MODULE TITLE: Using Basic Structured Query Language

NOMINAL DURATION: 150 hrs

LO1. Write an SQL Statement to retrieve and sort data
1.1 Introduction to SQL
A.1.1 What is SQL?
SQL (Structured Query Language) is a programming language designed for managing data in relational database
management systems (RDBMS).
. It is a standard (main query) language for relational DBMSs, like Microsoft Access, Microsoft SQL Server,
and Oracle, that used to communicate with a database.
SQL is used to perform basic data management tasks, such as the insertion, modification, and deletion of data from
the tables using the standard SQL commands such as "Select", "Insert", "Update", "Delete", "Create", and "Drop".
A.1.2 Categories of SQL Application
Microsoft SQL Server is a powerful and reliable data management system that delivers a rich set of features, data
protection, and light Web applications.
. Some common relational database management systems that use SQL are: Oracle, Sybase, Microsoft SQL
Server, MS- Access, etc.
. SQL Application is a database language that allow a user to:
- Define (create) the database, table structures, and controlling access to the data using DDL.
- Perform both simple and complex queries using DML.
1.2 Installing DBMS software
1.2.1 Introduction
A database management system is the software that enables users to define, create, and maintain the database and
also provides controlled access to this database.
- Some of the most common database applications are:
- Microsoft Access
- Microsoft SQL
- Oracle, and Informix
1.2.2 Hardware Requirements
A processor with high speed of data processing and memory of large size (RAM and Hard disk space) is required to
run the DBMS software.
Example: The Minimum hardware requirements for SQL Server 2008 installations include:
. Processor
- Pentium 600 MHz or higher is required
- 1 GHz or higher is recommended.
. Memory
- 512 MB is required
- 1 GB or more is recommended
- Express Edition requires 192 MB and recommended 512 MB or more.
. Disk space
- Database components: 280 MB
- Analysis services: 90 MB
- Reporting services: 120 MB
- Integration services: 120 MB
- Client components: 850 MB
 1.2.3 Operating System Requirements
The supported operating system for DBMS software may depends on the type and version of the software.
Example: The Supported operating systems for SQL Server 2008 installations include:
- Windows 7
- Windows Server 2003 Service Pack 2
- Windows Server 2008
- Windows Server 2008 R2
- Windows Vista Service Pack 1
- Windows XP Service Pack 3
1.3 Install DBMS (SQL Server)
. To install SQL Server 2008 Express, you must have administrative rights on the computer.
. The different editions/version of SQL Server share several common software requirements such as Microsoft
Windows installer and Microsoft .Net Framework.
Example: Before installing SQL Server 2008 Express SP1, first you have to install Microsoft Windows installer 4.5 and
Microsoft .NET Framework version 3.5 SP1.
The SQL Server Installation Wizard provides a single feature tree to install all SQL Server components such as:
 Database Engine
 Analysis Services
 Reporting Services
 Integration Services
 Master Data Services
 Data Quality Services
 Management tools
 Connectivity components
You can install each component individually or select a combination of the components listed above.
 A Step by Step guide to installing SQL Server 2008 simply and successfully:
- This will teach you the basics required for a typical (problem-free) installation of SQL Server 2008.
- Before you start the installation, you will need to install the .Net 3.5 Framework and windows installer 4.5.
STEP 1: Copy the installation files
First it is recommended that you copy the entire directory structure from the SQL Server 2008 installation disc to the
C: drive of the machine you are going to install it on.
This has three advantages:
 It makes the installation process much faster than running it from CD/DVD once it gets started.
 It allows you to easily add or remove components later, without having to hunt around for the CD/DVD.
 If your media is damaged and a file won’t copy, you get to find out now, rather than halfway through the installation.
Here’s what my system looks like after the copy:

STEP 2: Double click on the setup.exe file. After a few seconds a dialog box appears:

This will disappear from the screen and then the main installation page appears:
STEP 3: Click on the Installation hyperlink on the left hand side of the screen:

STEP 4 : Click on the "New Server stand-alone installation" link on the right side of the screen:
The following dialog appears on the screen whilst the install program prepares for installation:

After a minute or so (the timing will vary according to your system), the following screen appears:

STEP 5 (optional): If any checks have failed, click on the Show details button or "View detailed report link" to find
out the cause, correct it, and then click on the Re-run button to perform the checks again.
STEP 6: Product key
If all checks have passed, click on the OK button. After a few moments, the option to select the edition and to enter
the license key (or “product key”) will appear. Note that the product key box may already be populated, depending
on which edition you have. Don’t enter the product key we’ve shown here, it won’t work on your system!:

STEP 7: License Terms

Enter the product key into the box, or choose the free edition if you're evaluating SQL Server 2008, and click on the
Next button:
Click in the "I accept the license terms" check box, and then click on the Next button again.
STEP 8: click on the Install button:

The following screen will appear whilst Windows Installer prepares itself for the installation. This will take a short
while:

After 30 seconds or so the dialog appears again:

STEP 9: Setup Support Rules. If all is well, the following screen appears:

Click on the Next button again.

STEP 10: Feature Selection. Select the features you want to install.
At a minimum, the following are useful (I'd argue essential), but what you need will depend on your needs:

Click on the Next button.

STEP 11: Instance Configuration. After a short while the following screen appears:

For most installations, keep the default settings. Click on the Next button.
STEP 12: Disk Space Requirements
This screen just tells you if you have sufficient disk space on the drive you’re installing to, and what’s going to be
installed where.

Click on Next.
STEP 13: Server Configuration. This step allows you to set up the service accounts that will be used to run SQL
Server. If you have created Windows NT or Active Directory accounts for use with services, use these.
If not, then just to get the installation up and working, use the built-in Network Service account for all three services
listed (this account does not require a password).
This allows SQL Server to start up after installation. However, it can be easily changed later to another account
through the Services applet (Control Panel -> Administrator Tools -> Services):

In addition, remember to change the Startup Type to Automatic, for all three services. This automatically starts the
SQL Server database engine, SQL Agent and SQL Browser services when the server is re-booted.
The first service runs the SQL Server database engines executable process. The other two services allow scheduled
jobs to run after installation (and after a re-boot), and allow the SQL Server to be found by clients on the network.
Finally, click on Next.
STEP 14: Database Engine Configuration – Account Provision.
This screen allows you to set up database engine security.

Change the Authentication Mode to Mixed Mode unless you are certain you only need Windows-only
authentication.
 Many third party applications rely on SQL Server logins to operate correctly, so if you are setting up a
server for a third party application, rather than one developed in-house, enabling Mixed Mode
authentication is a good idea.
If you pick Mixed Mode security, you must also enter a password for the sysadmin account (sa).
Enter and confirm a secure password for the sa account and keep it somewhere safe.
Note that you MUST also provide a Windows NT account on the local machine as a SQL Server administrator. If
you do not want Windows system administrators to be able walk up to the box and login to SQL Server, create a
new, local, dummy Windows user and add this account instead. Otherwise, add in the local administrator account, or
your own Windows account on the domain in which the SQL Server will reside.
STEP 15: Database Engine Configuration – Data Directories. Click on the Data Directories tab.

Change the directories to specify which drives in your system will be used for the various types of database files.
Generally it’s advisable to put the User database directory and User log directory on separate physical drives for
performance, but it will depend on how Windows has been configured and how many disk drives you have
available.
If you are installing on a single drive laptop or desktop, then simply specify:
Data root directory C:\Program Files\Microsoft SQL Server
User database
C:\Data
directory
User log directory C:\Logs
Temp DB directory C:\TempDB
Temp Log
C:\TempDB
directory
Backup directory C:\Backups
Do not click on the FILESTREAM tab unless you know you need to change these options, as it is not generally
required for most installations, but can easily be changed by using sp_configure 'filestream_access_level', ''after
SQL Server has been installed.
Click on Next.

STEP 16: Error Usage Reporting

This screen simply asks if you want to send error information to Microsoft and can safely be skipped if you do not
want to share any information.
Click boxes if you want to help Microsoft help you. Click on Next again…
STEP 16: Installation Rules
This screen simply checks if there are any processes or other installations running which will stop the installation of
SQL Server 2008.

Click on Next again – you’re almost ready to install:

STEP 17: Ready to Install
This screen summarizes what you are about to install and gives you a last chance to cancel or change anything that’s
wrongly configured:
Check that what’s being installed is what you want and then click on Install when you’re sure you want to start the
installation process:
Installation Progress: SQL Server 2008 will now install. How long it takes depends on the speed of your machine.

…More Installation Progress

... and Finally
Finally, the installation will complete:

...and the following dialog box will appear:

Click on OK, the machine will NOT reboot.
The following will appear:

…followed by:

Click on the Next button again...

STEP 18: Installation Complete. The following screen appears:

It may be worth clicking on the installation log at the top of the screen to check everything’s gone as expected. Not
that this is MUCH smaller than the usual SQL Server installation log files of old.
Finally, click on the Close button. The following dialog will appear:

Click on OK – your server will NOT re-boot at this point.

The dialog box will disappear and you will be returned to the Installation Center:
Click on the Close button (the “x”) in the top right of the screen.
Finally, manually reboot your machine to complete the SQL Server 2008 installation.
Top Tips: How to check that SQL Server 2008 has installed correctly
Here are a short number of post-installation checks which are useful to perform after re-booting your new SQL
Server.
Check 1: Has the SQL Server Service Started?
Check SQL Server 2008 has started.

Check 2: Does Management Studio Work? Check Management Studio works by firing it up.
Click on NO when you see this dialog box:

Check 3: Can you run a basic query against the new SQL Server?
Check SQL Server works by running a simple query from Management Studio:
Enter the query shown below and hit F5 to run it:

 Creating and Deleting Databases

. Creating a Database
- When you create a database you need to use the Master database.
1. To create a database using New Database wizard:
- Right-click on Databases, and then select New Database.
- In Database name field, enter a “database name”.

- To create the database by accepting all default values, click OK; otherwise, continue with the following
optional steps.

- To change the owner name, click (…) to select another owner.

2. To create a database using “create database statement”:
1. From the Standard bar, click “New Query”.
2. On the sql editor write “create database database_name”
3. Select the statement <create database database_name> and execute it to create.
Example:
USE master ;
GO
CREATE DATABASE Sales
ON
( NAME = Sales_dat,
FILENAME = 'C:\Program Files\Microsoft SQL
Server\MSSQL10.MSSQLSERVER\MSSQL\DATA\saledat.mdf',
SIZE = 10MB,
MAXSIZE = 50MB,
FILEGROWTH = 5MB )
GO

. Deleting a database
You can delete database by executing the DROP DATABASE statement.
Example: DROP DATABASE <database name>
Exercises: 1. Create a database called library.
2. Delete the database that you have already created.
 Creating, modifying and deleting Tables:
. Creating a table
- When you create a table you need to use the current database.
- SQL Server databases store all of your data in tables.
Syntax: CREATE TABLE table_name
(
<Column_Name 1> <data type> <field size> <constraints>,
<Column_Name 2> <data type> <field size> <constraints>,
. . .
<Column_Name n > <data type> <field size> <constraints>
);
. Modifying a table
- You can modify the table by adding a new column and deleting a column from the table.
- The type of information that you specify when you add a column is similar to the activity that you
perform when you create a table.
Syntax: - ALTER TABLE <table_name> ADD <column_name> <data type> <field size> <constraint>
- ALTER TABLE <table_name> DROP COLUMN <column_name>
. Deleting a Table
- Deleting a table removes that table definition and all data, as well as the permission specification
for that table.
- Before you delete a table, you should remove any dependencies between the table and other
objects.
Syntax: DROP TABLE table_name
. Generating Column Values
i. Identity Property
- You can use the Identity property to create columns (referred to as identity columns) that contains
system generated sequential values identifying each row inserted into a table.
Syntax: CREATE TABLE table
(
Column_name data type IDENTTY (seed, increment) NOT NULL
 )
Example: Create table student
(
Student_id int identity (1,1) NOT NULL,
Student_name char (20)
)
Consider the following requirements for using the Identity property
. Only one identity column is allowed per table
. It must be used with integer data types.
. It cannot be updated
. It does not allow null values
Exercise
1. Create table whose name is employee with attributes like name, Id, sex, salary, Nationality and age.
2. Modify the employee table by adding a column named Qualification.
3. Modify the employee table by modifying a column named age.
4. Delete the table Employee.
1.4 Select statement
The Select statement is the most commonly used SQL command that allows you to retrieve records from one or
more tables in your database.
- The basic SELECT statement in sql has 3 clauses: SELECT, FROM and WHERE
- The SELECT clause specifies the table columns that are retrieved.
- The FROM clause specifies the table or tables from which columns and rows are returned.
- The WHERE clause specifies the condition restricting the query. You can restrict the number of rows by
using comparison operators, character strings, and logical operators as search conditions.
- The WHERE clause is optional; if missing, all table rows are accessed.
Syntax of SQL SELECT Statement:
SELECT <column_list> FROM <table_name_list>< [WHERE Clause]> < [search_condition]>
 Table-name_list includes one or more tables from which the information is retrieved.
 column_list includes one or more columns from which data is retrieved.
 The code within the brackets is optional.
Example: SELECT ID,Fname,Dname FROM STUDENT,DEPARTEMENT WHERE Sex='Female'AND Dnumber=‘cou005’
1.4.1 Literals and data types
Literals are letters, numbers, or symbols that are used as specific values in a result set (in output).
- Literals mean constants which are the values we write in a conventional form.
- You can include literals in the select list to make result sets more readable.
Syntax: SELECT column_name1 ‘string literal’, column_name2 ’string_literal’, … FROM table_name
Example: SELECT firstname, lastname,’Identification number:’, employeeid FROM employee
Output: Firstname lastname employeeid
Nancy David Identification number : 1
Andrew Fuller Identification number : 2
Data type is a constraint that specifies the type of data stored in a table field.
* Common examples of data type in MS-Access are:
- Auto-number, Text, Number, Date/Time, Currency, Yes/No, and so on.
* Common examples of data type in MS-SQL server are:
 - Char, varchar, int, float, double, datetime, and so on.
1.4.2 Expressions
An Expression is a combination of symbols and operators that the SQL Server Database Engine evaluates to obtain
a single data value.
. Operands are values or variables, whereas operators are symbols that represent particular actions.
- Operators can be used to join two or more simple expressions into a complex expression.
. Every expression consists of at least one operand and can have one or more operators.
Example: - In the expression, SELECT ((5+5) * (5+5)), 5 is an operand, and +, * are operators.
- In database systems, you use expressions to specify which information you want to retrieve.
These types of expressions are called queries.

1.4.2.1 Comparison operators

A comparison (or relational) operator is a mathematical symbol or a keyword which is used to compare between
two values.
- Comparison operators are used in conditions that compare one expression with another. The result of a
comparison can be TRUE, FALSE, or UNKNOWN.
- SQL Comparison operator is used mainly with the SELECT statement to filter data based on specific conditions.
Comparison operator Description
equal to
=
is not equal to
<>, !=
less than
<
> greater than
>= greater than or equal to
<= less than or equal to
In "Equivalent to any member of" test, Equivalent to "= ANY".
Not In Equivalent to "! = ANY".
All Compares a value with every value in a list
[Not] between [Not] greater than or equal to x and less than or equal to y.
Is [not]null Tests for nulls
Note: The != operator is converted to <> in the parser stage.
1.4.2.2 Boolean operators
Boolean Operators are simple words (AND, OR, or NOT) used as conjunctions to combine or exclude keywords in a search.
. Boolean operators are used widely in programming and also in forming database queries.
. When you want retrieving data using a SELECT statement, you can use logical operators in the WHERE clause
to combine more than one condition.
Example: - SELECT first_name, last_name, subject FROM student_details
WHERE subject = 'Maths' OR subject = 'Science'
. The AND and OR operator combines two logical operands.
. The NOT operator inverts the result of a comparison expression or a logical expression.
1.4.2.3 Arithmetical operators
SQL mathematical operations are performed using mathematical operators (+, -, *, /, and % (Modulo)).
- When you need to perform calculations in SQL statement, you can use arithmetic expression.
- An arithmetic expression can contain column names, numeric numbers, and arithmetic operators.
Arithmetic operators are responsible for performing most calculations that use values such as:
- Literals/ Constants
- Variables
- Expressions
- Function
1.4.2.4 Mathematical functions
A function is a relation in which any value inputted in the relation yields exactly one output.
A mathematical function performs a mathematical operation on numeric expressions and returns the result of the
operation. Multiply function is basically used in SQL
Example: - SELECT round(salary), firstname FROM employee_info
- SELECT sum(salary),ID, firstname FROM employee_info

1.4.3 Assigning names to result columns

When the result of a SELECT statement is determined, you can specify your own names for the result table columns.
. The AS clause can be used to assign a different name, or alias, to the result set column. This can be done to
increase readability.
. This capability is particularly useful for a column that is derived from an expression or a function.
Example: - SELECT SALARY+BONUS+COMM AS TOTAL_SAL FROM EMPLOYEE;
- select ID 'identifier',fname 'first name',Lname as last_name from EMPLOYEE;

1.5. Updating tables

1.5.1. Inserting new rows
The INSERT command is used to add a single tuple to a relation.
- We must specify the relation (table) name and a list of values for the tuple.
- The values should be listed in the same order in which the corresponding attributes were specified in the
CREATE TABLE command.
Syntax: Insert into<TABLE_NAME>values('value1'<for_column 1>,
'value2'<for_column 2>,
'value3'<for_column 3>,
. . . ,'value n'<for_column n>);

The INSERT statement allows the user to specify explicit attribute names that correspond to the values provided in
the INSERT command. This is useful if a relation has many attributes.
Syntax: Insert into<TABLE_NAME>(column1,column2,column3)
values('value1'<for_column 1>,'value2'<for_column 2>'value 3'<for_column 3);

1.5.2. Updating values in rows

The UPDATE statement is used to change existing records in a table.
- Use a table reference to indicate which table needs to be updated.
Syntax: UPDATE table_name
SET <column1=’value1’>,<column2=’value2’>,...
 [WHERE <search-condition>]

- The SET clause is used to assign new values to one or more columns.
- The search condition (WHERE clause) specifies which rows in the table are to be updated. If no search
condition is specified, all rows will be updated.
Example: UPDATE PROJECT
SET PLOCATION = 'Tana beles', DNUM = 5
WHERE PNUMBER=10;

Updating a primary key value may propagate to the foreign key values of records in other relations if such a
referential triggered action is specified in the referential integrity constraints.
 How you update a table name without affecting stored values in the table?
sp_RENAME 'OldTable_name','Newtable_name'

1.5.3. Deleting rows in the table

The DELETE statement removes rows from a table.
Syntax: DELETE FROM <Table_Name> [WHERE <search-condition>];
The search condition specifies which rows in the table are to be deleted. If no search condition is specified, all rows
will be deleted (the table become empty, but not dropped).
Example: Delete all countries that begin with the letter 'D' from the COUNTRIES table:
Delete from countries where country LIKE 'D%';
1.5.4. Populating a Table with Rows from Another Table
You can place the result set of any query into a new table by using the SELECT INTO statement.
- You can use the SELECT INTO statement to create a table and to insert rows into the table in a single operation
- Use the SELECT INTO statement to populate new tables in a database with imported data from another table.
Syntax: SELECT <select_list> INTO <new_table-name>
FROM <sources_table_name>
WHERE <search_condition>
Example: select fname,lname,ID into special_Table from EMPLOYEE where Gender ='female';

Note: - The SELECT INTO statement selects data from one table and inserts it into a different table.
- The SELECT INTO statement is most often used to create backup copies of tables.
1.6. Combining table Expressions
With the help of set operators, the results of individual table expressions can be combined. This type of combination
is called UNION. SQL supports other set operators besides the UNION operator.
Here is the complete list:
 UNION
 UNION ALL
 INTERSECT

 INTERSECT ALL

 EXCEPT

 EXCEPT ALL
1.7. Combining tables with union
The UNION operator is used to combine the result-set of two or more SELECT statements.
- Each SELECT statement within the UNION must have the same number of columns and similar data types.
- Also, the columns in each SELECT statement must be in the same order.
Syntax: SELECT <column_name_list> FROM <table_name> UNION SELECT <column_name_list>
FROM <table_name>
Example: select fname,ID from EMPLOYEE union select dname,dnumber from DEPARTEMENT

Note: The UNION operator selects only distinct values by default. To allow duplicate values, use UNION ALL.
1.8. Rules for using UNION
The following rules must be applied to use the UNION operator:
. The SELECT clauses of all relevant table expressions must have the same number of expressions
. Each SELECT statement within the UNION must have similar data types. If this applies, the table
expressions are union compatible.
. An ORDER BY clause can be specified only after the last table expression. The sorting is performed on the
entire end result; after all intermediate results have been combined.
. The SELECT clauses should not contain DISTINCT because SQL automatically removes duplicate rows when
using UNION.
1.9. Combining with INTERSECT
INTERSECT returns all rows that are both in the result of query1 and in the result of query2. Duplicate rows are
eliminated unless ALL is specified.
If two table expressions are combined with the INTERSECT operator, the end result consists of those rows that appear
in the results of both table expressions.
Example: SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE INTERSECT SELECT * FROM PROJECT;
- Just as with the UNION operator, duplicate rows are automatically removed from the result.
1.10. Combining with EXCEPT
EXCEPT returns all rows those are in the result of query1 but not in the result of query2. Again, duplicates are
eliminated unless ALL is specified.
If two table expressions are combined with the EXCEPT operator, the end result consists of only the rows that appear
in the result of the first table expression but do not appear in the result of the second.
Example: SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE EXCEPT SELECT * FROM PROJECT;
Just as with the UNION operator, duplicate rows are automatically removed from the result.
1.11. Keeping duplicate rows
All previous examples made it clear that duplicate rows are automatically removed from the end result if one of the
set operators UNION, INTERSECT, or EXCEPT is used. Removing duplicate rows can be suppressed by using the ALL
version of these operators. We illustrate this with the UNION ALL operator.
If two table expressions are combined with the UNION ALL operator, the end result consists of the resulting rows
from both of the table expressions. The only difference between UNION and UNION ALL is that when you use UNION,
the duplicate rows are automatically removed, and when you use UNION ALL, they are kept.
1.12. Set operators and NULL values
SQL automatically removes duplicate rows from the result if the set operators UNION, INTERSECT, and EXCEPT are
specified. That is why the following (somewhat peculiar) SELECT statement produces only one row, even if both
individual table expressions have one row as their intermediate result:
SELECT PLAYERNO, LEAGUENO
FROM PLAYERS
WHERE PLAYERNO = 27
UNION
SELECT PLAYERNO, LEAGUENO
FROM PLAYERS
WHERE PLAYERNO = 27

1.13. Combining multiple set operators

We have already seen a few examples in which multiple set operators are used within a single SELECT statement.
Here is another example.
Get the numbers of each player who incurred at least one penalty and who is not a captain; add the
numbers of the players who live in Eltham.
SELECT PLAYERNO
FROM PENALTIES
EXCEPT
SELECT PLAYERNO
FROM TEAMS
UNION
SELECT PLAYERNO
FROM PLAYERS
WHERE TOWN = 'Eltham'

1.14. Set operator and Theory

We conclude this chapter with a rather theoretical discussion of set operators. We give a number of rules for
working with multiple different set operators within one SELECT statement. All the rules are based on general rules
(laws) that apply to mathematical operators and set theory. We define and explain each of these rules, and we use the
following symbols and definitions:
 The symbol Ti represents the result of a random table expression (i is 1, 2, or 3).
 For each Ti, it holds that the SELECT clauses are union compatible.

 The symbol TØ represents the empty result of a table expression.

 The symbol ∪ represents the UNION operator.

 The symbol ∩ represents the INTERSECT operator.

 The symbol – represents the EXCEPT operator.

 The symbol ∪A represents the UNION ALL operator.

 The symbol ∩A represents the INTERSECT ALL operator.

 The symbol –A represents the EXCEPT ALL operator.

 The symbol = means “is equal to.”

  The symbol ≠ means “is not always equal to.”

 The symbol θ represents a random set operator.

 The symbol Ø represents an empty result.

LO2. Write SQL statements that use functions
2.1 Introduction
In SQL Server, you can design your own functions to supplement and extend the system supplied (built-in)
functions. A user-defined function takes zero, or more, input parameters and returns either a scalar value or a table.
Input parameters can be any data type except timestamp, cursor, or table.
2.2 Select clause and Aggregation function
Introduction
The SQL SELECT statement queries data from tables in the database.
The statement begins with the SELECT keyword. The basic SELECT statement has 3 clauses:
 SELECT
 FROM
 WHERE
- The SELECT clause specifies the table columns that are retrieved.
- The FROM clause specifies the tables accessed.
- The WHERE clause specifies which table rows are used. The WHERE clause is optional; if missing, all table
rows are used.
An aggregation function is a function that performs a computation on a set of values rather than on a single value.
Example: finding the average or mean of a list of numbers is an aggregate function.
The aggregation functions are AVG, COUNT, MAX, MIN, SUM, STDEV, STDEVP,  VAR, and VARP
The syntax of an aggregation function is illustrated as:
Aggregation-function ([ALL | DISTINCT] expression)
Example: SELECT SUM (Employee.salary) as Total_Salary FROM Employee WHERE Employee.Dnum =20
SELECT min(EMPLOYEE .salary )'min salary',MAX (EMPLOYEE .salary )'max salary' FROM EMPLOYEE

This aggregation computes the total salary for department 20.

Aggregate functions are functions that are used to get summary values.

2.3 Selecting ALL Columns (SELECT *)

Asterisk (*) is used to get all the columns of a particular table.
Example: the SQL select * from Employee will retrieve the entire copy of the employee table.
2.4 Expression in the select clause
Syntax: SELECT [ALL|DISTINCT]<select_list> FROM {<table_source >}
WHERE <search_condition>
<search_condition> uses expression:
- Comparison Operators =, <, >, >=, <=, and <>
- String comparisons LIKE and NOT LIKE
- Logical Operators: combination of conditions AND, OR
- Logical Operators: negations NOT
- Range of values BETWEEN and NOT BETWEEN
- List of values IN and NOT IN
- Unknown values IS NULL and IS NOT NULL.
2.5 Removing duplicate rows with DISTINCT when two rows are equal
To eliminate the duplicates from the result set, we use the key word DISTINCT.
Example: SELECT distinct Publisher FROM BOOk
2.6 Introduction to aggregation function
 The count function Returns the number of items in expression. The data type returned is of type int.
Syntax: COUNT ( [ALL | DISTINCT] <expression> | * )         
      Example: select COUNT(*), AVG(Employee.Salary) from dbo. Employee
- With the exception of the COUNT (*) function, all aggregate functions return a NULL if no rows satisfy the
WHERE clause. The COUNT (*) function returns a value of zero if no rows satisfy the WHERE clause.
 The MAX function Returns the maximum value from expression. Max ignores any NULL values.
Syntax: MAX ( [ALL | DISTINCT] <expression> )   
        Example: select MAX(Employee.Salary) from dbo. Employee
 The MIN function Returns the smallest value from expression. Min ignores any NULL values.
Syntax: MIN ( [ALL | DISTINCT] <expression> )
    Example: select MIN(Employee.Salary) from dbo. Employee
 The SUM function Returns the total of all values in expression. Sum ignores any NULL values.
Syntax: SUM ( [ALL | DISTINCT] <expression> )
       Example: select SUM(Employee.Salary) from dbo. Employee
 The AVERAGE function Returns the average of the values in expression. The expression must contain
numeric values. Null values are ignored.
syntax: AVG ([ ALL | DISTINCT ] <expression>)
Example: select ID, avg(Employee.Salary) from dbo. Employee

 The Variance and Standard Deviation function

- STDEV: Returns the standard deviation of all values in expression. Stdev ignores any NULL
values.  Syntax: STDEV( <expression> )
    Example: select STDEV(Employee.Salary) from dbo. Employee
- STDEVP: Returns the standard deviation for the population of all values in expression. Stdevp
ignores any NULL values.
Syntax: STDEVP( <expression> )
     Example: select STDEVP(Employee.Salary) from dbo. Employee
- VAR:  Returns the variance of all values in expression. Var ignores any NULL values.
syntax: VAR( <expression> )
     Example: select VAR(Employee.Salary) from dbo. Employee
- VARP: Returns the variance for the population of all values in expression. Varp ignores any
NULL values. syntax: VARP( <expression> )
    Example: select VARP(Employee.Salary) from dbo. Employee

LO3. Write SQL statements that use aggregation and filtering

3.1 Aggregating data by multiple columns using “group by”
When an aggregate function is executed, SQL Server summarizes values for an entire table or for groups of columns
within the table, producing a single value for each set of rows for the specified columns.
- You can use aggregate functions with the SELECT statement or in combination with the GROUP BY clause
- Use the GROUP BY clause on columns or expression to organize rows into groups and to summarize those
groups. The GROUP BY clause groups rows on the basis of similarities between them.
When you use the GROUP BY clause, consider the following facts and guidelines:
. SQL Server returns only single rows for each group that you specify; it does not return detail information.
. All columns that are specified in the GROUP BY clause must be included in the select list.
. If you include a WHERE clause, SQL Server groups only the rows that satisfy the search conditions.
. Do not use the GROUP BY clause on columns that contain multiple null values.
Example: For each department, retrieve the department name, the number of employees in the department, and their
average salary.
SELECT DEPARTEMENT.Dname , COUNT (*)'number of employee', AVG (EMPLOYEE.salary)'average salary' FROM
EMPLOYEE,DEPARTEMENT
where EMPLOYEE.dnum =DEPARTEMENT.Dnumber
GROUP BY DEPARTEMENT.Dname
3.2 Sorting aggregated data in the query output:
SQL allows the user to sort rows in the result set in ascending (ASC) or descending (DESC) order using
ORDER BY clause. Sort is in ascending order by default
- You can sort by column names, computed values, or expressions
Example: Retrieve a list of employees and ordered them alphabetically by their department name, last name, first name.
SELECT EMPLOYEE.ID, EMPLOYEE.Fname, EMPLOYEE.Lname, EMPLOYEE.salary, DEPARTEMENT.Dname
FROM DEPARTEMENT,EMPLOYEE
WHERE EMPLOYEE.dnum=DEPARTEMENT .Dnumber
ORDER BY DNAME, LNAME, FNAME;
3.3 Filtering aggregated data using the “having” clause
Use the HAVING clause on columns or expressions to set conditions on the groups included in a result set.
When you use the HAVING clause, consider the following facts and guidelines:
- Use the HAVING clause only with the GROUP BY clause to restrict the grouping.
- Using the HAVING clause without the GROUP BY clause is not meaningful.
Example: For each project, retrieve the project number, the project name, and the number of employees from department 5
who work on the project.
SELECT DNAME, Fname, COUNT (*) FROM DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNUMBER=DNO AND SALARY>40000
GROUP BY DNAME DESC, Fname ASC
HAVING COUNT (*) > 5;
LO4: Write and execute SQL Queries
4.1 Single and nested queries
What is query?
A query is a request for information from a database (Queries are Questions).
Single query is a Single Block query.
Example: SELECT distinct salary FROM Employee where Gender ='female'
A SQL nested query is a SELECT query that is nested inside a SELECT, UPDATE, INSERT, or DELETE SQL
query.
Nested Queries are queries that contain another complete SELECT statements nested within it, that is, in the
WHERE clause.
- The nested SELECT statement is called an “inner query” or an “inner SELECT.”
- The main query is called “outer SELECT” or “outer query.”
- The use of nested query in this case is to avoid explicit coding of JOIN which is a very expensive database
operation and to improve query performance.
Example: SELECT ID,LNAME, FNAME FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE (SELECT COUNT (*) FROM DEPENDENTED WHERE DEPENDENTED.EmpID =EMPLOYEE.ID) >= 2
 4.2 Subqueries
A subquery is a query that is nested inside a SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement, or inside another
subquery.
- Subquery is an inner query or inner select, while the statement containing a subquery is also called an outer
query or outer select.
- You use subqueries to break down a complex query into a series of logical steps and, as a result, to solve a
problem with single statements.
- Each select statement in the subquery has its own:
. select list
. where clause
Example: For each department that has more than five employees, retrieve the department number and the number
of its employees who are
making more than $40,000.
SELECT DNUMBER, COUNT (*) FROM DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNUMBER=DNO AND SALARY>40000 AND
DNO IN (SELECT DNO FROM EMPLOYEE
GROUP BY DNO
HAVING COUNT (*) > 5)
GROUP BY DNUMBER;
4.3. Operators in sub queries
 The IN, ALL, and ANY operators in subquery.
 IN operator
The IN operator is an operator that allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause.
A row from a table satisfies a condition with the IN operator if the value of a particular column occurs in a set of
expressions. The expressions in such a set entered one by one by a user.
Syntax to use IN operator: SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (value1,value2,...)
Examle: SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE LastName IN ('Aster','Maru')
SELECT * FROM employee
WHERE Dnum IN(SELECT Dnum FROM DEPARTEMENT
WHERE Dname = 'Research');
 Any operator
ANY operator is an operator that compares a value to each value in a list or results from a query and evaluates to
true if the result of an inner query contains at least one row. ANY must be preceded by comparison operators.
Syntax to use Any operator: SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name =any(value1,value2,...)
Example: SELECT ID ,fname,lname FROM EMPLOYEE
where Dnum =any(select COUNT(*) from DEPARTEMENT
where Dnumber='ict001')
 All operators
ALL operator is used to select all records of a SELECT STATEMENT. It compares a value to every value in a list
or results from a query. The ALL must be preceded by the comparison operators and evaluates to TRUE if the
query returns no rows. For example, ALL means greater than every value, means greater than the maximum value.
Suppose ALL (1, 2, 3) means greater than 3.
Syntax to use All operator: SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name =all(value1,value2,...)
Enample: SELECT LNAME, FNAME FROM EMPLOYEE
 WHERE SALARY> ALL (SELECT SALARY FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE Dnum=5);
 SOME operators
SOME operator is the same as ANY operator (SOME and ANY perform the same function).
SOME compares a value to each value in a list or results from a query and evaluates to true if the result of an inner
query contains at least one row.
SOME must match at least one row in the subquery and must be preceded by comparison operators.
Example: SELECT ID,Fname,Lname FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE ID =SOME(SELECT EmpID FROM DEPENDENTED
WHERE Gender='Female');
 EXISTS operator
The EXIST operator checks the existence of a result of a subquery. The EXISTS subquery tests whether a
subquery fetches at least one row. When no data is returned then this operator returns 'FALSE'.
- A valid EXISTS subquery must contain an outer reference and it must be a correlated subquery.
- You can use the EXISTS and NON EXISTS operators to determine whether data exists in a list of values.
- Use the EXISTS and NOT EXISTS operators with correlated subqueries to restrict the result set of an outer
query to rows that satisfy the subquery.
Example: SELECT DepID ,Fname ,Gender FROM DEPENDENTED
WHERE exists(SELECT ID FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE EMPLOYEE.ID =DEPENDENTED.EmpID and DEPENDENTED .Gender ='Female')
You can use the EXISTS operator with the group by as wel as order by clause to determine whether data exists in a
list of values.
Example: SELECT dnum,COUNT (*)'Number of employee who has dependent' FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE salary<3000 and exists (SELECT EmpID FROM DEPENDENTED
WHERE EMPLOYEE.ID =DEPENDENTED.EmpID
group by EmpID)
group by Dnum
order by Dnum

 having clause
Use the HAVING clause on columns or expressions to set conditions on the groups included in a result set.
The HAVING clause sets conditions on the GROUP BY clause in much the same way that the WHERE clauses
interacts with the SELECT statement.
Example: SELECT dnum ,count(*)'number of employee' FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE exists (SELECT dname FROM DEPARTEMENT
WHERE EMPLOYEE.Dnum =DEPARTEMENT.Dnumber)
group by Dnum
having COUNT(*)>2
4.4. Correlated subqueries
In a SQL database query, a correlated sub-query (also known as a synchronized subquery) is a sub-query (a query
nested inside another query) that uses values from the outer query in its WHERE clause.
- Correlated subquery is one that is executed after the outer query is executed. So correlated subqueries take an
approach opposite to that of the normal subqueries.
- In a correlated subquery, the inner query uses information from the outer query and executes once for every
row in the outer query.
- A practical use of a correlated subquery is to transfer data from one table to another.
Syntax for correlated subquery: select column_list from table_name a
where search_condition (select column_list from table_name b
where a.column_name_a=b.column_name_b)
Example: find out the name of all EMPLOYEES who has less or equal to two dependent using correlated subquery.
select fname from EMPLOYEE a where 2<=(select COUNT(*) from DEPENDENTED b
where b .EmpID=a.ID )