cursor was always displayed while interacting with dialogs generated
from scripting and where that cursor never switched back to the default cursor after running scripts
where multiple levels of dialogs were used.

• Clicking the Reset button on the Far Zone Rotations tab no longer moves the display origin to (0,0,0),
but only resets the direction (as it should).

• Fixed crash when specifying a Radius Constraint with an undefined parameter.

• Resolved issue where the label of the Sequence axis on the Sequence tab of the Field Viewer was
not always correct after changing the setup on the Setup tab until the sequence index was changed.

• Fixed problem where dragging/pasting a Circuit Component attached to a Part from a Library into a
project would bring the Part into the project but not the Component.

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• Fixed problem where Static Voltage Points couldn’t be copied (the Copy menu item was not en-
abled).

• The Level field of the Broadband waveform type now has a unit of ‘dBa’, which was previously
missing.

• The Fixed Point indicator in the Parts List has been fixed to properly handle Assemblies that have
Fixed Point extraction on for their bounding boxes.

• For consistency, renamed occurences of “Fixed Location” throughout the application to “Fixed
Point”.

• Fixed issue where steady-state field results in the Field Viewer would not be scaled when Phase
was chosen on the Setup tab, and where clicking on the “Show Scaled Values” checkbox in the Field
Viewer the first time did not cause it to be toggled.

• The Frequencies of Interest tab in the Create Simulation dialog now properly handles the case when
an Automatic Waveform is a sinusoid by auto-selecting “Use Waveform Frequency”.

• Fixed issue where plotting multiple datasets on XY Graphs and Smith Charts resulted in a different
plot order and therefore different colors being assigned to each plot.

• Resolved issue where if Parts Visibility was off, selection in the View was disabled. This resulted in
several problems: the Measuring Tool could not be used, one could not right-click on a Part to bring
up its context menu, and one could not click on a single Part to select only it when several Parts
were currently selected.

• Resolved issue where application responsiveness was degraded when any Orientation tab was open
and the cutting plane was enabled.

• Cross-section snapping in the Sketcher now always obeys the state of the cross-section snapping
toggle button. Previously, snapping occurred only if the cutting plane was enabled while in the
Sketcher.

• Highlights when using a Picker Tool are now cut by the cutting plane when it is enabled. Previously,
the geometry highlights were not cut even though the geometry they were highlighting was.

• Fixed crash when hovering the mouse over an edit box for an invalid constraint in the Sketcher.
• Fixed issue where the schematic diagram for a Nonlinear Capacitor with a resistor in parallel was
not correct.

• Resolved issue where the Detach buttons for positions and directions were not initialized to the
correct state and so were enabled even with the position or direction was not attached to anything.

• Fixed issue where one could perform a multiple selection of Parts in the Project Tree for many
modeling and sensor operations that take only one Part. This resulted in unexpected behavior when
the operation respected only the first Part that was selected.

• Fixed issue where pasted mesh objects were not visible.

• Resolved issue where definitions could not be pasted onto Circuit Components, Near Field Sensors,
or External Excitations.

• When the cutting plane is enabled, it is now always rendered even if there is no geometry in the
Project.

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• The cutting plane editor now shows an invalidity icon when the cutting plane specification is invalid.
• The Locator editor now shows an invalidity icon when the Locator specification is invalid.
• Fixed issue where which faces were selected would sometimes be forgotten between steps when
specifying a Loft.

7.1.x

7.1.2.x

7.1.2.6

Fixes

• Fixed issue where a certain combination of R and L values for a series RL passive load produced
incorrect dissipated power results for the component.

7.1.2.5

Usability/Performance Improvements

• Modified algorithm when assigning materials during CAD Import with “Automatically assign materi-
als” enabled but “Refresh and merge existing parts” disabled so that the materials existing Parts with
the same name have a higher priority than (and are therefore used instead of) materials of the same
color.

• Modified behavior of CAD Import with “Refresh and merge existing parts” enabled so that merged
Parts are always placed in the global location defined by the imported Parts rather than only by their
location in their own working coordinate systems. The byproduct of this change is that if one moves
an imported Part using Specify Orientation and then performs a CAD import and merge for that Part,
the Part will move (back) to its original location. If one desires to perform the move operation and
have it persist through import and merge operations, the move should be done with the Translate
and/or Rotate tools so that the movement is applied to the Part as a Modelling Sequence Feature
instead of by using Specify Orientation.

• Added support for bulge parameter in LWPOLYLINE section for DXF files. Imported designs with
straight lines instead of curves in some places may now import as expected.

Fixes

• Fix issue where Default Materials were not added at the end of the Material List when performing
CAD Import with “Automatically assign materials” enabled.

• Resolved intermittent crash of the ‘converter’ program at the end of the first phase of CAD Import.

7.1.2.4

Fixes

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• Updated XStream
R
to use CUDA 3.2 runtime to resolve issue where 4GB of RAM was being re-
sported for nVidia C2070 hardware instead of 6GB. This means that users of XStream R
will need
to have a video driver that is new enough to support CUDA 3.2, which would mean driver version
260 or higher. Please visit nVidia’s website at www.nvidia.com to obtain the latest video driver.

7.1.2.3

Usability/Performance Improvements

• Additional logic to handle multiple Parts with the same name in an Assembly during CAD Merge.

7.1.2.2

Usability/Performance Improvements

• Aligned terminology for Custom HAC Band Settings to that of ANSI C63.19. “Waveform Modulation”
has been renamed to “Probe Modulation”, “Electric Probe Modulation” to “Electric Probe Calibration”
and “Magnetic Probe Modulation” to “Magnetic Probe Calibration”. Additionally, the value entered for
the new “Probe Modulation” is the inverse of that entered for the old “Waveform Modulation”, aligning
this value to what is expected to be entered.

• Improved CAD Merge capability: to include matching Part names in the algorithm to assign Materials
and other Part settings, and to better detect existing geometry for merge operations and CAD Merge
Result reporting.

• Added ability to Import/Merge a CAD Model into a specific existing Assembly by right-clicking on that
Assembly and choosing Import.

• Added Alt+M shortcut to open Macros Menu.

Scripting

• Added:
CustomHacBandSettings::setProbeModulationFactor()

CustomHacBandSettings::setElectricProbeCalibrationFactor()

CustomHacBandSettings::setMagneticProbeCalibrationFactor()

HacBandSettings::getProbeModulationFactor()

HacBandSettings::getElectricProbeCalibrationFactor()

HacBandSettings::getMagneticProbeCalibrationFactor()

Deprecated:

CustomHacBandSettings::setWaveformModulationFactor()

CustomHacBandSettings::setElectricProbeModulationFactor()

CustomHacBandSettings::setMagneticProbeModulationFactor()

HacBandSettings::getWaveformModulationFactor()

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HacBandSettings::getElectricProbeModulationFactor()

HacBandSettings::getMagneticProbeModulationFactor()

Please note: Backwards compatibility for the deprecated methods is maintained, but the meaning
of the first parameter of the CustomHacBandSettings is now the inverse of what is was (see the
previous section).

Fixes

• Fixed issue with CAD Merge where the counts reported in the CAD Merge Results shortcuts were
not correct sometimes.

• Fixed problem where changing selection could take a very long time if the Parts List was open and
many Parts were selected.

• Resolved issue where importing a .sat file would result in the Parts being imported in a random
order.

• Resolved issue where some warning messages about possibly invalid S-Parameters were still being
shown after Simulation creation. These messages are now in the project.diag file.

• Fixed issue where DXF models weren’t being rendered after import.
• Fixed crash when loading a project that had a cut plane attached to geometry. Also changed the
default for the picking tools when editing a cut plane to not attach to geometry.

7.1.2.1

Note: 7.1.2.1 is the initial public release of the 7.1.2.x series

New Features

• The performance of XStream

R
simulations using XACT has been significant improved. Users may
see up to a 15x improvement in speed!

• Added the ability to perform sweeps over multiple parameters within a single simulation. This is an
extension of the capability previously provided on the Parameter Sweep tab of the Create Simulation
dialog. See the XFdtd Reference Manual for more information.

• Added Frequency Range of Interest for a Project. This range allows XFdtd to automatically formulate
an excitation waveform, provide additional project validation and show result plots more tailored to
the user’s interests. See the XFdtd Reference Manual for more information.

• Added arbitrary cutting planes to the 3-D geometry view. Cutting planes can be activated one at a
time, and using the standard orientation tools, cutting planes can be located anywhere in 3-D space.
Additionally, when the cutting plane is active, any cross sectioned edges and vertices can be used
as snapping points within the sketch (cross section) editor and all location picking tools, such as the
measuring tool, and circuit component end-point pickers.

• Added the ability to run Macros without the need to import them into the Project. To use, simply
put the .xmacro scripts you wish to use in a directory (defined by an Application Preference) and
then access them using the “Macros” menu on the main menu bar of the application. See the
XFdtd Reference Manual for more information.

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• Added the ability to export S-parameters to Touchstone file format. To export to Touchstone, right-
click on the S-Parameter results that you wish to export and select “Export→Export to Touchstone
file...”

• XFsolver now implements a Time Dependent Material, previously known as Bulk Switch. This ma-
terial type allows the definition of electric materials with time dependent conductivity and permittivity
and magnetic materials with time dependent permeability and conductivity. Though this capability
has not yet been exposed in the UI, the solver input files can be amended to enable this capability.
Please contact Remcom Technical Support if you would like to use this new capability.

• Raw SAR computations have been updated to the latest standard, IEEE 1528.1 (IEC 62704-1) draft
dated 19-Jan-2010.

Usability/Performance Improvements

• Major improvements were made to viewing 3D steady-state fields, resulting in the ability to specify
the phase for viewing and animate the data. The selection of what field components and complex
part combinations are allowed has been optimized to reduce confusion.

• When mousing over an invalidity indicator, the tooltip describing the invalidity now pops up immedi-
ately rather than after the tooltip timeout period.

• Picking tools were changed in version 7.1.0 to not attach to geometry by default (pressing the ‘a’
key during picking then causes attachment). When placing the endpoints of Circuit Components,
however, it is usually desirable to have them attached to the selected geometry. Therefore, the
default when picking endpoints for Circuit Components has been changed to attach to the picked
geometry. Throughout the application, whether or not whatever is being picked will be attached to
geometry is always indicated by the cursor- when not attaching, a simple arrow cursor is shown.
When attaching, an arrow with a thumbtack is shown.

• Picking tools have the capability to attach what is being picked to geometry, so that when that
geometry moves the attached point moves with it. Examples of this are attaching one Part’s working
coordinate system (WCS) to another Part or attaching the endpoint of a Circuit Component to a Part.
One can see the attachment state of a WCS by going to the Advanced mode of its Orientation tab
or to the Circuit Component editor and noticing the title of the group box containing the information
for the picked item. If it is unattached, the title will be something like “Endpoint 1: Fixed Position” or
“Endpoint 1: Parameterized Position”. If it is attached, it will be something like “Endpoint 1: “Center
of Edge”. If the geometry referenced by the attachment is deleted or modified in such a way that the
element that is referenced no longer exists, the attachment is still remembered but is in a “Frozen”
state- it will simply stay in space at its last known good position. Previously, there was no indication
in the UI of this state, which made it difficult to diagnose problems. Now, the title of the group box
is appended with “(!)” when the attachment is in the “Frozen” state. Additionally, a tooltip has been
added to the title that explains the current state- that is is frozen (and potential reasons why) or it
names the geometry that is being reference.

• The default location for the template directory has been moved to the appropriate platform-specific
location for user data. On Windows, this is in the Remcom/XFdtd folder of the users’s Documents (or
My Documents) folder, while on Unix this is $HOME/Remcom/XFdtd. The new location applies to
new installations of XFdtd only; if the template directory was already specified, it will not be changed.
The template directory can always be changed manually in the Application Preferences.

• When XFsolver cannot detect GPU hardware for XStream

R
simulations, it now prints a more infor-

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mative message to the output about the problem and possible solutions.

• When XFsolver encounters unrecoverable errors such as the inability to allocate GPU memory (for
XStream
R
simulations), an informational message describing the problem is now written out to both
project.log and project.diag to inform the user of the problem.
• Several improvements where made to the measuring tool, including printing dx, dy and dz in the
view, removing markup when ESC is pressed, providing more markup at the measured locations,
adding the total length to the status bar display, and optimizing the status bar display for both Dis-
tance and Position to be more readable.

• Version 7.1.1 added some warning messages during simulation creation about using components in
S-Parameter computations that have reactance or inconsistent resistances. This was causing undue
concern for many users, so these messages have been moved to the project.diag file instead.
These messages now also include warnings when Switches, Nonlinear Capacitors and Diodes are
classified as ports.

• Added the ability to perform regular expression searches in the Result Browser and in the Parts List.
To turn on RegExp searches, press the Search button and select “Regular Expression” (the default is
“Simple”). When using this type of search, “Enter” must be pressed after entering the search terms
to initiate the search (when in Simple mode, the search is immediate). The most common usage for
the regular expression search would be search for multiple items, such as XXX and YYY and ZZZ.
This would be specified in the search field as: “XXX|YYY|ZZZ”. Additionally, the search fields in both
the Result Browser and the Parts List now remember the last few searches that were entered.

• Added the ability to have shortcuts to Locators and to move and copy Locators within a single Part.
• A plot of probability density function (as used for mean effective gain and antenna diversity compu-
tations) is now provided on the PDF tab of the far zone field viewing controls.

• Significantly improved performance when setting all subparts visible/invisible or including/excluding

them from the mesh.

• The spatial coordinates of data values when using the Field Reader tool are now displayed on the
status bar.

• Added the ability to have shortcuts to Locators and to copy/move Locators within a single Part.
• Resolved issue where Linux 64-bit executables could not be licensed with a USB dongle.
• Information about the selected Part(s) is now shown at the top of the Parts List. When one part is
selected, its full assembly path is shown (and is selectable for copy/paste operations). When two or
more parts are selected, the number of selected items is shown. This space also has a tooltip that
provides additional information on the selection.

• The Edit context menu for Parts now has an additional item “Copy Full Assembly Path Name” that
will copy the full assembly path as a string to the clipboard to make it convenient to include this path
in other applications (such as an email message or report).

• For CAD Import operations when “Automatically Assign Materials” is selected, a fallback for assign-
ing the material, gridding, meshing and visibility attributes is to search for a Part with the same name
as the newly imported Part.

• Renamed “Wideband Eval Frequency” in the “Sampled” electric and magnetic properties in the Ma-
terial editor to “Broadband Eval Frequency” for consistency. Also added a tooltip to that field to

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describe what the field means and when it is used.

• The Locators editor now uses the appropriate cursors to indicate the attachment state for picking.
• The toolbar in the Geometry View containing the view controls, which was previously always to the
right of the view, is now movable to any of the 4 sides of the view.

• The default action when “Return” or “Enter” is pressed when in the Create Simulation Dialog is now
to do nothing. Previously, “Create and Queue” was the default action which caused simulations to
be created accidentally when “Enter” was pressed unintentionally.

• The “Diagnostics” tab of the Simulations window is now automatically updated when it is switched to
so that the user no longer needs to click “Update” manually after navigating to that tab.

• When Compute Dissipated Power and Save Fields on Far Zone Box for Post Processing are both
unchecked for a simulation, some System output is not available. Previously, this resulted in the
values for Dissipated Power, Radiated Power and Efficiency to be displayed as “NaN”. Now, “No
data” is displayed instead and a tooltip for that field is displayed with more information about why
“No data” is shown.

• Added new File menu item “New Window” that can open a new or existing project in a new instance
of XFdtd. The new instance will be the same version that is currently running.

• Added ‘s’ hotkey for Picking Tools to show all parts that were previously hidden by pressing ‘h’.
• New SAR binary file format added to Appendix D of the Reference Manual.
Scripting

• Added several methods to Sketch to facilitate working with vertices: getEdgeIds(), getVertexIds(),
getStartId(), getEndId() and getPosition().

• Added the ability to manage preferences from scripting through the following methods on App: get-
Preference(), setPreference(), clearPreference(), clearAllPreferences() and getDefinedPreference-
Names(). These methods allow the user to easily store and retrieve persistent data that can be used
to prepopulate dialog choices, for example.

• Added methods to Grid to obtain automatically extracted fixed points: getAutomaticFixedPoints(),

getAllAutomaticFixedPoints(), getGriddingParameters(). At the same time, the methods getGridRe-
gionParameters() and getPartGridParameters() were deprecated- use getGriddingParameters() in-
stead.

• Added method Project.getSimulation() to access existing simulations. The returned object can be
queried for status, for example.

• Added method App.getPartVisibility() to obtain the visibility attribute of a Part

• Implemented move() for the following “container” objects: CircuitComponentDefinitionList, Circuit-
ComponentList, ExternalExcitationList, GraphList, FarzoneSensorList, NearFieldSensorList, Sen-
sorDataDefinitionList, StaticVoltagePointList, Assembly, MaterialList

• Fixed problem where a Part’s material could not be set through scripting.
• Fixed bugs in the two-argument and three-argument versions UnitClass.convert() that prevented
conversion to linear scalar units.

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• LocatorList is now properly documented and accessible. Previously, Part.getLocatorList() would

result in an error message.

• Added implementations of Loft, Reflect, Rotate, Shear, Scale and Translate

• Fixed crash when Recipe.flatten() is used before the Recipe has been added to a Model.
• MaximumFrequencyWaveformShape.AllFrequenciesSpecificationType and MaximumFrequency-
WaveformShape.SpecifySpecificationType are now defined properly. Previously, they were not
defined properly such that MaximumFrequencyWaveformShape.setSpecificationType() would not
result in the correct setting.

• Fixed problem in all “container” objects (e.g. WaveformList, MaterialList, etc.) where the “replace”
methods would not properly update the name of the replaced item in the Project Tree until it was
edited.

• Fixed crash when using Model.setRecipe() when the passed-in Recipe contains no Features.
• GroupBox.title is now properly documented.
• PointSensorDataDefinition.getSampledTimeRange() is now properly documented.
• Added more documentation to CoordinateSystem::getOrigin() to describe its use and limitations.
• Fixed bug that would sometimes cause the application to abort when GraphAxis::getTheme() was
called.

Fixes

• Fixed situation where a simulation with XACT would run on CPU but would crash using XStream
R

before time-stepping began when more than one thread was specified.

• Changed the field interpolation mechanism XFsolver uses to compute the HAC sensor maximum
E-field and H-field values.

• Fixed XFsolver crash that may occur for some geometries when using an active feed with a series
RLC arrangement combining more than one of the resistor, capacitor, and inductor.

• HAC sensors are now supported for MPI simulations. Previously, MPI simulations would crash when
computing HAC.

• Fixed problem where some files were not being closed properly, which could cause messages about
“Sensor Output Error” during post-processing when there were many components.

• Fixed bug which could cause XFsolver to abort when running with more than one thread when
certain combinations of surface or solid sensors collecting steady-state data were specified.

• Fixed issue where polar Directivity data would not be plotted.

• Resolved case where the application would crash in some cases when using Zoom to Extents with
a sketch that was not valid.

• Fixed issue where a very large project would become corrupt when saved. When reloading the
project this problem resulted in an application crash or a corrupt project message.

• Fixed a problem where components that shared the same Yee cell node were incorrectly identified
as being on the same edge.

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• Made further corrections to simulation memory estimation for XStream

R
simulations.

• Addressed the situation where results were listed as “Complete” when a simulation failed with an
error condition. Trying to plot those results would then give the error message “No timestep data is
available”. Now the results will be properly “Unavailable”.

• The equation for magnetic conductivity where fixed to use µ0 instead of 0 . This caused the con-
ductivity computed from complex relative permeability to be incorrect.

• The CAD Import and Merge process was setting parts as “Meshing Disabled” rather than unsetting
“Include in Mesh” when parts that were previously deleted are reimported. Similarly, the XFdtd 6
import process was doing the same when importing unmeshed parts. This caused a confusion
when checking these parts as the “Include in Mesh” did not seem to have any effect- even though
the part is included in the mesh, it wasn’t being meshed because its meshing type was disabled.
The Import and Merge processes now set “Include in Mesh” instead.

• Fixed issue where XFdtd version 6 geometry that contained wire bodies would sometimes result in
wires that were not oriented properly after import.

• Plotting different types of results with the “View (Default)” action at the same time no longer creates
multiple undo items; pressing ‘Undo’ once will now undo the creation of all graphs created by that
action.

• Fixed issue where Graphs would sometimes not draw properly until they were resized.
• Fixed crash while creating a simulation with a small number of XACT edges during the “Analyzing
XACT Mesh” phase of simulation creation.

• Resolved issue where application would crash when clicking on a Part in the geometry view when a
very large model was loaded.

• Addressed issue where the application would crash due to running out of memory when the Con-
struction Grid was visible and the view was oriented such the the grid would grow very large. The
number of grid lines that can be drawn is now limited; if that limit is reached, only the bounding box
of the construction grid is now displayed.

• Fixed problem where CAD files could not be imported if the path contained UNICODE (non-ASCII)
characters.

• The Distance readout in the status bar when using the Measuring Tool now always goes away and
highlighted edges in the view disappear when the Measuring Tool is deactived.

• Fixed crash when undoing the deletion of assemblies and subparts when both the assembies and
subparts were selected when deletion occurred.

• Fixed issue where copy-n-paste of a component with both ends attached to the same part to another
instance would cause two nodes in the Project Tree for that Part. Deleting one of the nodes would
then cause the application to crash.

• Fixed crash when deleting a Part that has a SAR sensor attached to it while the sensor was being
edited.

• Fixed issue where the Position coordinates displayed in the status bar when using the Picking tools
were incorrect in many cases.

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• Fixed a problem in tabular result windows (e.g. System Output) where if the scaling factor is set to
zero (such as by entering ‘0’ for a scaled quantity like Net Input Power), scalable quantities are no
longer editable.

• Fixed incorrect loading/interpretation of user-defined probability density function files.

• Removed ‘Delete’ context menu item from many items in the Project Tree that should not have had
it.

• Fixed bug that caused object deletion from the context menu to fail in rare cases after using Select
Shortcut Target.

• Resolved intermittent crash during the creation of a 3-point arc in the Sketcher.
• Fixed bug where copy-n-paste of once-attached circuit components could crash the application.
• Resolved crash using using “Modify→Transform→Rotate” or “Modify→Transform→Rotate” from
the Geometry View.

• Resolved issue where in certain cases, the Field Reader would report incorrect values when viewing
XZ-planar slices of volumetric data.

• Fixed problem where in a special case dragging a circuit component between application instances
could add an empty part to the Project Tree of the target instance, making the target instance unsta-
ble.

7.1.1.x

7.1.1.2

Note: 7.1.1.2 is the initial public release of the 7.1.1.x series

New Features

• Simulations using External (Plane Wave) Excitations now fully exploit GPU hardware when using
XStream
R
. Users of this capability should see a significant performance improvement.

• The ability to define arbitrary locations and orientations on any part has been added called “Loca-
tors”. Any two locators can then be “matched” in order to quickly align two parts. This is a general-
ization of XFdtd’s “Match Points and Directions” capability. See “Using Locators to Orient Parts” in
the Reference Manual for more information.

• The NVIDA Fermi architecture is now officially supported for XStream

R
simulations. All XStream
R

users (except Legacy XStream R

) will need to upgrade to the latest NVIDIA video driver to use
R
XStream or XFsolver will report that it cannot find CUDA-capable hardware.

• Geometry meshed with XACT can now touch or extend past PEC boundaries.
• Added the new lumped component type RLkC, useful for modeling a lossy inductor. This new
component type can be used as a Passive Load and is defined just like the previously available RLC
and RkLkC combinations.

• Peak SAR values in the currently displayed data selection are now available on the “Statistics” tab
when viewing SAR data.

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• Added circularly polarized UAN file output for far zone data from XFsolver when the -outputcpuan
command-line option is used. The new output file name ends with .cpuan. Also added active feed
location and frequency to the header section of .uan files.

Usability/Performance Improvements

• SAR data is now written out from the engine in a binary format rather than gzipped ASCII. This
improves performance when reading the data for display, making display of SAR data significantly
faster.

• Added an option to ODB++ Import to automatically add Manual Fixed Points on the edges and inside
layers of ODB++ geometry.

• Warnings generated during simulation creation are now appended to the Simulation Summary avail-
able in the lower pane of the Simulation Window.

• Added the ability to reorder plots in a graph.

• When plotting data versus material via the Create Line Graph dialog, the dialog now shows the
material name. An example of this is plotting Dissipated Power per Material on a line graph.

• Component names have been added to XACT feed-edge error messages in order to aid in deter-
mining to location of the problem.

• In the Waveform Editor, the text “Excite up to a Maximum Frequency” has been changed to “Specify
Frequency Roll-off” to avoid confusion about what frequencies would be excited by the waveform
and to more accurately describe what is being specified.

• The visibility and opacity settings for Parts, Components, Sensors, Output and Bounding Box (as
controlled by the buttons along the right-hand side of the Geometry Window) are now saved and
restored with the project.

• Added simulation-creation time checks to warn about cases where S-Parameters may not be correct
due to complex port impedances or non-uniform resistances across all ports.

• Added simulation-creation time check to validate that a sinsoidal waveform’s frequency or specified
Frequencies of Interest do not exceed the maximum frequency for the simulation (as defined by the
FDTD limitation of 10 cells/wavelength).

• The Simulation Name edit field in the New Simulation Window now features auto-complete for pre-
viously entered names.

• Additional result types are now plotted on a single graph when “View (Default)” is chosen for mul-
tiply selected results. Specifically, plotting Far Zone and RCS results should now behave more as
expected.

• Wheel mouse no longer inappropriately activates pull-down comboboxes.

• Component and Sensor validity behavior has been changed so that they are not always simply valid
when they are disabled.

• Incident Amplitudes reporting in the External Excitation Editor has been reformatted for better dis-
play.

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• Added more information to a diagnostic message that reports when there is difficultly writing data
during a simulation. The previous message was not clear that it was for informational purposes only
and that data integrity was not compromised.

• The tooltip for the Project node in the Project Tree now shows the full path to the project.
• The sinusoidal waveform name has been changed from “Ramped Sinusoid” to “Sinusoid” since the
ramping part is generally inconsequential and generated confusion.

• Changed error message when grid bounds are invalid to be more specific about why there is an
error.

• Shortcut Groups are now created at the selected level of the the Groups tree instead of always being
created at the top-level.

Scripting

• Fixed problem where CadImport.exportCad() was failing improperly with the message “Invalid As-
sembly to import into”.

• Fixed issue where calling ResultScalingManager::setScalingFactor() or ResultScalingMan-

ager::getScalingFactor() would result in an error message.

• Modified App.saveCurrentProject(), and added App.saveCurrentProjectAs() and

Project.saveCurrentProjectCopyAs() to match the behavior provided by the UI for “File→Save”,
“File→Save As...” and “File→Save Copy As...”.

• Added ResultTopology.getScaleResults() and ResultTopology.setScaleResults().

• Added FarZoneUtils.rotateAndInterpolateEFields() and
FarZoneUtils.exportRotatedGainAndPhaseToUANFile().

• Removed ResultQuery.SurfaceCurrentSensor as a documented Sensor type since it is not avail-

able.

• Fixed issue where Booleans created through scripting did not result in the same object as when
created through the UI in some cases when one of the source objects had a non-default working
coordinate system.

• Added missing method and attribute documentation for Color.

• Fixed problem that could result in the application exiting unexpectedly when using SweepPath.
• Fixed scripts/primitives/helix.xmacro to not have units for “Start Direction” and “Wire
Normal Direction”.

Fixes

• Fixed incorrect reporting of time stepping start time in project.diag file.

• Fixed an issue where simulations run on CPU may go unstable when using more than 4 threads.
• Fixed problem where far zone data was missing at the Z=0 plane for simulations where the lower
Z-boundary was PEC.

• Resolved problem where conduction current for anisotropic electric materials with non-zero conduc-
tivity may have been incorrect.

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• Corrected computation of port voltage (polarity) for a Diode.

• Fixed issue where XFsolver would exit unexpectedly for a simulation using the static solver and a
maximum timestep setting of one.

• Added checking for intrinsic capacitance and inductance for voltage sources to ensure that appro-
priate values are always being used.

• Fixed problem where dissipated power computations could be incorrect in certain situations when
XACT is enabled for lossy dielectrics.

• Resolved issue where using XACT with XStream

R
could give different results than running the
same simulation on CPU, especially when objects meshed with XACT are close the the boundary.

• Fixed problem with unexpected data in volume sensor * geom.bin and * info.bin files.
• Fixed an issue where the application could exit unexpectedly when viewing a slice of the mesh if
there was a meshed object very close the edge of the simulation space.

• Fixed a problem where the relative permittivity of a material could be set to “inf” but then a simulation
using that material would go unstable. Now the material will become invalid if “inf” is specified.

• Fixed incorrect computation of Elevation and Azimuth polarizations of far zone data.
• Restored .mesh file import to pre-7.1 performance (7.1.0.x imports were very slow compared to
previous versions).

• Fixed issue where adding a Frequency of Interest through scripting would cause a recursive repaint
when subsequently going to the Frequencies of Interest tab in the Create Simulation window.

• Fixed problem where the tooltip for an Anchor Point was not converting coordinates for the selected
display units.

• Resolved an issue where viewing results of a tiny surface sensor, small enough so that it has no
mesh edges at all associated with it, caused an “unexpected condition” warning message.

• Fixed an issue where in rare circumstances an invalidity message stating that all “Ports must be
contained within the grid” even when this was already true.

• When creating a simulation fails completely, files that had already been written are now properly
cleaned up (they were previously left behind).

• Fixed issue where the name entered in the editor when creating a Sheet Body from Faces was
ignored.

• Fixed problem where text could be cut off in Meshing Parameters editors.
• Fixed issue where some graph color changes were not reverted upon undo.
• Fixed a problem where changes while editing project properties (such as Project Notes) would be
discarded whenever a simulation was running and a graph of data from that simulation was being
displayed whenever the graph updated.

• Fixed issue where with some window themes, selecting an object in the Geometry View would
apparently not select that object in the Project Tree. In actuality, it was selected in the tree but the
windowing theme was rendering the selection differently since the Project Tree did not have keyboard
focus. Now highlighted text in the Project Tree is always displayed as though that window has focus.

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• Net Component Loss and Dissipated Power (total and per material) are now available for external
excitation simulations when the simulation option “Compute Dissipated Power” is checked.

• Fixed issue where the display of the data bounding box for sensor data did not obey the “Output
Visibility” setting; instead it was always visible.

• Resolved problem where the alpha channel of a material’s color was being reset when it color was
re-edited.

• Resolved issue where a progress dialog would always briefly pop up when selecting the “Chop”
operation when creating a Boolean.

• When a plot is made invisible, its entry in the legend is now removed as well.
• Fixed a case where under rare circumstances, viewing Normal mesh edges could cause the appli-
cation to exit unexpectedly.

• Corrected error message about running simulations when closing XFdtd when a simulation was not
actually running.

7.1.0.x

7.1.0.5

Note: 7.1.0.5 is the initial public release of the 7.1.0.x series

New Features

• The major feature added in this version is Accurate Cell Technology (XACT), which improves sim-
ulation speed and accuracy by representing geometric features at sub-cell resolution in the mesh.
See the XFdtd Reference Manual for details.

• Invalid Features in a Modeling Sequence now indicate they are invalid and cause the Modeling
Sequence and therefore the Model to be invalid when the feature cannot be applied properly. This
change means that problems in Models will be much easier to locate and parameter sweeps that
sweep through values that cause such an invalidity will not be quietly ignored.

• Transform Entity operations (Scale, Translate, Rotate, Shear and Reflect) are now Modeling Se-
quence features of Parts. Previously, one would need to Flatten a modeling sequence before being
able to apply a transformation and that transformation wasn’t parameterizable. This is no longer the
case. Additionally, the transforms can be applied to Assemblies.

• The executables that comprise XFdtd have been renamed. This affects the commands that one
uses to start XFdtd from the command line (the Windows Start Menu is unaffected). To start the
XFdtd user interface, use the command xfui from the appropriate platform bin directory. To start
the calculation engine use, use the command xfsolver.

• xfsolver now uses CPML for its PML boundary condition instead of UPML. This primarily resolves
issues with long simulation initialization times (and in rare cases a hang), and also allows dispersive
materials to touch the outer boundary.

• For Linux, improved the xfsolver launch script to be able to start the MPI version of xfsolver. Now this
script should always be used to start xfsolver from the command line on Linux instead of running the

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executable directly. In addition to the command line options excepted by the executable, the launch
script also understands the -ax8 option to use Legacy XStream R
(Acceleware version 8) and the
-hpmpi option to use the HPMPI version of xfsolver.
• Added an epoxy dielectric layer to ODB++ Import to fill in space between boards where traces do
not exist.

• Added ability to perform Far Zone postprocessing-only with the calculation engine with the
-farzoneonly command line option. Additionally, when post-processing Far Zone from the
UI, the user will have the option of performing the post-processing synchronously in the UI,
asynchronously using the engine, or manually using the engine.

• Some Boolean operations are now available from the context menu when selecting more than two
Parts. For example, one can now select several Parts, right-click, select “Boolean” and then “Union”
in order to easily union together several objects.

• Added ability to scale B-Field steady-state output the same as H-Field output.
• Added new output types “Realized Gain” and “Directivity” for far zone results.
• The solid modeler has been upgraded to ACIS R20sp3, which is now the default format when saving
and exporting geometry.

• XStream
R
now fully supports PMC outer boundaries (the use of PMC was previously restricted to
the XStream
R
Acceleware solution).

Usability/Performance Improvements

• Picking Tool behavior has been modified to no longer automatically attach the picked item (plane,
direction, vertex) to the geometry it references. To attach the picked item, press ‘a’ before picking
(see the tool tip that pops up while the Pick Tool is active). This will cause the cursor to change to a
pointer with a thumb tack, indicating that the picked item will be attached to the geometry. To restore
the previous behavior (of automatically attaching), see the “Compatibility” tab in the Application
Preferences.

• Added simplified Grid settings controls in the Grid Editor and in Gridding Properties editors. The
simplified, or “Basic”, controls are now the default. To use the previous controls, use “Advanced
Mode” in the Grid Editor or Gridding Properties.

• Moved the location of some context menu items to make the menu smaller and more consistent.
Some of the changes: Create Pattern moved to the Modify submenu; Group into Assembly moved
up. Gridding and Meshing menu items grouped together into a submenu.

• Added context menu item in entry fields to insert units and parameters from the Parameter List.
• Select-through functionality in the view was moved to the center mouse button. Previously, one
needed to “left click, then right click”, which was non-standard and confusing.

• Added ability to not scale vectors and points with their values when viewing fields. This feature is
available in the new “Scale Points” and “Scale Vectors” checkboxes on the Setup tab in the Field
Viewer. Far Zone data has a similar new feature, “Scale Radius”, which when disabled will display
field values on a sphere rather than scaling the radius at which the values are rendered. By default,
these options are enable to maintain the same behavior as previous versions.

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• Modified behavior of automatic scale settings in the Field Viewer for quantities shown in dB so that
it no longer will have a range of [-300,0], but generally [-70,0]. The default color settings also now
generate colors in 10 dB increments for this default range.

• Relaxed sensitivity of edge and vertex selection. The selection was previously very sensitive to
mouse location and movement, resulting in the inability to either select or drag them as one would
expect. Feedback was that sometimes it worked, and sometimes it didn’t; now it should always
work.

• The XFdtd UI and simulation engine now properly handle UNICODE characters in all cases except
in Plots and in the View, where they will appear as rectangles (this will be addressed in a future
release). Previously, there were issues with type UNICODE characters in a few fields in the UI and
with UNICODE characters in project directory path and file names.

• Resolved issue in the Sketcher where snapping to edges and vertices did not result in exact place-
ment. This led to many “open profile” and incorrect trimming problems.

• The “Face Normals” tool was renamed to “Align Directions” and the “Match Faces (Point & Normal)”
was renamed to “Match Points & Directions” in order to more clearly describe their actions.

• The “3-D” View Mode in the Field Viewer has been renamed “3-D Offset” to help avoid confusion.
The Size Factor is also now applied to the offset for this mode.

• Renamed “Load Project” to “Open Project” and added “Close Project” to be consistent with the
terminology of other tools. “Close” unloads the current project and loads an “Empty Project” into the
application, whereas “New Project” unloads the current project and loads a new project using the
default template into the application.

• When licensed using a license server, the application no longer exits unexpectedly if connection to
the license server is lost. The application will pause with a message box until the connection is
reestablished or terminated by the user by dismissing the dialog.

• The performance of material visibility changes has been improved, especially for imported
mesh/voxel data.

• Materials are now created with a unique color when possible. The previous behavior of always
using the same default color as defined in the Application Preferences can be set in the Application
Preferences Modeling Tab under Default Appearances, Material.

• Added a button to force a refresh of calculation engine output from the filesystem. This is useful when
running simulations at the command line or remotely over a shared file system, i.e. not through the
Simulation Queue within the application.

• The Application Preference “Clear Results on Project Load” now defaults to being checked based
on user feedback.

• Added Application Preference for the color of the Construction Grid.

• Added Application Preference for the color of grid lines in planar mesh displays where there is no
material defined (freespace).

• The project Open and Save dialogs now show only directories.
• Added “Select All Faces” button and text indicator of the number of faces picked when creating a
sheet body from an existing part. Also added an text statement of what Model is selected when

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performing Model selection for Modify operations.

• Improved progress reporting for ODB++ Import.

• ODB++ Import improved to handle setting and restoring the New Part Modeling Unit properly, and
also where to find this setting in the Application Preferences.

• Allow nets in ODB++ to be broken into multiple parts on import according to layer.
• No longer show frequency spectrum results for simulations excited with a sinusoid, which was caus-
ing confusion. For the minority of situations where this data is useful, this data is still available
through the scripting API.

• The “Set Only This Material Visible” context menu item for materials now works when multiple ma-
terials are selected (and says “Set Only Selected Material Visible”).

• The “View” context menu item for the Mesh node in the Project Tree has been replaced with a
checkbox to make its use consistent with its behavior.

• Dramtically improved performance of Mesh Slice rendering when Normal edges are turned on.
• Results that are loaded in the Field Viewer are now automatically unloaded if the project they came
from is unlisted in the Results Browser. This resolves an issue where the result selection dropdown
box in the Field Viewer would have an invalid entry in such situations.

• The pulsewidth for projects imported from XFdtd v6 is now properly adjusted for use in version 7
instead of being used verbatim. In the case where a Gaussian waveform with a pulsewidth of 32 is
imported, a Broadband Pulse will be used in version 7 instead, which is the intent of the imported
waveform.

• The DFT Sampling Interval entry field was artificially limiting the interval to 1024. This limit has been
raised to 1M.

• The waveform that was used for a simulation is now reported in the Simulation Summary.
• The ‘XFdtd (Direct X)’ shortcut in the start menu was removed since it was causing confusion among
users and is rarely ever needed.

• A Part now becomes invalid if its bounding box is empty.

• Added text to the Scale Bar in the Field Viewer to indicate what quantity and units are being dis-
played.

• Project validity now detects when two or more components are meshed onto the same cell edge.
• Added detection and loading of an XFdtd project that is inside a folder of the same name. This
is usually the result of unzipping a zipped project, since most zip utilities automaticaly create a
subfolder with the base name of the zipfile and place the contents of the zipfile in there. For example,
zipping a project MyProject.xf results in MyProject.xf.zip. Unzipping this file by default will
create MyProject.xf/MyProject.xf.

• When editing, Cancel buttons throughout the application are now always enabled; this makes their
behavior consistent with most other applications.

• Selection of Display Units in the Project Properties when “Show All Units” is not checked is modified
to include only units most useful for EM simulations.

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• Added units “uW”, “nW”, “mV/m”, “dB(mV/m)”, “uV/m” and “dB(uV/m)”

• Changed the Pick Position tool’s tooltip to be more accurate about what can be picked.
• Added tooltips to all fields in the Create Line Graph dialog to clarify the use of each field.
• Added explanatory note to the Default Appearances tabs in the Application Preferences.
• Added number of manual fixed points and grid regions that are defined to the appropriate tab text in
the Grid Editor.

• The Remesh Now item in the Mesh node’s context menu is now always enabled when the mesh
is out-of-date to allow the user to force the entire mesh to be recomputed instead of allowing in-
cremental meshing to occur automatically. Previously, this item was enabled only when “Automatic
Remeshing” was not selected.

• Provide a warning message when a completed simulation is queued to run again.

• Added a filter in the Import CAD dialog to show only Pro/E Assembly files. This is useful for large
models where there are many parts and assemblies mixed together.

• Renamed the “New Simulation” button in the Simulations Window to “Create Simulation” for consis-
tency with the title of the window that opens when this button is clicked.

• Modified Smith chart markers to show x − yj instead of x + −yj .

• Fixed labels for Impedance plots created through Create Line Graph to be more explicit rather than
just being “Resistance”.

• Create Line Graph now allows adding plots to empty graphs.

• Create Line Graph now puts all selected S-Parameter or Impedance results on the same graph
rather than putting each in its own graph.

• Added ability to specify relative dB on 1-D graphs.

• Changed all uses of the term “Fixed Planes” to “Fixed Points” to provide consistency across the
application.

• Corrected order when tabbing through the entry fields of Sensor Definitions.
• Rendering of components in the mesh representation now display the component along the whole
edge. Previously, there was a small gap between the representation of the component and the next
mesh edge, which caused concern that the component was not connected (even though it was).

• The Scale Bar Properties for the results shown in the Geometry View now as a “Default” button to
reset the color settings to their default values.

• Improved performance of shutting down XFdtd. In some cases, XFdtd would continue running for a
while after the UI disappeared.

Scripting

• Added Project.updateMesh() to force the entire mesh to be recomputed instead of allowing incre-
mental meshing to occur automatically. This is equivalent to the “Remesh Now” item in the context
menu of the “Mesh” node in the Project Tree.

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• Added Project.setAutoUpdateMesh(bool) and Project.getAutoUpdateMesh() to set and query auto-

matically updating the mesh when needed. This is equivalent to the “Automatic Remeshing” check-
box in the context menu of the “Mesh” node in the Project Tree.

• Added ThickenSheet.
• Add Recipe.flatten() to provide the ability to flatten a Modeling Sequence, as available in the UI.
• SmithGraphMarker and PolarGraphMarker were documented but not available in the scripting inter-
face.

• Fixed issue where LinearGraphAxis.setUnit() and CommonGraphAxis.setUnit() were overloaded and

therefore could not be disambiguated when used with UnitClass.Dimensionality. New methods .se-
tUnitClass() where added to these classes to provide that functionality.

• Added DataSource.getDataSetIds()
• Fixed issue where SensorDataDefinitionList::getSensorDataDefinition() did not return an object that
allowed subclass-appropriate methods to be called.

• Fixed issue where LinearGraphAxis.setUnit() and CommonGraphAxis.setUnit() could not be called

with UnitClass.Dimensionality. In each of these classes, a new method, .setUnitClass() was added
for this purpose.

• Added scripting API for Part tranformations: Scale, Translate, Rotate, Reflect and Shear.
• Added script SetTissuesForVariPoseMan.xmacro to the scripts library. After loading a .mmf
file from VariPose
R
, this script can be used to automatically setup the electric parameters of all the
tissues.

• Added an optional pass-parameter to Part.publishSAT() to specify the ACIS version with which to
save the file.

• Added PartFacesSensorGeometry.setAllFaceIdsOnPart() to tell the sensor to collect on all faces of

the geometry.

• Added Model.getNumberOfLumps() and Model.getLumps(), the latter of which can be used to to

separate a Part into muliple Parts (as the “Separate” context menu item on a Model does).

Fixes

• Fixed issue where simulations using Total/Scattered Field formulation with Periodic Boundary Con-
ditions would fail with a message about not being able to compute far zone information, even though
far zone should not have been computed.

• Resolved issue in the simulation engine where in some cases XStream

R
simulations would not fall
back to CPU when they should have.

• Fixed an issue where postprocessing would not be performed if XStream

R
was used and the num-
ber of threads specified by the user was more than the number licensed. This resulted in what
appeared to be a successful simulation, just with missing results.

• Fixed an issue where RCS transient far zone was incorrect when using more than one thread and
XStream
R
.

• Fixed issue where a warning message was printed from the engine N times when -proc N was
used.

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• Fixed issue where a simulation using an External Excitation and a Feed would excite both of these
sources even when set to use only the External Excitation.

• Resolved issue where very small XStream

R
simulations may have become unstable when using
multiple GPUs.

• Addressed an issue where convergence might not be triggered for simulations with a very wide
broadband pulse. This resulted in the simulation running to the maximum specified timestep with
0% convergence.

• Improved performance of writing transient far zone files. This post-processing step when running
simulations was taking much longer than it should have.

• Fixed an issue where rerunning a simulation did not properly reset the simulation status files, which
in some cases could make it impossible for the UI to properly display results from that simulation.

• Corrected computation of max HAC E-Field value, which was using Ex in place of Ey in the formula-
tion.

• Resolved an issue where sensors of the same type with names that were not unique when compared
case-insensitively (such as “Port XY” and “Port xy”) caused the results for those sensors to be written
incorrectly and therefore displayed incorrectly.

• Resolved issue where XFsolver would crash when more than 20 layers of PML was being used with
XStream R
. Now, a warning message will be printed to the effect that more than 20 layers of PML
is not support and XFsolver will attempt to fall back to the next supported computational method for
the simulation.

• Fixed XFsolver crash and/or bad when performing SAR postprocessing for individual tissue types.
• Fixed several issues related to results updating that resulted in invalid plots or application crashes.
• Fixed issue where an corrupt mesh file that was corrupt caused the application to fail upon project
load.

• Resolved issue where the Loft operation did not properly validate the Smoothness parameter.
• Resolved issue where scaling an imported object by -1 caused the application to abort.
• Fixed issue where the export of a single far zone slice to a UAN file caused an unhandled exception.
• Fixed grid generation algorithm to properly handle situation where a Grid Region having a bounds
smaller than the smallest allowed cell size resulted in an infinite loop. In this situation, the grid region
that is too small will be handled as if it were at least as large as the minimum cell size. (This condition
is very rare.)

• Fixed a situation where the grid generation algorithm could enter an infinite loop if conditions existed
that required that a grid region to be moved slightly. This condition is now detected and the grid is
set invalid instead. (This condition is very rare.)

• FFT and DFT data are now always normalized using the simulation timestep. This means that
now that the magnitude of FFT and DFT data can be compared across simulation with different
timesteps. Since such data is usually viewed in relative terms, this is not a change that most users
should notice.

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7.1.0.5 397

• Resolved an issue where .mesh files imported from XFdtd 6 would sometimes not have the correct
cell size.

• Corrected SAR relative dB conversion to use 10log10() instead of 20log10.

• Fixed an issue where if a parameter name contained unicode, the parameter list would not be re-
stored properly when reloading a project.

• Fixed issue where an Elliptical pattern in a saved project was not reapplied when the project was
reloaded.

• Material colors are now exported with the object when exported to a CAD format.
• Import of Pro/E CAD models no longer includes suppressed parts when imported. Including them
produced unexpected results.

• Fixed a problem when saving cached geometry with the project that sometimes resulted in geometry
not reappearing when the project was reloaded.

• Features that operate on multiple lumps no longer leave a partial model if the feature does not
succeed on at least one lump (such as Thicken Sheet). The Model now becomes invalid instead.

• Using the Lock Constraint on a vertex in the sketcher and using “Lock Position” from a vertex’s
context menu now both result in a “Lock Fixed Position” constraint for consistency. Previously, both
methods would properly lock the vertex’s position, but the constraint was handled differently in the
UI.

• Wire bodies, previously ignored, are now properly imported from CAD objects.
• Fixed issue where saving a project on Linux to a filepath with a symbolic link in it prevented the
project from being reloaded properly.

• Corrected issue in UAN file output where the same value of net input power was being used for all
DFT frequencies instead of the correct net input power at each frequency.

• Fixed an issue in scripting that could cause property accessors and method calls on local variables
to unexpectedly stop working in rare cases, typically after removing objects like Parts or Materials
from the Project.

• Resolved issue where SAR results would not load if there was no distance between a SAR sensor
using a manually specified box and the edge of the simulation space.

• Resolved issue where a consituent parts of a Boolean operation would not be valid after saving and
reloading a project.

• Added unit of Magnetic Conductivity (ohms/meter) and fixed units of magnetic conductivity in the
material editor, which was erroneously using electric conductivity units.

• Fixed issue where modeling operations involving Sheet Bodies were not handled correctly if the
operation was created in XFdtd 7.0.2 or before. This resulted in a Model that appeared to be correct
when loaded in a later version of XFdtd but went invalid when further operations were applied to the
Model.

• Corrected the computation of interpolated surface sensor data. In certain situations, this issue re-
sulted in the displayed data being shifted by 1/2 of a Yee cell.

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398 7.1.0.5

• Fixed problem where some unit conversions were occurring at a lower precision, causing rounding
errors when converting back and forth between units. This was most evident when specifying values
in non-metric units.

• Fixed issues where performing a boolean on Part referenced by sensors or circuit components would
result in that Part having two representations in the Project Tree, which then generally resulted in
application failure when further manipulating that Part.

• Fixed issue where non-axis aligned Planar Sensors would not render correctly in certain situations.
• Fixed problem where the timestep would not update immediately after disabling the Custom
Timestep Multiplier in the Project Properties.

• Removed “Separate” context menu item from the main Parts node in the tree, which did nothing.
• Fixed problem where progress went backwards when preparing multiple plots to be shown.
• Fixed situation where deleting Static Voltage Points could cause the Create Simulation Window to
not allow a simulation to be created with the invalidity message “Static solver points must be defined
when no sources is chosen”.

• Fixed issue where the Create Simulation Window did not check to see if edits were in progress
before opening, allowing changes to the project during editing.

• Fixed issue where entering an invalid formula in any field of Marker Properties caused an exception
that produced a warning message about the application possibly becoming unstable.

• Fixed problem where deleting a Waveform Definition while it is open in an editor causes the applica-
tion to abort.

• Fixed issue where the axis of rotation for a Circular/Elliptical pattern was rendered in the wrong
location when the working coordinate system for the Part was not the same as the global coordinate
system.

• Fixed issue where the materialFrequency parameter was created for some, but not all, imports
of XFdtd version 6 files. This resulted in the project being invalid after importing some files (.idm
and .mesh).

• Fixed issues in ODB++ Import where drill extended too far into other layers and where drill were at
incorrect z-locations in some cases.

• Fixed issue in ODB++ Import where the drill pads incorrectly had constant radius throughout all the
layers.

• Fixed missing icons for sensors in libraries.

• Resolved issue of not being able to import DXF file with the file extension .DXF (.dxf did work).
• Fixed issue where the list of Simulations was being being unecessarily refreshed when saving a
project. This resulted in extra project save time for a project with many simulations.

• Fixed issue where a simulation could be created while in the process of editing something. Now, the
user will be asked for the disposition of the edit before opening the Create Simulation dialog.

• Fixed issue where the slider button of the Opacity controls of the Geometry View would sometimes
be hidden under the adjacent spin box.

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7.1.0.5 399

• Fixed the rendering of the axis and root position for Elliptical patterns, which were drawn in the wrong
location in some cases.

• Fixed issue where performing a Boolean Intersection of multiple Parts showed correct preview but
resulted in only one of the Parts being intersected.

• Resolved issue where Booleaning two parts when one is inside a repositioned Assembly resulted in
incorrect geometry.

• Fixed issue where the application crashed when redoing the creation of a Boolean Extrude.
• Fixed problem where right-clicking to bring up the context menu for the Scale Bar in the Field View
caused the context menu for any geometry under the scale bar to be shown.

• Removed UniGraphics and ParaSolid as potential filetypes to Import or Export since XFdtd does not
currently support these formats.

• The Create Sheet Body editor now properly validates when on the “Edit Profile” tab.
• Fixed issue where adding a plot to a Smith chart was not done such that it was undoable.
• Fixed issue where some text in the Application Preferences window was being truncated.
• Resolved issue where the crosshairs in the sketcher did not always follow the mouse.
• Resolved issue where picking tools sometimes did not select the correct geometry when the geom-
etry was oriented and the view was not normal to one of the primary planes.

• Fixed issue where antenna diversity statistics would not be computed when using a Gaussian PDF
in certain situations.

• Resolved issue where circular dependency between working coordinate systems of Parts caused
Parts to be invalid with the message “Object is updating”, with eventual failure of the application
later on. Includes a change that will now not allow the creation of circular dependence of this type
between Parts.

• Fixed issue where Axis and Twist description text was lost between closing and reopening the Spec-
ify Orientation editor (Advanced Mode) when they were referencing other geometry.

• Materials can now be dropped on imported DXF parts.

• Setting volumetric objects, such as imported VariPose
R
meshes, invisible and turning on/off their
bounding box representations now works as expected.

• Pasting multiple items in the Project tree now pastes them in the same order they were copied rather
than in the reverse order.

• Fixed Advanced Convergence Settings to correctly name the Temporal Sampling Interval (which was
incorrectly labeled Spatial Sampling Interval).

• Fixed issue where the Specify Position dialog where in some cases parameters were immediately
converted to values rather than kept as parameters.

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400 7.1.0.5

XFdtd 7.3.0 Reference Manual

Glossary

Anchor Point

Defined by its location within the reference coordinate system. This location along with the offsets
defined by Translations determines where the origin (0,0,0) or the local coordinate system is located
87

Assembly

User-defined groups of geometric objects that are added to the Parts Branch 265

Broadband Calculation

A calculation performed in XFdtd yielding results for a range of frequencies 11

Cell Edge

The edge created when two planes cut a line normal to those planes 323

Circuit Component Definition Editor

Defines the properties associated with discrete components 111

Circuit Components Branch

Organizes discrete circuit components of the active project within the Project Tree 36

Circuit Component

A discrete component which functions as part of a circuit in the geometry 107

Component Tools

Tools used to add discrete components to the XFdtd project 108

Constraints

Restrictions placed on geometric parts that must be satisfied in order to consider the model valid 60

Construction Grid

Controls the spacing and appearance of the visible grid lines in the 2-D sketcher. Changes made
with this tool do not affect the properties of the grid (fixed points, grid regions, target cell sizes, etc.)
61

401
402 GLOSSARY

Convergence

A condition met in a broadband calculation when all electromagnetic energy has dissipated to es-
sentially zero 212

Definitions Branch

Stores definitions that can be applied to or shared with other objects within the active project, located
in the Project Tree 37

Discrete Source

A voltage or current source whose generated electric field is modified by the addition of an input
waveform 108

Error Icon

Indicates when an invalid definition is created within a project 43

Excitation

A source applied to the project defined as a discrete source, incident plane wave, or Gaussian beam
107

External Excitations Branch

Organizes the external excitations applied to the active project within the Project Tree 36

Extrude

A geometry operation used to sweep a face in the normal direction from its center 301

FDTD Branch

Stores definitions associated with the outer boundaries of the active project, including the grid and
mesh, within the Project Tree 38

FDTD

Finite-Difference Time-Domain: A method used to calculate elecromagnetic field values in the time
domain 5

Far Zone Sensor

A sensor located at theoretical infinite distance from the simulation geometry 193

Far Zone

The region at theoretical infinite distance from the geometry 193

Field Editing Toolbar

Used to configure the properties of the calculation results display 251

Field Reader Tool

Used to identify field values in the calculation results display 249

Field Sequence

A a movie of individual field snapshots for each slice of the geometry over a time interval 245

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GLOSSARY 403

Field Snapshot

A display of near-zone fields at a specific step in time 245

Fixed Point

A point on an axis at which a plane, in the other two axes, exists 324

Free Space Material

A material with relative permittivities and permeabilities set to one and conductivities set to zero 94

Frequency Range of Interest

Defines the frequency range over which the user is interested in obtaining results 21

Function Library

A library containing function and class definitions that are always available within the scripting engine
267

GUI (Graphical User Interface)

The XFdtd display screen 13

Gaussian Beam Editor

Defines the properties of a Gaussian beam excitation 138

Gaussian Beam

An incident electric field that has a two-dimensional, radially-symmetric Gaussian distribution in

planes normal to the incident direction, converging to maximum intensity at the focus point 138

Geometry Tools

Tools used to create and edit various aspects of the project geometry 45

Geometry Workspace Window

The main project viewing area where users add and edit the fundamental elements of a project 41

Global Coordinate System

The default orientation and location of all objects in the project; defined in terms of X , Y and Z 80

Global Triad

The set of orientation vectors representing the Global Coordinate System 80

Graphs Branch

Organizes the graphical output associated with data collected during a calculation within the Project
Tree 39

Grid Line

A plane viewed edge-on 324

Grid Region

A region within the global FDTD grid, bounded by planes, with a specified cell size 160

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404 GLOSSARY

Grid Tools

Tools used to assign general and customizable definitions to the FDTD grid 153

Gridding Properties Editor

Defines grid regions and fixed points associated with an individual object 158

Grid

A block of FDTD cells without applied materials 8

Groups Branch

Organizes the objects of an active project in user-defined and auto-generated groups within the
Project Tree 39

Hearing Aid Compatibility (HAC) Sensor

Saves electric and magnetic field data relevant to a hearing aid on a 5cm by 5cm rectangle 192

Libraries Workspace Window

Allows users to create libraries and save collections of project-independent objects grouped by cat-
egory 42

Library

A collection of objects grouped by category for easy reference 269

Local Coordinate System

Displays adjustments from the Reference Cooordinate System during an editing session; defined in
terms of U 0 , V 0 and W 0 80

Macro

A script containing global-scoped code that is only executed on demand 267

Material Editor

Defines materials to be applied to objects in an FDTD simulation 93

Material

A definition applied to the project geometry that defines each part as electric, magnetic or free space
93

Maximum Cell Step Factor

The adjacent cell size ratio that cannot be exceeded within the grid 327

Mesh Object

A subsection of the XFdtd grid including a collection of edges with applied materials 74

Meshing Properties Editor

Assigns the properties of the mesh for individual objects 163

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GLOSSARY 405

Meshing

The act of assigning materials to each cell edge 323

Mesh

A block of FDTD cells with applied materials 8

Minimum Distance

The minimum distance between fixed points 325

Near Field Sensor

Saves time-domain and/or frequency-domain near zone field quantities at specific points within the
calculation space 182

Near Zone

A block of FDTD cells with applied materials 8

Orientation Triad

The set of orientation vectors representing the Local Coordinate System 80

Origin

The center of the Orientation Triad 80

Outer Boundary Editor

Defines the properties of the Outer Boundary 177

Outer Boundary

The outer edge of the XFdtd grid 177

Parameter Sweep

Defines the values used for a particular parameter when the simulation is created. 204

Parameters Workspace Window

Allows users to create, edit and delete parameters that are referenced universally throughout the
project 42

Parameter

A global variable or function used to define properties or run parameter sweeps, stored in the Pa-
rameters Workspace Window 265

Parts Branch

Organizes the physical geometry of the active project within the Project Tree 34

Parts List

A dialog window used to view, define and organize characteristics of geometric parts 35

Perfect Conductor

An electrical or magnetic conductor with no resistivity, or whose field is defined as zero 8

XFdtd 7.3.0 Reference Manual

406 GLOSSARY

Plane Wave Editor

Defines the properties of a plane wave excitation 138

Plane Wave

A source assumed to be infinitely far away so that the constant field surfaces are planar and normal
to the direction of propagation 138

Port Sensor

Saves near-zone voltage and current data at the location of a circuit component 196

Post-Processing

A computation performed after the calculation engine run is finished which typically saves results to
disk 262

Project Properties Editor

Defines the default display units, custom timestep multiplier, and new part modeling units in the
active XFdtd project 21

Project Tree

A set of categorized branches used to display and organize the contents of the active XFdtd project
20

QtScript

The language used to write Scripts in XFdtd 268

Reference Coordinate System

The orientation and location of objects within their native assembly; defined in terms of U , V and
W 80
Results Workspace Window

Stores all of the results available for a selected project 41

Revolve

A geometry operation used to sweep a profile in a circular path 301

Scale Bar

Displays colors to distinguish between the ranges within the calculated result values 248

Scripting Workspace Window

Allows users to create, edit, manage and execute user-defined scripts 42

Scripts Branch

Stores user-defined scripts within the Project Tree 38

Script

A block of QtScript used to quickly automate tasks that could otherwise be done through the XFdtd
GUI 267

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GLOSSARY 407

Sensor Tools

Tools used to define sensors and the data they collect 182

Sensors Branch

Organizes the sensors defined in an active project within the Project Tree 37

Sensors

Objects that save data during a simulation 181

Shortcut Group

Groups of objects that are added and organized by the user under the Groups Branch 265

Simulations Workspace Window

The main interface used to define simulations to send to the calculation engine 41

Single-Frequency Calculation

A calculation performed in XFdtd yielding results for a single frequency 11

Snapping Tool

Facilitates the exact placement of vertices on the sketching plane 60

Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) Sensor

Used to measure the interaction of electromagnetic fields with human tissue 196

Static Voltage Point Branch

Organizes the static voltage points defined in an active project within the Project Tree 37

Steady State

The point in time when near-zone calculation results show that all transients have died down and the
only variation left is sinusoidal 214

Steady-State Calculation

See Single-Frequency Calculation 11

System Sensor

Automatically saves simulation data not applicable to other sensors 195

Target Cell Size

The maximum cell size within a grid region 327

Timestep

The amount of time required for the electromagnetic field to travel from one cell to the next 6

Transient Calculation

See Broadband Calculation 11

XFdtd 7.3.0 Reference Manual

408 GLOSSARY

Transition Region

A region between a grid region and the global grid, containing the fewest number of cells required to
progressively reach the desired cell size 327

View Tools

Tools used to manipulate the view of the simulation space 45

Voxel

A volumetric pixel point in space with specific volume characteristics 66

Waveform Editor

Used to edit waveforms to inject energy into the space for an FDTD simulation. 140

Waveform

Determines the time variation of an excitation; defined as a pulse, a sinusoidal source, or user-
defined 140

Waveguide Tools

Tools used to add waveguides to the XFdtd project 119

XFdtd

A three-dimensional full-wave electromagnetic solver based on the Finite-Difference Time-Domain

method 1

XStream

A hardware acceleration option available for XFdtd in the form of a graphics card 224

Yee Cell

The cell used as the basis for FDTD calculations 6

XFsolver

A calculation engine, separate from the XFdtd GUI, which performs an FDTD calculation 201

XFdtd 7.3.0 Reference Manual

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[10] S. Ramo, J. Whinnery, and T. Van Duzer, Fields and Waves in Communication Electronics. Wiley,
1994.

[11] R. E. Collin, Foundations for Microwave Engineering. New York: Wiley-IEEE P, 2000. Section 6.7.

[12] B. Lax and K. J. Button, Microwave Ferrites and Ferrimagnetics. McGraw-Hill, 1962. Sections 4.1,
4.2.

[13] F. Kung and H. T. Chuah, “A finite-difference time-domain (fdtd) software for simulation of printed
circuit board (pcb) assembly,” Progress in Electromagnetic Research, PIER 50, vol. Elsevier book
series, pp. 299–335, 2005.

[14] J. D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics. Wiley, 1999.

[15] C. A. Balanis, Advanced Engineering Electromagnetics. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1989.

409
410 BIBLIOGRAPHY

[16] D. F. Williams and R. B. Marks, “A general waveguide circuit theory,” J. Res. Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol,
vol. 97, pp. 533–562, 1992.

[17] D. F. Williams and B. K. Alpert, “Causality and waveguide circuit theory,” IEEE Tr Microwave Theory
and Techniques, vol. 49, pp. 615–623, 2001.

[18] K.-L. Wong, Y.-W. Chi, and S.-Y. Tu, “Internal multiband printed folded slot antenna for mobile phone
application,” Microwave and Optical Tech. Lett., vol. 49, pp. 1833–1837, 2007.

XFdtd 7.3.0 Reference Manual

Index

.ssout, 340 Axis for Rotation and Twist Tool, Orientation Tab, 83
.uan, 351 Axis for Rotation Tool, Orientation Tab, 83
2-D Plots, Results, 235 Axis Properties, Plots, 239
2-D Sketches, Creating, 59 Axis, Orientation Tab, 88
2-Point Arc Tool, 287
2-Point Circle Tool, 288 B-field (B), 3-D Results, 246
3-D Field Displays, Results, 245 Basic Mode, Orientation Tab, 80
3-D Field Displays, Viewing, 248 Blend Edges Modification, 310
3-D Near-Field Results, 245 Boolean Operations, 315
3-Point Arc Tool, 287 Boundaries, Specifying, 156
3-Point Circle Tool, 287 Boundary Conditions, Defining, 177
Bounding Box Visibility, Toggling, 55
Absorbing Outer Boundaries, 178 Broadband Calculation, Overview, 11
Accurate Cell Technolog, 168 Broadband Waveform, 141
Advanced Mode, Orientation Tab, 85 Broadband, Far Zone Results, 247
Align Directions Tool, Orientation Tab, 84 Broadband, Far Zone Sensors, 195
Align Tools, Orientation Tab, 84
Alignment Tools, Orientation Tab, 82 CAD files, Importing, 63
Anchor Point, Capabilities, 88 CAD Files, Modifying, 65
Anchor Point, Orientation Tab, 87 Calculations, Accelerating with Hardware Card, 224
Angle Constraint Tool, 294 Calculations, Estimating Computer Resources, 223
Anisotropic (Material), 100 Calculations, Guidelines, 222
Antenna Diversity Settings, 257 Calculations, Instability, 225
Antenna Diversity, Calculating, 260 Calculations, Monitoring Progress, 225
Application Menu Bar and Toolbar, 20 Calculations, MPI, 223
Application Preferences, 24 Calculations, Multi-Threaded, 223
Arc Center, 2 Points Tool, 287 Cartesian Plots, 235
Arc Tools, 286 Cell Size, 154
Assembly, Creating, 34 Cell Size, Choosing, 328
Automatic Fixed Points, 161 Cells, Overview, 323
Automatic Grid Regions, 160 Chamfer Edges Modification, 309
Automatic Meshing, 164 Choose Source, Simulations, 202
Automatic Remeshing, 55 Chop, Boolean Operations, 315
Automatic Subregion, SAR Calculation, 199 Circle Center, Radius Tool, 287
Automatic Waveform, 141 Circle Tools, 287
Average Power Density (SAV), 3-D Results, 246 Circuit Component Definition Editor, 111
Averaged SAR Calculation, 198 Circuit Components, 108
Axial Ratio, Far Zone Results, 247 Circular Patterns, Creating, 317

411
412 INDEX

Collinear Constraint Tool, 291 Electric Materials, 95

Command Line Options for Running XFsolver, 217 Electrical Meshing, 164
Complex Permittivity, 101 Ellipse Tool, 288
Component Loss, Numerical Results, 232 Elliptical Patterns, Creating, 317
Component Tools, 108 Equal Distance Constraint Tool, 296
Computer Resources for Calculations, 223 Equal Length Constraint Tool, 295
Concentric Constraint Tool, 293 Equal Radius Constraint Tool, 296
Conduction Current Magnitude (Jc), 3-D Results, Error Message Icon, 43
246 Existing Parts Boolean Operation, 315
Cone, Creating, 275 Export, 21
Connections, Circuit Components, 109 Exporting Graphical Data, 237
Constraints, Geometry, 60 Extrude Boolean Operation, 315
Construction Grid, 61 Extrude Operation, 301
Convergence Criteria, 212
Coordinate System Tab, Far Zone Coordinate Sys- Far Zone Data, 345
tem Tab, 3-D Results, 256 Far Zone Results, 3-D, 247
Copy Cross Section Edges Tool, 290 Far Zone Sensors, 193
Create Graph Dialog, 236 Far Zone Transformations, 194
Creating Simulations, 217 FDTD Method, 5
Cross Polarization Discrimination, 257 Feeds, Defining, 115
Cross Sections, Drawing, 59 Feeds, Multiple, 115
Crosshair Marker, Plots, 242 Field Control Panel, 3-D Results, 245
Cuboid, Creating, 276 Field Displays, Properties, 252
Custom Timestep Multiplier, 23 Field Displays, Viewing, 248
Cut Off End Operation, 309 Field Editing Toolbar, 251
Cutplanes, Mesh, 51 Field Reader Tool, 249
Cutting Plane, 49 Field Sequence, Playing, 255
Cylinder, Creating, 277 Field Type (Results Filter), 231
Fillet Vertex Tool, 289
Debye/Drude Material, 97 Fixed Points for Objects, 161
Degradation Level, 173 Fixed Points Tab, Grid Tools, 156
Diagonally Anisotropic Material, 100 Fixed Points, Overview, 324
Diodes, Defining, 117 Flatline Detection, 214
Direction Picking Tools, Orientation Tab, 82 Flatten Operation, 320
Discrete Source, Using in Simulation, 203 Free Space Material, 94
Display Themes, 26 Frequencies of Interest, Simulations, 206
Display Units, 22 Frequency Range of Interest, 22
Dissipated Power, Computing, 206 Frequency Values, 350
Distance Constraint Tool, 294 Frustum, Creating, 278
Distance Equal Constraint Tool, 296 Full Pattern Results, 258
Diversity Tab, 3-D Results, 260 Function Scripts, 269
Domain (Results Filter), 231
Draft Modeling Operations, 304 Gain, Far Zone Results, 247
Dual Meshing, 164 Gap Modeling Operations, 307
Gaussian Beam Excitations, Defining, 139
E-Field (E), 3-D Results, 246 Gaussian Beam, Using in Simulation, 203
E-Field (E), Far Zone Results, 247 Gaussian Derivative Waveform, 143
Edit Cross Section Tab, 58 Gaussian Waveform, 142

XFdtd 7.3.0 Reference Manual

INDEX 413

Geometric Parts, Creating, 56 Isotropic Materials, 95

Geometric Parts, Naming, 59 Iteration Criteria, 211
Geometry Positioning, 79
Geometry Tools, 56 Legend Visible, Plots, 239
Geometry Workspace Window, Overview of, 45 Length Equal Constraint Tool, 295
Geometry.input, 347 Liao Outer Boundary, 178
Global Coordinate System, 80 Libraries Workspace Window, 270
Global Parameters, 266 Libraries, Creating and Defining, 270
Global Triad, 80 Limits Tab, Grid Tools, 157
Graph Properties, 239 Line Style, Graphs, 240
Grid Concepts Overview, 323 Linear/Rectangular Patterns, Creating, 316
Grid Points, Calculating, 327 Local Coordinate System, 80
Grid Regions for Objects, 160 Locking a Point, 60
Grid Regions Tab, Grid Tools, 157 Loft Faces Modification, 312
Grid Tools, 153 Lorentz Material, 98
Grid, Creating, 326 Loss Tangent, 101
Grid, Debugging, 331 Lumped Element Limitations, 114
Grid, Defining, 153
Gridding Properties Editor, 158 M-Rating, Hearing Aid sensors, 261
Group Delay Calculations, 196 Macro Scripts, 269
Magnetic Materials, 102
H-Field (H), 3-D Results, 246 Magnetic Meshing, 164
HAC Sensors, 192 Magnetized Ferrites, 103
Hardware Acceleration Card, Running on, 224 Make Solid Operation, 309
Hearing Aid Compatibility Sensors, 192 Marker Properties, Plots, 240
Hearing Aid Compatibility Tab, 3-D Results, 261 Match & Directions Tool, Orientation Tab, 85
Helix, Creating, 279 Match Points Tool, Orientation Tab, 84
Hole Draft Modeling Operations, 305 Material Editor, 93
Holes, Boolean Operations, 315 Material Visibility, 55
Horizonatal Constraint Tool, 290 Materials, Appearance, 105
Horizontal Marker, Plots, 244 Materials, Defining, 93
Hotkeys, Direction Picking Tools, 83 Materials, Overview, 8
Materials, Visibility, 105
Impedance, Numerical Results, 232 Maximum Cell Step Factor, 157
Import, 21 Maximum Number of Cells, Defining, 157
Importing Files From Previous Versions, 334 Mean Effective Gain Settings, 257
Including Objects, 167 Measure Tool, 49
Informational Videos, 333 Memory Restrictions, Defining, 157
Input Power, Numerical Results, 232 Memory, Simulations, 216
Insert Vertex Tool, 289 MESH Files, 74
Instability in Calculations, 225 Mesh Objects, Importing, 74
Interface, Appearance, 27 Mesh Objects, Meshing, 76
Interface, Compatibility, 29 Mesh Type, 164
Interface, Icons, 26 Mesh View, 51
Interface, Layout, 26 Mesh, Defining, 164
Interface, Overview, 19 Mesh.input, 348
Interface, Plots, 28 Meshing Disabled, 164
Intersection, Boolean Operations, 315 Meshing Modes, 164

XFdtd 7.3.0 Reference Manual

414 INDEX

Meshing Options, 55 Parameter Sweep Setup, 204

Meshing Options, Solid Object, 172 Parameter Sweep, Scripting, 268
Meshing Options, Volumetric Object, 173 Parameters Workspace Window, 266
Meshing Order, 166 Parameters, Defining, 266
Meshing Properties Editor, 164 Parameters, Syntax, 267
Meshing, Automatic, 55 Parts List, 35
Meshing, Touching Objects, 174 Passive Loads, Defining, 112
Message Passing Interface Calculations, 223 Patterns, Creating, 316
Minimum Cell Size, Global , 157 PCB, Importing, 76
Misc (Results Filter), 231 PDF Tab, 3-D Results, 257
MMF Files, 66 Perfect Conductor Material, 95
Modulated Gaussian Waveform, 144 Perfect Electric Conductor Outer Boundary, 179
MPI Calculations, 223 Perfect Magnetic Conductor Outer Boundary, 180
Multi-point Sensors, 337 Perfectly Matched Layer Outer Boundary, 179
Multi-Threaded Calculations, 223 Periodic Outer Boundary, 180
Permittivity, Complex, 101
N-Sided Polygon Tool, 286 Perpendicular Constraint Tool, 292
Near Field Sensors, 182 Perpendicular Edge Tool, 285
Near-Field Sensors, 3-D Results, 245 Physical Parameters, Materials, 105
No Source, Using in Simulation, 204 Pick 2 Points Tool, Orientation Tab, 81
Nondispersive Material, 96 Pick New Directions Tool, Orientation Tab, 81
Nonlinear Capacitors, Defining, 117 Pick Tools, Orientation Tab, 82
Nonlinear Material, 99 Planar Sensor, 187
Normal Direction Tool, Orientation Tab, 82 Plane Wave Editor, 138
Notes, Simulations, 215 Plane Wave, Using in Simulation, 203
Plane Waves, Defining, 138
Offset Faces Modification, 314
Plot Markers, 240
Offset Sheet Faces Modification, 311
Plot Properties, 240
Opacity Tools, 51
Plots, Customizing, 237
Open Sky Results, 258
Plots, Defining Display, 236
Orbit Tool, 48
Plots, Viewing Results with, 235
Orientation Triad, 80
PMC Outer Boundary, 180
Orientation, Geometry, 79
PML Outer Boundary, 179
Origin Tool, Orientation Tab, 82
Point at Tool, Orientation Tab, 81
Outer Boundary Editor, 177
Point Marker, Plots, 242
Outer Boundary, Overview, 11
Point Sensor Definition Editor, 184
Outer Boundary, Properties, 178
Point Sensors, 183, 336
Outer Boundary, Requirements for Calculation Sta-
Polar Plots, 235
bility, 225
Polygon Tool, 286
Output Statistics, 216
Polyline Edge Tool, 285
Output Viewing Controls, Toggling, 56
Port Sensors, 196
Output, Simulations, 216
Post-Processing, 262
Output, Viewing, 227
Power Scaling Factor, 235
Padding, Specifying, 154 Preferences, 24
Pan Tool, 48 Prism, Creating, 281
Pan Tool, Plots, 238 Probability Density Function, 257
Panning Simulation Space, 309 Project : Simulation : Run (Results Filter), 231
Parallel Constraint Tool, 292 Project ID (Results Filter), 229

XFdtd 7.3.0 Reference Manual

INDEX 415

Project Name (Results Filter), 229 Revolve Boolean Operation, 316

Project Properties, 22 Revolve Operation, 302
Project Templates, 21 Rotate Transformation Tool, 319
Project Tree Size, 27 Rotate, Orientation Tab, 81
Project Tree, Display, 39 Rotating Simulation Space, 309
Project Tree, Overview, 33 Rotations, Orientation Tab, 85
Project Workspace, Organizing, 42 Run ID (Results Filter), 229
Project, Developing, 13 Run Number (Results Filter), 229
Project, Exporting, 21 Running a Simulation, 201
Project, Importing, 21
Project, New, 20 S-Parameter Calculations, 196
Project, Open, 21 S-Parameters, Numerical Results, 234
Project, Saving, 21 S-Parameters, Selecting, 206
Properties, Circuit Components, 110 Sampled Material, 99
Purse Scattered-Field Plane Wave, 207, 209 Sampling Method, 183
Pyramid, Creating, 281 SAR Post-Processing, Remote, 222
SAR Result Statistics, 259
QtScript, 268 SAR Sensor Statistics Files, 343
Queue Drop-Down, Simulations, 223 SAR Sensors, 196
Queueing Simulations, 216 SAR, Calculating, 197
Quit XFdtd Session, 21 Save to Disk, 262
Scale Bar Editor, 248
Radar Cross-Section (RCS), Far Zone Results, 247 Scale Bar, 3-D Results, 248
Radius (Equal) Constraint Tool, 296 Scale Transformation Tool, 318
Radius Constraint Tool, 296 Scattered Field Interface, 207
Recent Projects, 21 Scattered-Field Plane Wave, 207
Rectangle Tool, 286 Screenshots, 50, 51, 238
Rectangular Sensor, 186 Scripting Tools, 268
Redo Button, 21 Scripting Workspace Window, 267
Reference Coordinate System, 80 Select Tool, 47
Reference Manual Organization, 1 Select/Manipulate Tool, Geometry, 288
Reflect Transformation Tool, 319 Selection Tool, Plots, 240
Reflecting Outer Boundaries, 178 Sensor (Results Filter), 230
Reflection Coefficient Calculations, 196 Sensor on Model Surface, 186
Remote Calculations, 221 Sensor Tools, 182
Remove Faces Modification, 314 Sensor Type (Results Filter), 230
Rendering Objects, 24 Sensors, Overview, 181
Rescaling, 3-D Results, 250 Separate Objects in Mesh, 174
Result Type (Results Filter), 230 Sequence Tab, 3-D Results, 255
Results Workspace Window, 227 Setup Parameter Sweep, Simulations, 204
Results, Filtering, 228 Setup S-Parameters, Simulations, 206
Results, Graphical, 236 Setup Tab, Field Editing Toolbar, 252
Results, Loading, 228 Shapes, Creating, 275
Results, Near-Zone Data, 245 Shapes, Geometry, 59
Results, Numerical, 231 Shear Transformation Tool, 320
Results, Orientation, 256 Sheet Body from Faces Tool, 300
Results, Power/Efficiency in Far Zone, 258 Sheet Body Tool, 300
Revolution Operations, Orienting Sketches for, 89 Shell Modification, 310

XFdtd 7.3.0 Reference Manual

416 INDEX

Simple Plane Tool, Orientation Tab, 82 Stretch Modification, 313

Simulation ID (Results Filter), 229 Subtraction, Boolean Operations, 315
Simulation Name (Results Filter), 229 Summary, Simulations, 216
Simulation Number (Results Filter), 229 Surface Conductivity Correction, 102
Simulation Time, Defining, 212 Surface Sensor Definition Editor, 187
Simulation, Creating New, 202 Surface Sensors, 185
Simulations Workspace Window, 201 Switches, Defining, 118
Simulations, Creating, 217 System Sensor, 196
Simulations, Queueing and Running, 216 System Sensor Output Dialog, 250
Simulations, Running Remotely, 221
Single-Frequency Calculation, Overview, 11 Tangent Constraint Tool, 293
Sinusoid Waveform, 145 Tangent Line Tool, 285
Size Tab, Grid Tools, 154 Templates for Projects, 21
Smith Plots, 235 Temporal Sampling Interval for Convergence, 214
Snap to Edge/Edge Intersections Tool, 299 Termination Criteria, Defining, 212
Snap to Edges Tool, 298 Thicken Sheet Modification, 311
Snap to Grid Lines Tool, 297 Thin Wire Material, 104
Snap to Grid/Edge Intersection Tool, 297 Threads, Specifying Number of, 24
Snap to Part Cross Sections Tool, 299 Threshold Criteria, 211
Snap to Vertices Tool, 298 Time Domain, Far Zone Results, 247
Snapping Tools, Geometry, 60 Time Domain, Far Zone Sensors, 195
Solid Box Sensor, 189 Time-Domain Reflectometry, TDR, Time-Domain
Solid Meshing Options, 172 Transmissometry, Time-Domain
Solid Modeling Operations, Advanced, 303 Transmission, TDT, 234
Solid Part Sensor, 189 Timestep, Calculating, 12
Solid Sensor Definition Editor, 191 Timestep, Definition, 6
Solid Sensors, 189 Title Properties, Plots, 239
Source Resistance, Specifying, 116 Tools, Geometry, 59
Sources, Multiple, 115 Torus, Creating, 283
Spacing, Line, 61 Total-Field / Scattered-Field Plane Wave, 207, 209
Spacing, Mouse, 61 Total-Field Plane Wave, 207
Spatial Sampling Density for Convergence, 214 Total/Scattered Field Interface, 207
Specific Absorption Rate, 3-D Results, 246 Touching Objects, 174
Specify Bounds, Grid Tools, 156 Translate Transformation Tool, 318
Specify Field Formulation, Simulations, 207 Translate, Orientation Tab, 81
Specify Orientation Tab, 79 Translating Simulation Space, 309
Specify Padding, Grid Tools, 154 Translations, Orientation Tab, 85
Specify Termination Criteria, Simulations, 212 Trim Edges Tool, 288
Sphere, Creating, 283 Troubleshooting with Error Message Icon, 43
Stability Criteria, 212 Twist Direction Tool, Orientation Tab, 83
Static Solver Criteria, Defining, 211 Twist Modification, 313
Static Voltage Points, Defining, 149 Twist Operations, 303
Statistics Tab, 3-D Results, 258 Twisting Axes, Orientation Tab, 89
Statistics, SAR, 259
Status (Results Filter), 231 Un-averaged SAR Calculation, 198
Steady-State Data, Collecting, 206 Undo Button, 21
Steady-State, Far Zone Sensors, 194 Union, Boolean Operations, 315
Straight Edge Tool, 285 Units, Specifying, 22

XFdtd 7.3.0 Reference Manual

INDEX 417

Upper Hemisphere Results, 258

User Defined Waveform, 146

Vertical Constraint Tool, 291

Vertical Marker, Plots, 244
View Modes, 42
View Tools, 47
Views, Geometry, 48
Visibility Tools, 51
Voltage, Current, 342
Volume Meshing Options, 173
Volumetric SAR Data Files, 344
Voxels, Importing, 66
Voxels, Meshing, 74
VSWR Calculations, 196

Waveform Editor, 140

Waveform Parameters, Defining, 148
Waveforms, Defining, 140
Waveguide Boundaries Tab, 124
Waveguide Geometry Tab, 122
Waveguide Port Specification Tab, 126
Waveguide Properties Tab, 121
Waveguide Tools, 119
Wire Body Tool, 300
Workspace Windows, Display, 43
Workspace Windows, Summary, 40

XACT, 168
XFdtd, Features, 2
XFdtd, Introduction, 1
xfsolver, 217
XPD, 257
XPD Tab, 3-D Results, 257
XStream Hardware Acceleration, 224
XY Plots, 235

Yee Cell, 6

Zoom Tools, Geometry, 48

Zoom Tools, Plots, 238
Zooming Simulation Space, 309

XFdtd 7.3.0 Reference Manual