What is a Melting Furnace?

Melting furnaces are used to overheat solid materials until they liquefy. A melting
furnace, by comparison, generates over hot temperatures that exceed the
metal's melting point and cause decomposition of its physical structure which leads
to liquefaction.
What is the Cupola Furnace?
Cupola furnace is a melting device. We used this device in the forging operation
where Cast Iron, Bronze, and other alloying elements are melted.
This is a very old device we used in manufacturing for melting because this
system produces good cast iron from Pig Iron. The shape of this device is cylindrical
but others size is also available.
While choosing a cupola furnace we keep some valid factors that are Melting Point
Temperature, Shapes and many more.
Construction of Cupola Furnace:
The Cupola Furnace is consists of:
 Legs
 Slag Hole
 Sand Bed
 tuyers
 Preheating Zone
 Melting Zone
 Charging Door
 Brick lining
 Spark Arrester
Let me describe these parts of cupola furnace in details:
Legs:
Legs are provided for supporting purposes.
Slag Hole or Slag spout:
The slag hole is used for removing or extracting the slag from the melting iron.
Sand Bed:
This is in taper form and from this, the melted iron comes out easily.
Tuyeres:
By tuyeres, we enter the gas to the proper burn of fuel.
Preheating Zone:
In the Preheating zone, the heating process started and heats the metal charge
about 1090 degrees Celsius.
Melting Zone:
In the melting zone, we do not provide much heat to melt the metal charge because
it’s already melted in the preheating zone with a temperature of about 1090 degrees
Celsius.
Charging door:
From here we supply the charge to the furnace. The various charges are for the
cupola furnace are Pig Iron, Coke and limestone.
Brick lining and Steel shell:
The shell of the cupola furnace is being usually made of steel and it’s called a steel
shell.
Spark Arrester:
This device used in the system for preventing the emission from the fireplace.
Schematic Diagram of Cupola Furnace:
Working Principle of Cupola Furnace:
The Cupola furnace works on the principle where we generate heat from
burning coke and when the temperature of the furnace is above the melting
point of the metal then the metal is melt.
The charge introduced in the cupola consists of pig iron, scrap, casting rejection,
coke, and flux. Coke is the fuel and limestone are added as a flux to remove
undesirable materials like ash and dirt. The scrap consists of Steel and cast iron
rejections.
The working of Cupola furnace is, Over the sand Bottom, Coke in charged
extending up to a predetermined height. This serves as the coke bed within which
the combustion takes place.
Cupola operation is started by igniting the coke bed at its bottom. After the Coke bed
is properly Ignited, alternate charges of limestone, pig iron, and coke are charged
until the level of the charging Door.
Then the air blast is turned on and combustion occurs rapidly within the coke bed.
Within 5 to 10 minutes after the blast is turned on the first molten cast iron appears
at the tap hole.
Usually, the first iron which comes out will be too cold to pour into sand molds.
During the cupola operation, molten metal may be tracked every 10 minutes
depending on the melting rate and the capacity.
All the oxygen in the air blast is consumed by the combustion, Within the combustion
zone.
The chemical reaction takes place which is,
C + O2 (from the air) →  CO2 + Heat
This is an exothermic reaction. The temperature in this zone varies from 1550 to
1850 degree Celsius.
Then hot gases consisting principally of Nitrogen and carbon dioxide moved upward
from the combustion zone, where the temperature is 1650 degree Celsius.
The portion of the coke bed if the combustion zone is reducing zone. It is a protective
zone to prevent the oxidation of the metal charge above and while dropping through
it. As the hot carbon dioxide gas moves upward through the hot coke, some of it is
reduced by the following reaction.
3Fe + 2CO → Fe3C + CO2
This is an endothermic reaction.
The first layer of iron above the reducing zone is the melting zone where the solid
iron is converted into the molten state. A significant portion of the carbon is picked up
by the metal also takes place in this zone.
The hot gas is passed upward from the reducing and melting zones into the
preheating zone which includes all layers of charge above the melting zone up to the
charging Door.
Since the layer of the charge is preheated by the outgoing gases which exist at the
top of the cylindrical shell. this temperature is this zone is around 1090 degrees
Celsius.
Advantages of Cupola Furnace:
These are the following advantages of Cupola Furnace:
 For operation purposes, this is a simple and economical device.
 A wide range of materials can be melt.
 This device used for removing the slag present in the Iron.
 Comparison of electric furnace This is very less harmful.
 This is having high melting heat I.e 100 tones/hr.
 The floor space required is less and to perform the operation skilled operator
not required.
Disadvantages of Cupola Furnace:
There are some disadvantages of Cupola Furnace and here is that:
 In cupola furnace, The main disadvantage is that sometimes unable to main
the close temperature.
Applications of Cupola Furnace:
The main application of Cupola Furnace is different types of cast iron is produced
from this device like Malleable, Grey cast iron, and the copper base alloy is also
manufactured by this device.

Blast Furnace: Introduction, Definition, Construction, Working Principle,

Applications & Advantages
Introduction
A blast furnace is a special type of cylindrical furnace, which is basically used for the
purpose of melting. So, the industrial metals can be extracted from their ores like
iron, pig iron, or copper.
The word ‘blast’ gives the idea of combustion air which is forcefully supplied or
produced to the atmospheric pressure above. In past times, furnaces were used to
produce only iron by using charcoal.
Soon after the shortage of wood because of deforestation, coal was suggested to be
used for the purpose. Since coal contains Sulphur which makes iron quiet brittle, it
was assumed to be wastage for the iron life.
However, in 17th century Abraham Darby accomplished his mission to produce such
furnace which can be used for smelting iron using coke as fuel. His achievement was
marvellous which increased the trade of iron and finally lead to the Industrial
Revolution.
This article comprehensively discusses and elaborates the information
regarding blast furnace, its construction details, including its main parts and their
working phenomenon and function. This article also highlights the application of
these furnaces for its practical use.
Definition of Blast Furnace:
It is defined as a metallurgical furnace which is used to extract metals primarily from
its ores of iron and copper. The fuel contains a mixture of flux that is particularly
limestone where iron ore is available, and coke is supplied and pumped through the
top of the furnace.
On the other hand, the bottom of the furnace is attached with a series of parallel
pipes that transfer hot blast air which is enriched with oxygen.
As soon as the hot air is allowed to enter, the oxide ore is reduced to convert it into
impure metal. As both the material is mixed, the chemical reaction takes place
causing the molten metal to fall down where it is tapped off and collected.
The waste of the material which is basically ‘slag’ goes at the top of the furnace
where it is piped off. The molten metal and this slag are the end products of this
procedure. These flow of both the products in opposite directions along with different
combustion gases are termed as countercurrent exchange.
However, there are similar procedures used for various purposes including blowing
houses to obtain tin, lead and can be extracted by smelting mills and similarly, iron is
obtained by bloomer furnace. These all are classified as blast furnaces.
Nevertheless, this term is used for a very limited purpose as for smelting iron ore.
This smelting would help for the production of pig iron, which is a majorly used
material in the processing of iron and steel production.
Section of Blast Furnace:
A Blast Furnace is consist of the following sections:
1. Furnace Proper
2. Cast House
3. Stoves
4. Raw Material Storage Section
5. Raw Material Charging Section
6. Gas Cleaning Point
7. Slag Dumping Area
8. Pulverised coal Inoculation
So let me discuss 1 by 1.
Furnace Proper:
It is the total furnace area where we inject the hot metal with the slag which is
generated from the raw material.
Cast House:
In the cast house, hot metal with slag flowing through a channel where it is divided
into two forms, one is hot metal and another one is slag and then further going to the
iron and slag side sequentially of the Furnace.
Stoves:
Stoves are used to heat the air which is provided by the high-speed blower.
Raw Material Storage Section:
In this section raw material are stored, it designed so carefully that raw material can
easily be transferred from this section.
Raw Material Charging Section:
As the name denotes it is a charging station. Here in this section, we can see a
hopper through which the raw material enters the furnace.
Gas Cleaning Point:
As we use several types of fuel to generate the heat, in this scenario also there is a
lot of burned gas is generated inside the blast furnace, so we need to have point or
section, from which we can easily extract the burned gases.
Slag Dumping Area:
In a blast furnace, while the process of extracting the iron has occurred at that time,
we also get slag or impurities. To remove this we use two types of method.
One is using of a high-pressure water jet, which blends with the slag or impurities
then we send the mixture to the granulation plan, secondly if it is unable to granulate
in the granulation plant then we make a separate area where we dumped the slag.
Pulverised coal Inoculation:
In this section, we charge the crushed coal dust so that it can easily take the fire.
Main Parts of Blast Furnace:
A blast consisted of the following parts:
1. Hoppers
2. Adjustable Gates
3. Rotating Chute
4. Fire brick
5. Combustion
6. Gas burner
7. Carbon brick
8. Taphole
9. Tuyere
Hopper:
It is a cone-shaped funnel which is used for pouring the raw material which comes
from the raw material storage section.
Adjustable Gates:
To control the flow and quantity of the raw material we need to use the adjustable
gate. It can be controlled manually, however, in modern blast furnaces it is opened
or closed electronically.
Rotating Chute:
It is used to blend the raw materials and more importantly, it prevents the escape of
furnace gas while charging the raw materials.
Fire brick:
Fire clay bricks are used to protect the furnace shell. It is made of ceramic material, it
can withstand high temperature and its thermal conductivity is very low.
Combustion Chamber:
It is a chamber where the combustion of the fuel occurred.
Gas Burner:
To generate the fire we need a burner, so inside the combustion chamber, a gas
burner is fitted.
Carbon Brick:
The outside of the combustion chamber is made by Carbon brick because it has
more capability to resist the withstand the internal heat of the combustion chamber. It
is a composite refractory material, with more slag resistance capability and high
thermal conductivity and low expansibility of carbon.
Taphole:
Through the tap hole, we can draw the molten material outside the furnace.
Tuyere:
It is a pipe, by which we supply the air to the furnace. To generate the air we can use
high-pressure blowers.
Zones of Blast Furnace:
In the blast furnace, we can see there are four main zones.
1. Stack
2. Barrel
3. Bosh
4. Hearth
Stack Zone:
It is the top zone of a Blast furnace, covered by Fire Brick. In this section hot gases
rise from the combustion chamber and flow upwards to heat the newly come raw
material from the hoppers.
Barrel Zone:
It comparatively more heated on then stack. It is also called a reduction zone, where
chemical relations have occurred.
Bosh Zone:
It is an intermediate zone between Heart (Bottom) and Bosh. It is the hottest part of
the furnace because in this section the proximity to the reaction between air and
coke is very close. Some portion of bosh is covered by thick fire clay bricks and
some portion is covered by carbon brick.
Hearth Zone:
It is the bottom portion of the blast furnace. In heart zone, hot gases are coming from
one side and fresh atmospheric gases come from the other side through the Tuyere.
Construction Details of Blast Furnace:
The blast furnace is constructed in the form of a tall structure, placed with special
kind of bricks (Fire Clay bricks) which are resistant to decomposition by any of the
environmental attacks. These bricks are the outlines to enable the expansion of
charged materials.
As soon as melting starts to occur, these brick heat and reduces in size. The
complete procedure is built with the help of various materials and compartments to
start processing. These include Hot blast from Cowper stoves, exhaust gases,
reduction zone of ferric oxide (stack), a long column containing ore, limestone, and
coke, pre-heating zone, melting zone (bosh), reduction zone of ferrous oxide (barrel)
and feed of ore, coke, and limestone. These components have different features and
purposes, which are discussed later in the article.
The detailed construction of blast furnace is categorized into two zones which are
physical zones and chemical zones. In the physical zone, the structural system of
this blast furnace is divided into five sections that include bosh, shaft, belly, hearth,
and tuyeres.
On the other hand, the chemical zone is also subdivided into five regions which are
stack zone, cohesive or softening zone, active coke zone, raceway (or tuyere) zone,
and hearth zone.
1. Hot blast from Cowper stoves 2. Melting zone 3. Reduction zone of ferrous oxide
4. Reduction zone of ferric oxide 5. Pre-heating zone 6. Feed of ore, limestone and
coke 7. Exhaust gases 8. Column of ore, coke and limestone 9. Removal of slag 10.
Tapping of molten pig iron 11. Collection of waste gases
Working Procedure of Blast Furnace:
The working phenomenon of this blast furnace is very simple. In order to smelt iron
from its ores, first of all, limestone flux, coke, and iron ore are introduced into the top
face of the furnace. They are allowed to enter with very precision order so that gas
flow and other chemical reactions can be controlled effectively.
The gas which is very hot and dirty is pressurized and supplied to exit point of the
furnace through its throat whereas ‘bleeder valves’ helps protect the sudden gas
pressure exerted at the top of the furnace.
The exhaust gas contains coarse particles that are deposited in the ‘dust catcher’ so
that they can be disposed of. On the other hand, a ‘venturi scrubber’ is provided to
flow the gas through it and later the gas passes from the gas cooler for the purpose
of decreasing the temperature of the cleaned gas.
The bottom half of the furnace possesses water cooler copper tuyeres, bustle pipe
and the equipment to collect slag and liquid iron. This compartment is generally
termed as ‘cast house’.
A tap is inserted in the refractory clay plug so that to make the flow of the liquid iron
and slag through a ‘skimmer’ which spates iron and slag. The advanced giant blast
furnaces usually have four tap holes and two cast houses. As soon as the slag and
pig iron is collected, the refractory clay is freed from the tap hole.

Application of Blast Furnace:

 There are numerous applications of blast furnaces that are being practiced in
various big as well as small industries mostly.
  In general, it is used to produce Pig iron from its ore.
 It is used in process plants.
 The slag of the blast furnace has hydraulic properties which are used in
cement as a additives
 Slag also helps in soil stabilization.

SPECIAL CASTING PROCESS

 Shell Moulding: Process, Application, Advantages and Disadvantages
There are various casting processes used in manufacturing industries. All these
processes have their own advantages and disadvantages which makes them
suitable for particular casting. Shell moulding, which is sometimes known as shell
mold casting, is one of a most suitable casting process for complex and other thin
sections. This process gives high accuracy and better surface finish. One of the
major advantages of this casting process which make it suitable for various casting
industries is that it can easily automated. These all advantages make this process
versatile and easily adoptable for any industries.

 
Shell mold casting process uses a mold like a shell, which is made by the mixture of
sand and resin. This mold is light weighted and have high strength which makes it
suitable for automatic casting. This process is suitable for both ferrous and non-
ferrous casting but it is mostly used for steel.
Shell Moulding Process:
Shell moulding involves various steps. These are given below
 Step 1: Making of Metal Pattern
 
The first and most important step involves in every casting process
is pattern making. Pattern is replica of the final product. It can made by wood,
plastic, metal etc. Shell moulding uses a metal pattern along with all pattern
allowance. This pattern is made by either aluminium of cast iron. One of the major
advantage of using metal pattern is that it gives high accurate casting and can be
used for multiple casting.
 
Step 2 : Heating of Pattern
The metal pattern created by other casting process is now heated at a temperature
range between 180 – 250 degree centigrade. This heating is essential which allows
to solidify resin mixed silica when poured on it. After heating, a small layer of
lubricant (Mosltly Silicon) sprayed over metallic pattern which allows easy removal of
metallic pattern from shell.

 
#Step 3 : Shell Mould Creation
This step is major step in this casting process. This step can be further divided into
following steps.
 Pattern is clamped over a dump box. Now this assembly is turned face down.
A mixture of sand and resin is filled into dump box. Mostly fine grade green
sand is used for mixture.
 Now this whole assemble is inverted which allow to sand resin mixture fall
over heated pattern. A layer of mixture, which is in direct contact with pattern
is become hard and form a shell. The thickness of shell is mostly depends on
the temperature of the pattern and time duration of contact.

 Now the dump box is again inverted which allow to remove extra sand resin
mixture.
  After it, metallic pattern is removed from dump box and shell is separated
from it. The other half of the mold is also created using same technic.

#Step 4 : Mold Assembly

 
This step assemble all shells created by the shell moulding. The all required shell
assembled into a flask and supported by a baking material. All desirable part like
cores, runner, riser etc. are attached to it.
 
#Step 5 : Casting formation
 
Now the cavity is filled with a molten metal and allow to solidify. After solidification
the metal cast is removed by breaking the shell. The casting formed by this process
is highly accurate and well finished. Generally it does not required further machining.

 
Advantages and Disadvantages:
Advantages:
 Thin and complex section can be easily cast.
  High dimension accuracy and good surface finish.
 Easily automated.
 It can be operate by an semi skilled operator.
 No further machining required.
Disadvantages:
 Special metal pattern required which makes it expensive for large casting.
 It is not suitable for small batch production.
 Shell moulds are less permeable compare to green sand mould.
 Size and weight limitation.
 
Application:
Most of industrial products like gearbox housing, connecting rod, small size boats,
truck hoods, cylindrical head, Camshaft, valve body etc. are made by shell moulding.
 
This is all about shell moulding casting process, advantages and disadvantages
along with its application. If you have any query regarding this article ask by
commenting. If you like this article, don’t forget to share it on social networks.
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Investment Casting
Investment casting produces very high surface quality and dimensional accuracy.
Investment casting is commonly used for precision equipment such as surgical
equipment, for complex geometries and for precious metals.
This process is commonly used by artisans to produce highly detailed artwork. The
first step is to produce a pattern or replica of the finished  mould. Wax is most
commonly used to form the pattern, although plastic is also used.
 Patterns are typically mass-produced by injecting liquid or semi-liquid wax into a
perm anent die.
 Prototypes, small production runs and specialty projects can also be undertaken by
carving wax models.
Cores are typically unnecessary but can be used for complex internal structures.
Rapid prototyping techniques have been developed to produce expendable patter
ns.
Several replicas are often attached to a gating system constructed of the same
material to form a tree assembly. In this way multiple castings can be produced in a
single pouring.
Advantages
– Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast
 – Close dimensional control and good surface finish
– Wax can usually be r ecovered for reuse
– Additional machining is not normally required - this is a net shape process
 Disadvantages
– Many processing step s are required
 – Relatively expensive process
Ceramic Mould Casting:
• Ceramic mould casting method uses a ceramic slurry prepared by mixing fine
grained refractory powders of Zircon ( Zr SiO4 ), alumina ( Al2 O3 ), fused silica ( Si
O2 ) and a patented liquid chemical binder (alcohol based silicon ester) for making
the mould.
• The patterns used are split gated metal patterns usually mounted on a match plate.
• Unlike the patterns in investment casting these patterns are reusable.
• The slurry is applied over the patterns surfaces to form a thin coating around it. The
slurry fills up all cavities and recesses by it and no ramming or vibration of the mould
is required.
• The pattern is withdrawn after it sets in about 3 to 5 minutes.
• The mould is removed from the flasks, treated with a hardener to promote chemical
stabilization and transferred to an oven for heating to about 100°C.
• The mould is ready to take molten metal.
CERAMICS MOULD MAKING
The advantages of the process include:
1. High precision and very good surface finish.
2. The process does not require any risering, venting or chilling because the rate of
cooling is very slow.
3. Any patterns made of wood, metal or plastic can be used.
4. The process can be used for all types of metals including highly reactive titanium
or uranium.
The method can be used for producing precision parts like dies for drawing,
extrusion, casting, forging etc., pump impellers, components of nuclear reactors and
air craft.
The main short comings of the process are its high cost and the difficulty in
controlling dimensional tolerances across the parting line.
Advantage of Ceramic Mold Casting:
 High temperature pours possible therefore suitable for steels and other alloys
 Creative complex designs can be made
 Can be used for mass production
 Casting with accurate dimensional accuracy possible
 Little machining is required therefore difficult-to machine alloys can be cast
 Supports both industry and home foundry operations
 Complicate and innovative designs can be casted.
Applications of Ceramic Mold Casting:
Using stainless steel and bronze, ceramic mold casting is best suited for casting a
wide variety of products ranging from house hold goods to industrial tools. Some of
casted products are kitchen wares like kettles, industrial products like impellers,
complex cutting tools, plastic mold tooling etc.
Pressure Die Casting
Pressure die casting is a quick, reliable and cost-effective manufacturing process for
production of high volume, metal components that are net-shaped have tight
tolerances. Basically, the pressure die casting process consists of injecting under
high pressure a molten metal alloy into a steel mold (or tool). This gets solidified
rapidly (from milliseconds to a few seconds) to form a net shaped component. It is
then automatically extracted.
Advantages of Pressure Die Casting :

•Lower costs compared to other processes.

•Economical - typically production of any number of components from thousands to
millions before requiring replacement is possible.
•Castings with close dimensional control and good surface finish
•Castings with thin walls, and therefore are lighter in weight
Types of Pressure Die Casting
High Pressure Die Casting
Low Pressure Die Casting

Depending upon the pressure used, there are two types of pressure die casting
namely High Pressure Die Casting and Low Pressure Die Casting. While high
pressure die casting has wider application encompassing nearly 50% of all light alloy
casting production. Currently low pressure die casting accounts for about 20% of the
total production but its use is increasing. High pressure castings are must for
castings requiring tight tolerance and detailed geometry. As the extra pressure is
able to push the metal into more detailed features in the mold. Low pressure die
casting is commonly used for larger and non-critical parts.

However, the machine and its dies are very costly, and for this reason pressure die
casting is viable only for high-volume production.
High Pressure Die Casting

Here, the liquid metal is injected with high speed and high pressure into the metal
mold. The basic equipment consists of two vertical platens. The bolsters are placed
on these platens and this holds the die halves. Out of the two platens, one is fixed
and the other movable.
High Pressure Die Casting Process

This helps the die to open and close. A specific amount of metal is poured into the
shot sleeve and afterwards introduced into the mold cavity. This is done using a
hydraulically-driven piston. After the metal has solidified, the die is opened and the
casting eventually removed.
Types of High Pressure Die Casting:

Both the processes are described below. The only difference between the two
processes is the method being used to inject molten metal into the die.
Hot Chamber Process

The hot-chamber process is applicable only for zinc and other low melting point
alloys that does not affect and erode metal pots cylinders and plungers.
The basic components of a hot-chamber diecasting machine and die are illustrated
below:
Hot Chamber Process
The workings of a hot chamber process goes like this. The molten metal for casting
is placed in the holding furnace at the required temperature adjacent to(sometimes
as part of the machine itself) the machine. The injection mechanism is placed within
the holding furnace and most of its part is in constant touch with the molten metal.
When pressure is transmitted by the injection piston, the metal is forced through the
gooseneck into the die. On the return stroke, the metal is drawn towards the
gooseneck for the next shot.
This process ensures minimum contact between air and the metal to be injected.
The tendency for entrainment of air in the metal during injection is also minimised.
Cold Chamber Process

The difference of this process with the hot-chamber process is that the injection
system is not submerged in molten metal. On the contrary, metal gets transferred by
ladle, manually or automatically, to the shot sleeve. The metal is pushed into the die
by a hydraulically operated plunger. This process minimises the contact time
between the injector components and the molten metal. Which extends the life of the
components. However the entrainment of air into the metal generally associated with
high-speed injection can cause gas porosity in the castings. In the cold chamber
machine, injection pressures over 10,000 psi or 70,000 KPa is obtainable. Generally
steel castings along with aluminium and copper based alloys are produced by this
method.
Cold Chamber Process
Low Pressure Die Casting
High quality castings, of aluminium alloys, along with magnesium and other low
melting point alloys are usually produced through this process. Castings of
aluminium in the weight range of 2-150 kg are a common feature.
The process works like this, first a metal die is positioned above a sealed furnace
containing molten metal. A refractory-lined riser extends from the bottom of the die
into the molten metal. Low pressure air (15 - 100 kPa, 2- 15 psi) is then introduced
into the furnace. This makes the molten metal rise up the tube and enter the die
cavity with low turbulence. After the metal has solidified, the air pressure is
released . This makes the metal still in the molten state in the riser tube to fall back
into the furnace. After subsequent cooling, the die is opened and the casting
extracted.
With correct die design it is possible to eliminate the need of the riser also. This is
because of the directional freezing of the casting. After the sequence has been
established, the process can be controlled automatically using temperature and
pressure controllers to oversee the operation of more than one diecasting machine.
Casting yield is exceptionally high as there is usually only one ingate and no feeders.
 Low Pressure Die Casting Process

Application of Pressure Die Casting

 Automotive parts like wheels, blocks, cylinder heads, manifolds etc.
 Aerospace castings.
 Electric motor housings.
 Kitchen ware such as pressure cooker.
 Cabinets for the electronics industry.
 General hardware appliances, pump parts, plumbing parts.
Centrifugal Casting: Working Principle, Types, Application, Advantages and
Disadvantages
Centrifugal Casting:
Working Principle:
It works on basic principle of centrifugal force on a rotating Component. In this
process, a mould is rotated about its central axis when the molten metal is poured
into it. A centrifugal force acts on molten metal due to this rotation, which forces the
metal at outer wall of mould. The mould rotates until the whole casting solidifies. The
slag oxide and other inclusion being lighter, gets separated from metal and
segregate towards the center.
 True Centrifugal Casting:
True centrifugal casting is sometime known as centrifugal casting is a process of
making symmetrical round hollow sections. This process uses no cores and the
symmetrical hollow section is created by pure centrifugal action. In this process, the
mould rotates about horizontal or vertical axis. Mostly the mould is rotated about
horizontal axis and the molten metal introduce from an external source. The
centrifugal force acts on the molten metal which forces it at the outer wall of mould.
The mould rotates until the whole casting solidifies. The slag particles are lighter
than metal thus separated at the central part of the casting and removed by
machining or other suitable process.  This process used to make hollow pipes,
tubes, hollow bushes etc. which are axi-symmetrical with a concentric hole.

 
Semi Centrifugal Casting:
This process is used to cast large size axi symmetrical object. In this process mould
is placed horizontally and rotated along the vertical axis. A core is inserted at the
center which is used to cast hollow section. When the mould rotates, the outer
portion of the mould fill by purely centrifugal action and as the liquid metal
approaches toward the center, the centrifugal component decreases and gravity
component increase. Thus a core is inserted at center to make hollow cavity at the
center without centrifugal force. In this process centrifugal force is used for uniform
filling of axi symmetrical parts. Gear blanks, flywheel etc. are made by this process.

 
Centrifuging:
In this process there are several mould cavities connected with a central sprue with
radial gates. This process uses higher metal pressure during solidification. It is used
to cast shapes which are not axi symmetrical. This is only suitable for small objects.
 
Application:
 It is widely used in aircraft industries to cast rings, flanges
and compressor casting.
 It is used for cast Steam turbine bearing shell.
 Roller for steel rolling mill is another example of centrifugal casting.
 It is used in automobile industries to cast gear blank, cylindrical
liners, piston rings etc.
 It is used to cast bearings.
 This process used to cast switch gear components used in electronic
industries.
Advantages and Disadvantages:
Advantages:
 It provides dense metal and high mechanical properties.
 Unidirectional solidification can obtain up to a certain thickness.
 It can use for mass production.
 No cores are required for cast hollow shapes like tubes etc.
 Gating system and runner are totally eliminated.
 All the impurity like oxide or other slag particles, segregated at center from
where it can easily remove.
 It required lower pouring temperature thus save energy.
  Lower casting defects due to uniform solidification.
Disadvantages:
 Limited design can be cast. It can cast only symmetrical shapes.
 High equipment or setup cost.
 It is not suitable for every metal.
 Higher maintenance required.
 High skill operator required.
 In this casting process, solidification time and temperature distribution is
difficult to determine.
Carbon Dioxide Process for Mould Hardening | Casting | Metallurgy

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Formerly this process was widely used in Europe for hardening of moulds and cores
made of green sand, but now- a-days, it has been adopted in several countries
because of rapid hardening of sand. It consists of thorough mixing of silica sand
(clean, dry and free from clay) with 3.5 to 5% by weight of sodium silicate liquid base
binder in a muller.
Sometimes coal-dust, pitch, graphite and wood flour are also added so as to improve
the collapsibility property. The mixture is then put into core-boxes by anyone of the
conventional methods. After packing, CO2 is forced into the mould at a pressure of
about 1.4 kg/cm2. The sodium silicate present in the mould reacts with CO 2 and
gives a hard substance called the silica gel.
Na2SiO2xH2O + CO2 ——— > Na2CO3 + (SiO2xH2O)
ADVERTISEMENTS:
The silica gel is a hard substance like cement and hence helps in binding of sand
grains. The method of introducing the gas must be simple, rapid and uniform
throughout the sand body.
Normally time taken to harden a medium size body is about 20 to 30 seconds. Fig.
3.72 gives the steps for preparing a casting by CO 2 hardening process. The method
of introducing the CO2 gas must be simple, rapid and uniform throughout the sand
mass.
The time to harden a small or medium size body of sand ranges from 15 to 30
seconds. Over gassing is wasteful and results in deterioration of sand.
Pattern used for this process is either of metal or wood. If wood is used, it is given a
coating of alkaline resistant solution of that varnish which does not have any
chemical reaction with mould material. This process can be applied for both ferrous
and non-ferrous castings.

The primary application of the CO 2 process for moulding is as a substitute for dry
sand moulding, the elimination of stoving being the principal attraction. This process
is used for the production of large moulds from wooden patterns, and for small
repetition castings to a high standard of surface finish and close dimensional
tolerance thus acting as a substitute for shell moulding.
Advantages of Carbon Dioxide Process:
The advantages of this process are as follows:
(i) Operation is speedy. Pattern withdrawal is easier.
(ii) Castings obtained have close tolerances and good surface finish.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
(iii) Baking operations for hardening the cores and moulds are avoided.
(iv) Cores and moulds can be stored for a long time. Cores can often be made
hollow, with a consequent saving in binder.
(v) Permeability and flow ability of sand are improved.
(vi) The process being simple, requires semi-skilled labour.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
(vii) Evolution of gases can be reduced to one-third of the gases given by green sand
and dry sand moulds.
(viii) A uniform sand may be used for both moulds and cores production.
(ix) Less possibility of distortion of mould and core during the process of hardening.
(x) While pouring, the sand does not flow with the metal.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
(xi) Accurate castings with sharp corners can be made.
Limitations of Carbon Dioxide Process:
(a) There is always a tendency for sand with silica base binder to air hardens, if kept
for a long time.
(b) Sand mixture is costly due to use of binders and additives.
(c) Due to hardening of mould and core, the collapsibility property sometimes gives
trouble.
(d) Sand with a silica-base binder has tendency to air harden to some extent, if kept
for a long time.
(e) Lack of any cheap method for recovery of the spent sand.
Stir casting
Stir casting is a type of casting process in which a mechanical stirrer is introduced to
form vortex to mix reinforcement in the matrix material. It is a suitable process for
production of metal matrix composites due to its cost effectiveness, applicability to
mass production, simplicity, almost net shaping and easier control of composite
structure
Stir casting setup as shown in Figure 1, consist of a furnace, reinforcement feeder
and mechanical stirrer. The furnace is used to heating and melting of the materials.
The bottom poring furnace is more suitable for the stir casting as after stirring of the
mixed slurry instant poring is required to avoid the settling of the solid particles in the
bottom the crucible. The mechanical stirrer is used to form the vortex which leads the
mixing of the reinforcement material which are introduced in the melt. Stirrer consist
of the stirring rod and the impeller blade. The impeller blade may be of, various
geometry and various number of blades. Flat blade with three number are the
preferred as it leads to axial flow pattern in the crucible with less power consumption.
This stirrer is connected to the variable speed motors, the rotation speed of the
stirrer is controlled by the regulator attached with the motor. Further, the feeder is
attached with the furnace and used to feed the reinforcement powder in the melt. A
permanent mold, sand mold or a lost-wax mold can be used for pouring the mixed
slurry.
Figure 1.
Schematic of stir casting setup.
Various steps involved in stir casting process is shown in Figure 2. In this process,
the matrix material are kept in the bottom pouring furnace for melting.
Simultaneously, reinforcements are preheated in a different furnace at certain
temperature to remove moisture, impurities etc. After melting the matrix material at
certain temperature the mechanical stirring is started to form vortex for certain time
period then reinforcements particles are poured by the feeder provided in the setup
at constant feed rate at the center of the vortex, the stirring process is continued for
certain time period after complete feeding of reinforcements particles. The molten
mixture is then poured in preheated mold and kept for natural cooling and
solidification. Further, post casting process such as heat treatment, machining,
testing, inspection etc. has been done. There are various impeller blade geometry
are available. Melting of the matrix material is very first step that has been done
during this process.
Types of Casting Defects
A properly designed casting, a properly prepared mould and correctly malted metal
should result in a defect free casting. However, if proper control is not exercised in
the foundry-sometimes it is too expensive - a variety of defects may result in a
casting.

These defects may be the result of:

(a) improper pattern design,
(b) improper mould and core construction,
(c) improper melting practice,
(d) improper pouring practice and
(e) Because of molding and core making materials.
(f) Improper gating system
(g) Improper metal composition
(h) Inadequate melting temp and rate of pouring
It creates a deficiency or imperfection.

Exceeding quality limits imposed by design and service casting defects are mainly 3
categories. These are:

(1) Major or most severe defects

(2) Intermediate defects
(3) Minor defects

Surface defects:
Due to design and quality of sand molds and general cause is poor ramming.

Blow:
Blow is relatively large cavity produced by gases which displace molten metal form.

 Scar:
Due to improper permeability or venting.A scare is a shallow blow. It generally
occurs on flat surf; whereas a blow occurs on a convex casting surface. A blister is a
shallow blow like a scar with thin layer of metal covering it,

Scab:
This defect occurs when a portion of the face of a mould lifts or breaks down and the
recess thus made is filled by metal. When the metal is poured into the cavity, gas
may be disengaged with such violence as to break up the sand which is then
washed away and the resulting cavity filled with metal. The reasons can be: - to fine
sand, low permeability of sand, high moisture content of sand and uneven moulds
ramming.

Drop:
Drop or crush in a mould is an irregularly shaped projection on the cope surface of a
casting. This defect is caused by the break-away of a part of mould sand as a result
of weak packing of the mould, low strength of the molding sand, malfunctioning of
molding equipment, strong jolts and strikes at the flask when assembling the mould.
The loose sand that falls into the cavity will also cause a dirty casting surface, either
on the top or bottom surface of the casting, depending upon the relative densities of
the sand and the liquid.
Penetration:
It is a strong crust of fused sand on the surface of a casting which results from
insufficient refractoriness of molding materials, a large content of impurities,
inadequate mould packing and poor quality of mould washes. 
When the molten metal is poured into the mould cavity, at those places when the
sand packing is inadequate, some metal will flow between the sand particles for
a distance into the mould wall and get solidified. When the casting is removed, this
lump of metal remains attached to the casting. Of course, it can be
removed afterwards by chipping or grinding.

Buckle:
A buckle is a long, fairly shallow, broad, vee depression that occurs in the surface of
flat castings. It extends in a fairly straight line across the entire flat surface.
It results due to the sand expansion caused by the heat of the metal, when the sand
has insufficient hot deformation. It also results from poor casting design providing too
large a flat surface in the mold cavity.  
Buckling is prevented by mixing cereal or wood flour to sand.

Internal defects:
Blow holes:
Blow holes, gas holes or gas cavities are well rounded cavities having a clean and
smooth surface. They appear either on the casting surface or in the body of a
casting.
These defects occur when an excessive evolved gas is not able to flow through the
mould. So, it collects into a bubble at the high points of a mould cavity ad prevents
the liquid metal from filling that space. 
This will result in open blows. Closed, cavities or gas holes are formed when the
evolved gases or the dissolved gases in the molten metal are not able to leave the m
ass of the molten metal as it solidifies and get trapped within the casting.
These defects are caused by : 
i) excessive moisture content (in the case of green sand moulds) or organic content
of the sand, moisture on chills, chaplets or metal inserts, 
ii) inadequate gas permeability of the molding sand (due to fine grain size of sand,
high clay content, hard ramming), 
iii) poor venting of mould, insufficient drying of mould and cores, cores not properly
vented, high gas content of the molten metal, 
iv) low pouring temperature and incorrect feeding of the casting etc.
Pin holes:
Pin holes are small gas holes either at the surface or just below the surface. When
these are present, they occur in large numbers and are fairly uniformly dispersed
over the surface. 

This defect occurs due to gas dissolved in the alloy and the alloy not properly
degassed.

Visible defects:
Wash:
A cut or wash is a low; projection on the drag face of a casting that extends along the
surface, decreasing in height as it extends from one side of the casting to the other
end. 
It usually occurs with bottom gating castings in which the molding sand has
insufficient hot strength, and when too much metal is made to flow through one gate
into the mold cavity,

Rat tail:
A rat tail is a long, shallow, angular depression in the surface of a flat rating and
resembles a buckle, except that, it is not shaped like a broad vee. 

The reasons for this defect are the same for buckle.

Hot tear:
Hot tears are hot cracks which appear in the form of irregular crevices with a dark
oxidized fracture surface. They arise when the solidifying met does not have
sufficient strength to resist tensile forces produced during solidification. 
They are chiefly from an excessively high temperature of casting metal, increased
metal contraction incorrect design of the gating system and casting on the whole
(causing portions of the casting to be restrained from shrinking freely during cooling
which in turn causes excessive high intern resistance stresses), poor deformability of
the cores, and non-uniform cooling which gives rise t internal stresses. This defect
can be avoided by improving the design of the casting and by having a mould of low
hot strength and large hot deformation.
Shrinkage:
A shrinkage cavity is a depression or an internal void in a casting that results from
the volume contraction that occurs during solidification.

Swell:
A swell is a slight, smooth bulge usually found on vertical faces of castings, resulting
from liquid metal pressure. It may be due to low strength of mould because of too
high a water content or when the mould is not rammed sufficiently.
Shift:
Mold shift refers to a defect caused by a sidewise displacement of the mold cope
relative to the drag, the result of which is a step in the cast product at the parting line.

Core shift is similar to mold shift, but it is the core that is displaced, and (he dis-
placement is usually vertical. Core shift and mold shift are caused by buoyancy of
the molten metal 

Misrun or cold sheet or short run:

This defect is incomplete cavity filling. The reasons can be: - inadequate metal
supply, too- low mould or melt temperature, improperly designed gates, .or length to
thickness ratio of the casting is too large. When molten metal is flowing from one
side in a thin section, it may loose sufficient heat resulting in loss of its fluidity, such
that the leading edge of the stream may freeze before it reaches the end of the
cavity.