English for Acad Introduction: The introduction builds a

reader's interest in the topic

What is an Editorial Article? and gives an overview of the issue.
An editorial is a short essay that shares an
individual's opinion on a current event or Argument: The argument presents your
social issue. The goal of a good editorial is opinion along with reasons why the
to persuade the reader to consider your audience should agree with you.
perspective and change their opinion.
Editorials often focus on controversial issues Evidence: The evidence supports your
with widely different viewpoints. argument with facts, research or anecdotes.

Types of Editorial Counterargument: All editorial writers

1. Interpretive should establish credibility by presenting a
An interpretive editorial explains and fair review of the perspectives involved.
provides background information on an While a praising editorial might be mostly
event or issue. This type of editorial aims to positive with a brief reference to an issue, a
raise awareness and discuss how the topic is critical editorial needs to address the
relevant to the reader. opposing perspective directly.

2. Critical Refutation: After sharing the counter-

The critical format focuses on the various argument with a reader, the writer must
causes of a problem and suggests a explain why that argument is not accurate or
solution. relevant. Refuting the counterargument
For example, you might critique a policy allows you to promote your point of view
that relates to your issue in order to while still seeming fair.
advocate for a specific change.
Conclusion: In the fi nal paragraph of your
3. Persuasive editorial, summarize your point of view and
This type of editorial appeals directly to the remind the reader why they should care
reader and encourages them to take action. about this issue.
The persuasive format focuses on the
reader's ability to change a situation by Steps in Writing an Editorial
following your advice. 1. Decide on a topic
Since editorials are based on opinion, your
4. Praising topic should be arguable and have multiple
A praising editorial shows appreciation for a points of view. Your essay will reflect your
person or organization based on their personal bias or the bias of the group you
involvement in an issue. are representing, so you should expect
some of your readers to disagree with your
Parts of an Editorial stance. You might select a controversial
Good persuasive articles have the following topic that involves politics in order to
elements: provoke conversation about your writing.
Regardless of the topic you choose, make
sure that you can write about it passionately beginning to write, look back on your
and focus on why others should agree with research for inspiration.
your perspective.
5. Proofread
2. Research your topic Before submitting your editorial, proofread
Even though an editorial is opinion-based, it your own work to make sure you have
is still important to provide your readers created a professional, quality piece of
with well-researched evidence to back up writing. Many writers read their work aloud
your ideas. You can convince your readers to check for tone and flow. Another popular
of your credibility by demonstrating proofreading technique is to read your
knowledge of what other prominent voices paper backward, starting with the last
have to say on the topic. Researching your sentence and moving to the introduction.
topic can also help you decide which
particular stance you will take and create an Tips in Writing an Editorial
article that contributes new ideas to the Use these tips to make your editorial as
conversation. convincing and relevant as possible:

3. Create an outline • Be decisive. Your editorial needs to take a

After selecting and researching an issue, fi rm position on your chosen topic. Any time
write an outline to keep your ideas you mention an opposing view, immediately
organized and ensure that the main points explain why it is incorrect and why readers
of your editorial flow well. The introduction should agree with you instead. Convince
will always be at the beginning of the essay readers to consider your ideas by displaying
and the conclusion at the end, but you can confi dence in your stance.
organize your body paragraphs based on
what format fits your essay the best. List Offer new ideas. During the research
each main idea as its own paragraph, process, see if there are any aspects to your
making sure to provide evidence for each issue that others have not yet discussed.
idea. While anyone can have an opinion, adding
something new to a discussion will show
4. Start to write that you have put careful thought into your
Once you finish the planning portion of piece.
writing your editorial, start to write by
adding details to your outline. Some people Provide solutions. If you draw attention to
prefer to start with the introduction, while an issue in an editorial, provide possible
others focus on the body of the paper first solutions to the problem. You want to avoid
and write the introduction at the end. Try to simply complaining so that the audience
write down as many ideas as you can at first, can fi nd value in your work and consider
then go back and edit your paper. Getting taking action themselves.
started on a paper can be the most
challenging part of the process for many Focus on your interests. Whenever
writers. If you find yourself having trouble possible, choose a topic that you are
passionate about. Your writing will refl ect
that you actually care about the issue, Ex: Our soccer team was losing until I
making your paper more interesting to read bought new shoes.
and more relevant to readers.
3. Poisoning the well/ Ad Hominem-
What is an Argumentative Essay? An argument does not become
invalid by virtue of the person stating
Argumentative Essay  it.
An argumentative essay is a piece of writing Ex: Once a cheater, always a cheater 
that takes a stance on an issue. In a good
argumentative essay, a writer attempts to 4. Appeal to Authority- An argument
persuade readers to understand and Does not necessarily become correct
support their point of view about a topic by if a popular highly esteemed person
stating their reasoning and providing is the one saying it. It has to be
evidence to back it up.  evaluated based on its own merits.
Ex: If someone said, “Einstein said ‘God
What is a Motion in an argumentative essay? does not play dice with the universe,’
therefore God must exist.”
Motion
A motion refers to your main proposal or 5. Ad Populum- In logical reasoning,
argument. You need to defend your motion the majority do not always win. The
using facts. In doing this, it is necessary that majority of the population believing
you look for credible sources like scholarly in an argument does not make it
journals and books in order to substantiate correct.
your position. Ex:  Just because he won the elections,
doesn’t mean he can lead the country very
What is Fallacy? well
A fallacy is an error in reasoning and this
usually happens when we have faulty 6. False Analogy- This happens when
assumptions in the way we relate ideas. two unlike concepts or things are
compared as if they were just similar
What are some commonly committed to one another.
fallacies? Ex:  My head hurts, my parents told me that
Types of Fallacy this is caused by my frequent gadget use.
1. Sweeping Generalization- This
happens when you come up with a 7. False dichotomy- This happens
conclusion based on a limited when two choices are presented as if
number of examples. they were the only choices available. 
Ex: Patience is good at math  Ex: You can either get married or be alone
for the rest of your life.
2. Post hoc, ergo propter hoc-
Remember that two things that
happened one after the after are not
necessarily related.
What are the other strategies that will make 4. Content Analysis
your manner of arguing more effective? - An examination of a media or literary
production.
1. Necessity
• Evaluate if the position you want to Structure of a Report
argue is really necessary. 1. Title
➢ This should be short and precise. It
2. Practicality should tell the reader of the nature of your
• Consider whether the motion or research.
solution being proposed would cost ➢ Omit any unnecessary detail e.g. “A study
too much or take too much trouble of...” is not necessary.
to do that would be better off by not
implementing it altogether. 2. Abstract
➢ The Abstract is a self-contained summary
3. Beneficiality of the whole of your report. It will therefore
• Consider if the general public can be written last and is usually limited to one
benefit from this solution. paragraph. It should contain:
• an outline of what you investigated (as
What is a Report? stated in your title);
Report • why you chose to look at that particular
• A report is the formal writing of a project area with brief reference to prior research
or a research investigation. done in the field;
• A report has clearly defined sections • your hypothesis (prediction of what the
presented in a standard format, which are results will show);
used to tell the reader what you did, why • a brief summary of your method;
and how you did it and what you found. • your main findings and how these relate to
your hypothesis; and
What are the different kinds of Report? • a conclusion which may include a
Kinds of Report suggestion for further research.

1. Ethnography Report 3. Introduction

- A documentation of the lives of the ➢ The Introduction sets the scene for your
members of a particular community in report. It can be presented in two ways:
authentic settings. • by introducing the reader in more detail to
the subject area you are looking at; or
2. Feasibility Report • by presenting your objectives and
- An evaluation of whether putting up a hypotheses.
business in a particular place will be ➢ Explain the background to the problem
profitable. with reference to previous work conducted
in the area (i.e. a literature review). Only
3. Laboratory Report include studies that have direct relevance to
- An explanation for a natural phenomena. your research.
➢ Briefly discuss the findings of other Presenting Data in Tables and Graphs
researchers and how these connect with • Do not present the same data in two or
your study. more ways i.e. use either a table or a graph,
➢ Finally, state your aims or hypothesis. or just text.
• Remember that a graph should be
4. Method understandable independently of any text,
➢ The Method section should describe but you may accompany each with a
every step of how you carried out your description if necessary.
research in sufficient detail so that the • Use clear and concise titles for each figure.
reader understands what you did. Say which variables the graph or table
Information on your experimental design, compares.
sampling methods, participants, and the • Describe what the graph or table shows,
overall procedure employed should be then check that this really is what it shows! If
clearly specified. it isn’t, you need to amend your figure, or
your description.
This information is usually presented under
the following sub- headings: Statistical Analysis
• Objective ➢ If you conducted a statistical analysis of
• Design your results:
• Participants • say which test you used;
• Procedure(s) • show how your results were analyzed,
laying out your calculations clearly (ensure
5. Results you include the level of probability or
➢ Your Results section should clearly significance p or P, and the number of
convey your findings. These are what you observations made n);
will base your commentary on in the • clearly state the results of the analysis
Discussion section, so the reader needs to saying whether the result was statistically
be certain of what you found. significant or not both as numbers and in
• Present data in a summarized form words.
• Raw data
6. Discussion
➢ Do not over-complicate the presentation ➢ The Discussion section is the most
and description of your results. Be clear and important part of your report. It relates the
concise. findings of your study to the research that
• Describe what the results were, don’t offer you talked about in your introduction,
interpretations of them. thereby placing your work in the wider
• Present them in a logical order. context. The discussion helps the reader
• Those that link most directly to your understand the relevance of your research
hypothesis should be given first. to previous and further work in the field.
This is your chance to discuss, analyze and
interpret your results in relation to all the
information you have collected.
➢ The Discussion will probably be the that the reader may find useful to refer to.
longest section of your report and should All appendices should be clearly labelled
contain the following: and referred to where appropriate in the
• A summary of the main results of your main text (e.g. See Appendix A for an
study example questionnaire).
• An interpretation of these results in
relation to your aims, predictions or What is a Research Instrument?
hypothesis, e.g. Is your hypothesis Research Instrument
supported or rejected?, and in relation to ➢ Research Instrument is a tool used to
the findings of other research in the area. gather data on a specific topic of interest.
• Consideration of the broader implications ➢When preparing an instrument, you must
of your findings. What do they suggest for ensure that it is valid and reliable. An
future research in the area? If your results instrument is valid when it directly answers
contradict previous findings what does this or addresses your research questions. It is
suggest about your work or the work of reliable when it provides you consistent
others? What should be studied next? and stable data over a period of time.
• A discussion of any limitations or
problems with your research method or What are the different types of a Research
experimental design and practical Instrument?
suggestions of how these might be avoided
if the study was conducted again. Types of Research Instrument
• Some carefully considered ideas for 1. SURVEY
further research in the area that would help ➢ contains planned questions which are
clarify or take forward your own findings. used to measure attitudes, perceptions, and
opinions.
7. Conclusions Three Types of Questions:
➢ The Conclusion section briefly • Recall, Recognition, and Open-ended
summarizes the main issues arising from
your report. 2. INTERVIEW
➢ allows the researcher to qualitatively
8. References gather data.
➢ Give details of work by all other authors Different stages:
which you have referred to in your report. 1. Pre-interview
➢ Check a style handbook or journal 2. Warm-up stage
articles for variations in referencing styles. 3. Main interview
4. Closing
9. Appendices
➢The Appendices contain material that is Guidelines when conducting an interview:
relevant to your report but would disrupt a. Before the interview, arrange your
its flow if it was contained within the main questions logically to make the flow of the
body. For example: raw data and interview smoother.
calculations; interview questions; a b. Begin by introducing yourself and the
glossary of terms, or other information purpose of the interview.
3. QUESTIONNAIRE b. Make yourself present and accessible
➢ lists written questions to get specific during an experiment.
information.
Parts of questionnaire:
a. Personal Information What are the advantages and disadvantages
b. Basic questions of each instrument?
c. Main questions
d. Open-ended questions • QUESTIONNAIRE: least expensive, least
time consuming, has the lowest response
Guidelines in preparing a questionnaire: rate, requires participants to read and write
a. Introduce the questionnaire through a • INTERVIEW: high response rate, can
cover letter. clarify items to be asked, time-consuming,
b. Keep the questionnaire as short as expensive
possible by focusing only on the • OBSERVATION: provides direct access to
essential questions. a phenomenon, complements other
c. Ensure the confidentiality of information. instruments, may be
biased, time consuming
Guidelines: • EXPERIMENT: establishes cause and
a. Develop an observation guide or effect, can be replicated, may result in an
checklist which identifies the artificial situation, prone to experiment’s
phenomenon you want to understand. effects.
b. Decide on the type of observation that
you will use. How do we prepare a Research Instrument?
c. Know your limitations as an observer.
General Guidelines in Preparing an
5. EXPERIMENT Instrument
➢ a procedure undertaken scientifically and
systematically to make a discovery and to 1. Do a preliminary research by visiting your
test hypothesis. library or checking online sources.
Steps: 2. Talk to a person who is knowledgeable in
1. Make observations. preparing instruments.
2. Develop hypothesis.
3. Design the experiment. What is a Survey?
4. Conduct the experiment.
5. Analyze the results. Survey
6. Decide on whether to accept or • Survey means collecting information
reject the hypothesis based on the results. about a group of people by asking them
questions and analyzing the results.
Guidelines: • Surveys are a flexible method of data
a. Always coordinate with laboratory collection that can be used in many
technician or supervisor when doing an different types of research.
experiment
What are the steps in planning and ➢If the survey covers several different topics
conducting survey? or themes, group together related
questions. You can divide a questionnaire
Steps in Planning and Conducting Survey into sections to help respondents
To conduct an effective survey, follow understand what is being asked in each
these six steps: part.
1. Determine who will participate in the ➢If a question refers back to or depends on
survey the answer to a previous question, they
➢ Before you start conducting survey should be placed directly next to one
research, you should already have a clear another.
research question that defines what you ➢In terms of language, the survey
want to find out. Based on this question, you questions should be as clear and precise as
need to determine exactly who you will possible. Tailor the questions to your target
target to participate in the survey. population, keeping in mind their level of
knowledge of the topic.
Populations ➢Use language that respondents will easily
• The target population is the specific group understand, and avoid words with vague
of people that you want to find out about. or ambiguous meanings. Make sure your
This group can be very broad or relatively questions are phrased neutrally, with no
narrow. bias towards one answer or another.

Samples 4. Distribute the survey

• The sample should aim to be ➢Before you start, create a clear plan for
representative of the population as a whole. where, when, how, and with whom you will
The larger and more representative for your conduct the survey. Determine in advance
sample, the more valid your conclusions. how many responses you require and how
There are many sampling methods that you will gain access to the sample.
allow you to generalize to broad
populations. 5. Analyze the responses
➢ There are many methods of analyzing the
2. Decide the type of survey (mail, online, results of your survey. You need to
or in-person) determine which method or statistical
analysis you are going to use.
Two Types of Survey
• Questionnaires 6. Write up the results
• Interview ➢ Finally, when you have collected and
analyzed all the necessary data, you will
3. Design the survey questions and write it up as part of your thesis, dissertation
layout or research paper.
➢The questions should be arranged in a ➢ In the methodology section, you describe
logical order. Start with easy, non-sensitive, exactly how you conducted the survey. You
closed-ended questions that will encourage should explain the types of questions you
the respondent to continue. used, the sampling method, when and
where the survey took place, and the Strategies in Reading a Chart
response rate. You can include the full 1. Study each step or grouping presented in
questionnaire as an appendix if relevant. the chart.
➢ Then introduce the analysis by describing 2. Pay attention to the arrows or lines that
how you prepared the data and the indicate the flow, relationship, steps, and
statistical methods you used to analyze it. In sequence.
the results section, you summarize the key 3. To ensure you understood the chart,
results from your analysis. summarize each step or component in your
➢In the discussion and conclusion, you give own words and make your own chart in your
your explanations and interpretations of mind.
these results, answer your research 4. Compare your mental chart to the
question, and reflect on the implications description in the text to check how
and limitations of the research. accurate you are.

What is Data Visualization? Two Types of Charts

Data Visualization is the graphical
representation of information and data by 1. An Organizational Chart presents
using visual elements like charts, graphs, rankings, classification, and levels of
and maps, data visualization tools to ideas.
provide an accessible way to see and
understand trends, outliers, and patterns in Strategies in Preparing an Organizational
data. Chart
1. Use varied shapes carefully. Rectangles
What are the common classifications of are usually used for all positions.
visuals? 2. Connect the boxes with solid lines to
show direct reporting relationships oand
Common Classification of Visuals dotted lines to show indirect or staff
relationship.
• Charts 3. You may design the chart creatively but
• Graphs avoid making it too distracting or
• Tables complicated.
• Diagrams
• Visual Images 2. A Flow Chart illustrates a process or
• Maps direction of steps.

A. Charts Strategies in Preparing a Flow Chart

A chart is a graphical representation of data
using symbols that are usually boxes, 1. Present only the capsule version of the
lines, and arrows. Its general purpose is to whole process.
show ranks, levels, procedures, and 2. Limit the number of shapes to avoid
classifications. confusion. Note that each shape has a
corresponding meaning. Some of the most
basic shapes include:
▪ Rectangle which is used to refer to an 5. Read the details with the headings in
event which is part of the process; it is mind.
usually used for steps or actions taken. 6. Compare and contrast the different
▪ Diamond which is used to show a decision columns.
point in the process, generally, the text
inside the diamond requires a 'yes' or 'no' Strategies in Preparing a Table
response. From here, the flowchart will then 1. Informal or simple tables need not have
branch to different parts for a 'yes' and a table numbers and titles since they function
'no' response. as an extension of the text. They should not
▪ Rounded box which is used to represent be included also in the list of illustrations.
an event which occurs automatically; it is However, they require column heading.
usually used to denote the start and the 2. Formal tables, which contain complex
end of the whole process data, should contain titles, table numbers,
3. Provide a legend when necessary. and detailed headings. They are separated
4. Sequence the data from left to right or from the text and are included in the list of
top to bottom. illustrations.
5. You can be creative in designing the 3. Use plenty of white space within and
flowchart but do not make it too around the text.
complicated and distracting. 4. Use concise and clear headings for all the
columns and rows.
B. Tables 5. Assign a title and number to each formal
A table is useful in displaying numbers in table.
columns. It condenses and classifies 6. Use abbreviations and symbols when
information to make comparisons between necessary. However, special symbols and
and among data and helps the readers abbreviations must be clarified in a legend
grasp relationships that might be invisible in or footnote.
prose. 7. Write the source of the table when
necessary.
It contains at least two columns with 8. Use uppercase and lowercase instead of
headings on the sides and at the top of the full caps.
columns to indicate what the table
represents. The heading on the top is called C. Graphs
a box head while the heading on the far left A graph is a graphical representation of
column is called a stub. data using bars for bar graphs, lines for line
graphs, circles for pie graphs, and pictures
Strategies in Reading a Table for pictographs. Each type of graph has a
1. Read the title of the table. specific function and purpose.
2. Check whether the information is
updated or obsolete. 3. Check the source of 1. A Bar Graph uses vertical and
the information horizontal bars that compare amounts
4. Study the headings and their and quantities.
relationships.
 Strategies in Reading a Bar Graph
1. Read the title, caption, and source note. Strategies in Preparing a Line Graph
2. Determine the purpose of the graph. 1. Plot the data very carefully.
3. Look at the dates mentioned, if there are 2. Use different line colors for line graphs
any. using multiple lines. 3. Make the chart lines
4. Identify what is being compared. Is it an thicker than the axis lines.
amount or quantity? 4. Do not put the numbers on the line graph
5. If the data changes over time, determine itself.
the time span and the amount of change.
6. If products, services, and other items are 3. A Circle Graph or pie graph which uses
being compared look carefully at their pie-shared sections, shows the
names. relationship of the parts to the whole in
percentages and proportions.
Strategies in Preparing a Bar Graph
1. Limit the number of bars. Too many bars Strategies in Reading a Circle Graph
may create confusion and complicate the 1. Read the title and the captions carefully.
data. 2. Note the number and labels of pie
2. Show the comparisons clearly. sections of the graph.
3. Keep the bar widths consistent. 3. Check if there is any "legend" section and
4. It is ideal to use spaces between bars. study it.
However, if comparisons are too close or 4. Identify the shares, quantity, and
too many spaces between bars may be percentage of each section. Identify which
deleted. sections have the smallest and largest
5. Arrange the bars based on sequence (by percentages.
year to show trends) or by ascending/
descending order (to show direct Strategies in Preparing a Circle Graph
comparison). 1. Use no more than seven divisions.
6. Use legends as much as possible. 2. Move clockwise from 12:00. Start with the
largest wedge going to the smallest.
2. A Line Graph shows trends and However, "others" or miscellaneous items
changes in data. Usually, the bottom grid must be placed last no matter how large
scale represents time. they cover.
3. Use circle graph for percentages and
money especially when the items they
Strategies in Reading a Line Graph represent are divisible by 100.
1. Read the title, caption, and source note. 4. Make the circle graph as simple as
2. Determine the purpose of the graph. possible.
3. Read the horizontal axis. 5. Label each component.
4. Determine the kind of time intervals. 6. If you want to show a subdivision of a
5. Read the vertical axis and identify what is particular wedge in a circle graph, use a "pie
being measured. within a pie”
6. Trace the jagged line that connects each
point and determine the changes over time.
D. Diagram General Guidelines for Adding Visuals to
A diagram is a plan, drawing, or outline your Text
created to illustrate how separate parts work The following are some of the basic rules in
and overlap at the connecting points. adding visuals to your text.
1. Determine the purpose of the visual.
A Venn Diagram is a visual depiction of 2. Evaluate the accuracy and validity of the
the similarities and differences between data.
two or more different items. It consists of a 3. Visuals should be accompanied by clear
series of shapes - usually circles - whose references within your text (ex.: as shown in
edges overlap. While it's not required that Figure 5, the...).
you use a circle, it's probably the most 4. Visuals should be placed on the same
convenient shape because several circles page as the text reference. Complex visuals
can overlap easily. should be placed on the page opposite the
Each shape represents some group or text reference.
entity. Characteristics the two entities have 5. Preferably, position the visual vertically.
in common are found where the shapes 6. Make your visual as simple and self-
overlap. Items unique to only one entity are explanatory as possible by adding data
written in the non-overlapping part of their labels.
respective shapes. 7. If the visuals are colored, go for basic
contrasting colors which are easy on the
Strategies in Preparing a Venn Diagram eyes; as much as possible avoid adding
1. Decide what to compare. Place a patterns and textures, as well as neon
descriptive title at the top of the page. colors.
2. Create the diagram. Make a circle for
each of the subjects. Every circle should How do we interpret visual presentation of
overlap with at least one other data?
circle.
3. Label each circle. Near or inside of each Steps in Interpreting Visuals
circle place the name of the topic or item Interpretation of Data
which the circle represents. 1. Read the title and the subtitle,
Avoid writing the titles inside neighboring 2. Read the captions, keys, and labels.
circles in order to maintain clarity. It may be 3. Determine the purpose of the material.
useful to distinguish the 4. Identify the organization of information.
titles from other text by placing them in a 5. Analyze the relationship of details such as
box or altering their font or color. changes and trends.
4. Enter the differences. Inside each circle 6. Make a conclusion about the data, if
place characteristics that are unique to that necessary.
specific item or idea, and are
not true of any of the other topics.
5. Enter the similarities. If two or more
subjects have a feature in common, place
that feature in the section in
which all such shapes overlap.
 What are the steps in writing a research how the marks will be assigned contact your
report? lecturer.
➢ What you find out will form the basis, or
Steps in Writing a Research Report main body, of your report– the findings.

Step 1: Decide on the 'Terms of Step 4: Decide on the structure

reference' Reports generally have a similar structure,
➢ To decide on the terms of reference for but some details may differ. How they differ
your report, read your instructions and any usually depends on:
other information you've been given about • The type of report – if it is a research
the report, and think about the purpose of report, laboratory report, business report,
the report: investigative report,
• What is it about? etc.
• What exactly is needed? • How formal the report has to be.
• Why is it needed? • The length of the report.
• When do I need to do it?
• Who is it for, or who is it aimed at? Depending on the type of report, the
➢ This will help you draft your Terms of structure can include:
reference. • A title page.
• Executive summary.
Step 2: Decide on the procedure • Contents.
➢ This means planning your investigation or • An introduction.
research, and how you'll write the report. • Terms of reference.
Ask yourself: • Procedure.
• What information do I need? • Findings.
• Do I need to do any background reading? Conclusions.
• What articles or documents do I need? • Recommendations.
• Do I need to contact the library for • References/Bibliography.
assistance? • Appendices.
• Do I need to interview or observe people? • The sections, of a report usually have
• Do I have to record data? headings and subheadings, which are
• How will I go about this? usually numbered.

Step 3: Find the information Step 5: Draft the first part of your report
➢ The next step is to find the information Once you have your structure, write down
you need for your report. To do this you may the headings and start to fill these in with
need to read written material, observe the information you have gathered so far. By
people or activities, and/or talk to people. now you should be able to draft the terms of
➢ Make sure the information you find is reference, procedure and findings, and start
relevant and appropriate. Check the to work out what will go in the report’s
assessment requirements and guidelines appendix.
and the marking schedule to make sure
you're on the right track. If you're not sure
➢ Findings think should happen next. To help you
The findings are result of your reading, decide what to recommend:
observations, interviews and investigation. • Reread your findings and conclusions.
They form the basis of your report. • Think about what you want the person
Depending on the type of report you are who asked for the report should to do or
writing, you may also wish to include not do; what actions
photos, tables or graphs to make your should they carry out?
report more readable and/or easier to • Check that your recommendations are
follow. practical and are based logically on your
conclusions.
➢ Appendices • Ensure you include enough detail for the
As you are writing your draft decide what reader to know what needs to be done
information will go in the appendix. These and who should do it.
are used for ➢ Your recommendations should be written
information that: as a numbered list, and ordered from
• is too long to include in the body of the most to least important.
report, or
• supplements or complements the Step 8: Draft the executive summary and
information in the report. For example, table of contents
brochures, spreadsheets or large tables. ➢ Some reports require an executive
summary and/or list of contents. Even
Step 6: Analyze your findings and draw though these two sections come near the
conclusions beginning of the report you won't be able
The conclusion is where you analyze your to do them until you have finished it, and
findings and interpret what you have found. have your structure and recommendations
To do this, read through your findings and finalized.
ask yourself: ➢ An executive summary is usually about
• What have I found? 100 words long. It tells the readers what the
• What's significant or important about my report is about, and summarize the
findings? recommendations.
• What do my findings suggest?
➢ For example, your conclusion may Step 9: Compile a reference list
describe how the information you collected ➢ This is a list of all the sources you've
explains why the situation occurred, what referred to in the report and uses APA
this means for the organization, and what referencing.
will happen if the situation continues (or
doesn't continue). Step 10: Revise your draft report
➢ Don’t include any new information in the It is always important to revise your work.
conclusion. Things you need to check include:
• If you have done what you were asked to
Step 7: Make recommendations do. Check the assignment question, the
Recommendations are what you think the instructions/guidelines and the
solution to the problem is and/or what you marking schedule to make sure
• That the required sections are included,
and are in the correct order.
• That your information is accurate, with no
gaps.
• If your argument is logical. Does the
information you present support your
conclusions and recommendations?
• That all terms, symbols and abbreviations
used have been explained.
• That any diagrams, tables, graphs and
illustrations are numbered and labelled.
• That the formatting is correct, including
your numbering, headings, are consistent
throughout the report.
• That the report reads well, and your
writing is as clear and effective as
possible.

agathuh