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Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion

CIRCULATING
FLUIDIZED BED
COMBUSTION
(CFB)BOILERS

Chungen Yin [email protected]

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Agenda

Topic 1. What Is Fluidization?

Topic 2. What Is CFB Technology?
Topic 3. Solids Separator of CFB.
Topic 4. Why Is CFB Clean?
Topic 5. Why Select CFB?
Topic 6. How Build CFB?
Appendix: Limitations Of CFB.
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Topic 1: What Is Fluidization?

ISSUES:

1. Principles of Fluidization
- Incipient fluidization
- Bubbling bed
- Slugging flow
- Turbulent regime
- Fast fluidization

2. Classification of Particles
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1. Principles of Fluidization

Figure 1. Different stages of fluidization

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With air flow increasing, a bed of solids material will experience following stags:

Fixed Bed Expanded Bed Incipient Fluidization Bubbling Bed

(Pneumatic Transportation) Fast Fluidization Turbulent Regime Slug Flow

¾ Incipient Fluidization
Ž Fluidization is a process in which a bed of particles is converted to a
fluid state by means of an upward flow of gas (or liquid);
Ž When a fixed bed of particles is exposed to upward gas-flow, individual
particles gradually tend to move apart and bed expansion becomes
noticeable (expanded bed). Pressure drop increases with rising gas flow;
Ž At high airflow rates, a point is reached at which pressure drop becomes
equal to bed weight, which enters into a state of incipient fluidization
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¾ Bubbling Bed
Ž Any additional airflow causes (inherently unstable) rising bubbles in bed
• The bubbles originate at distributor, detach from it, rise and inflate, merge or
split, and eventually reach the surface of the bed.
• Distributor is a device that supports the bed & distributes airflow into the bed
Ž Rising bubbles brings about a steady circulation of bed material
• push aside particles and aspire them in their wake;
• result in a thorough and steady mixing of bed materials;
• At sufficiently high bubbling rates, floating light or settling dense material are
spread homogeneously throughout the bed.
Ž A high rate of heat transfer in the bed is achieved
• The bed temperature tends to be strictly homogeneous in any case.
Ž A high mass exchange between gas and fuel particles is also achieved
Ž Probably, gas short-circuiting sometimes occurs to a certain extent
Ž A bubbling bed resembles a boiling liquid, such as:
• The horizontal boundary between the fluidized bed and air phase above it;
• Fluid-like features of the bed, which can flow out of a hole or over a weir;
• The principle of communicating fluidized vessels;
• Light materials to float and dense materials to sink to achieve separation;
• The hydrostatic pressure, which rises with the depth in the bed;
• The steady but erratic movement of individual particles
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¾ Slugging Flow
Ž FB is operated using a gas velocity well above incipient fluidization
• In fluidized state, pressure drop no longer increases significantly with gas flow.
Ž When gas flow further increases, slugging may occur.
• slugging is a situation, occurring frequently in narrow slender beds;
• bubbles grow in size and coalesce so that they cover entire bed cross section;
• the slugs push bed material upwards until it rains through them,
temporarily breaking up the slug;
• slugging regime is undesirable, because
it is accompanied by erratic pressure shocks and a rather poor gas/particle contact

¾ Turbulent Regime
Ž When gas flow increases further, the bed is termed turbulent in a riser

¾ Fast Fluidization
Ž When gas flow increases even further, the bed is termed fast
Ž CFB operates at velocities, corresponding to pneumatic transportation
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2. Classification of Particles

Ž Geldart's classification
- Homogeneously fluidizable powders;
- Powders fluidizable with a bubbling regime, e.g. sand;
- Cohesive powders, difficult to fluidize, e.g. cement and fly-ash;
- Pellets, fluids;
- Others able with a bubbling regime, e.g. plastic pellets, corn.
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Topic 2: What Is CFB Technology?

ISSUES:

1. History
2. General Advantages
3. CFB System
- Furnace
- Air Distributor
- Fuel/limestone feed
- Solids recycle device
- External heat exchanger (EHE)
- Air/gas/particle flow-path
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1. History
Ž less than 20 years old
Ž Modern and mature technology to burn coal and other solid fuels
Ž More than 400 CFB boilers in operation worldwide
Ž Unit capacity: from 5MW to 250MW (electricity)
Ž General description:
• Use fluidized bed principle;
• Crushed (6~12 mm) fuel and limestone are injected into the lower furnace. The particles are
suspended in a stream of upwardly flowing air that enters the bottom of the furnace
through air distribution nozzles;
• Balance of combustion air is admitted above the bottom of the furnace as secondary air;
• Combustion takes place at 815~925°C, with uniform combustion condition in chamber;
• Fine particle (< 450 microns) are elutriated upward in furnace with flue gas of 4~6 m/s.
Particles are then collected by the solids separators and circulated back into the furnace.
Individual particles may recycle anything from 10 to 50 times
• Particles’ circulation provides efficient heat transfer to furnace walls and longer residence
time for carbon and limestone utilization.
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2. General Advantages
¾ Fuel Flexibility
Ž The relatively low furnace temperatures (815~925°C) are below ash softening
temperature of nearly all fuels;
Ž Therefore, furnace design is independent of ash characteristics

¾ Low SO2 Emissions

Ž Limestone is an effective sulfur sorbent in temperature range of 815~925 °C
Ž SO2 removal efficiency: >95%

¾ Low NOx Emissions

Ž Very low NOx emission, thanks to
- Low furnace temperature
- Air staging to the furnace

¾ High combustion efficiency (even for difficult-to-burn fuels)

Ž Very long solids residence time in furnace due to re-circulation
Ž Vigorous solids/gas mixing in furnace
Ž These two compensate negative effect of low furnace temperature
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3. CFB System
Ž Furnace part
5 – Primary air inlet
4 – Air distributor
8 – Hot gas generator
3 – Coal-limestone feeder
6 – Secondary air nozzle
14 – Bed drain pipe
12 – Water wall

Ž Solids recycle device

Ž External heat exchanger (EHE)

9, 10 – EHE (not-necessary in CFB)
7 – Fluidized air
13 – Circulator (moving bed)

• Air Distributor
• Fuel/limestone feed
• Air/gas/particle flow-path
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¾ Furnace
Ž Operating at velocities corresponding to pneumatic transportation regime
• CFB furnace is high, in order to allow for a long residence time of the gas;
• Furnace cross-section is selected based on flue gas superficial velocity.

Ž Furnace enclosure is made of gas-tight membrane water-cooled walls

Ž Refractory to protect against corrosion & erosion
• Thin layer of refractory on all lower furnace walls;
• In dense bed, an ultra high strength abrasion-resistant low cement alumina
refractory of 16~25 mm thick is applied over a dense pin studded pattern.

Ž Furnace temperature is precisely controlled by maintaining proper inventory

Ž Combustion Air
• Primary air: through distributor into furnace bottom, typically 60~70% of total air
• Secondary air: introduced through overfire nozzles & material injection points
into the top of lower dense bed, 30~40% of total air. Several levels.
• Primary zone: the region below the lower secondary air level.
- The primary zone has reduced cross section to provide good mixing
and promote solids entrainment at low load;
- Startup burners, fuel fed points & secondary ash recycle points located
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Ž Dense bed vs. Dilute bed (freeboard region)

• Dense bed: In the primary zone [~4.25 m/s];
- Design for uniform distribution & intensive mixing of PA & bed solids
- High mass-transfer rate provides intense combustion & sulfation;
- High heat capacity of the bed allows burning any kind of fuels;
- Sub-stoichiometric conditions there limit NOx formation;
- Special erosion-protection ways needed.
• Dilute bed: In the middle and upper furnace [~6 m/s], design for
- Used as a disengagement zone: most of material carried-over from
bed can settle and return to the bed inside furnace
- Served as a post-combustion chamber: sufficient residence time for
fuel burnout and sulfur capture
- Height required to burnout volatiles and to settle entrained particles
The former is often larger than the latter; so most of the entrained
solids in freeboard region re-circulate within furnace
- High solid inventory for better heat transfer rates & sorbent reaction
Solids densities are relatively high (level of 10 kg/m3 gas): very good
for gas-solid reactions and for heat transfer
- Heat transfer surface of the enclosure walls
- Good mixing of secondary air and combustion products
• Transition between them is gradual.
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¾ Air Distributor
Ž Located at the bottom of the furnace
Ž Having dual functions
• Support the bed;
• Distribute the primary air
Ž An example (right)
• Distributor with bubble-caps nozzles
• Designed to
- Distribute air uniformly;
- Prevent back-sifting of solids at low load
- Create good turbulence for fuel/sorbent mixing in primary zone
Ž Big bed-drain pipes in distributor, designed to,
• Drain some bed-materials on regular to maintain proper inventory in the bed;
• The inventory can be indicated by pressure-drop across dense bed;
it can affect the bed temperature and thus the furnace temperature.
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¾ Fuel/limestone Feed

Ž One of major challenges

• high fines & moisture

Ž Over-bed feed option

• commonly used manner

Ž Fuel feed points

• normally in front & rear walls
• number of points:
achieve even fuel distribution
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¾ Air/gas/particle flow-path

PA blowers Pre-heaters Distributor Dense bed

Freeboard
Upper dense bed
SA blowers Pre-heaters
& lower dilute bed

Baghouse
Stack Rear pass Solids separator
or ESP

Most of solids are collected

And returned back to dense bed

Fuel & limestone Most of the remaining

Dense bed Freeboard Separator Rear pass Stack
feeders Finer solids are collected
(with few finest
By Baghouse or ESP
Part of solids particles)
Fall down along
Furnace wall A few are collected by the ash silo
Under gravity under the rear pass
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Topic 3: Solids Separator of CFB

ISSUES:

1. Solids Separator
2. Cyclone CFB
- Hot Cyclone CFB
- Cold Cyclone CFB
- Compact Cyclone CFB

3. IR-CFB (Internally Recycled)

4. Comparison: Cyclone-CFB vs. IR-CFB
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1. Solids Separator
Ž One of the most important key components in CFB
• The main distinguishing feature of a CFB boiler is the separator.

Ž Located at the furnace gas outlet

Ž For collecting bed material entrained in flue gas and return them back to bed
• Bed material contains fuel ash, unburned fuel, utilized & unutilized limestone;
• Collection & re-circulation results in excellent fuel burnout & limestone utilization

Ž Two mainstreams of separators: cyclone type vs. impact-separator

• Cyclone: the most commonly used separator in industry by now;
having high separation efficiency;
immediately following the furnace along gas path;
separating solids from gases which have left the furnace;
Cyclone CFB boilers.
• Impact-Separator: a two-stage solid separation system;
1st stage being an impact-type solids separator located at furnace exit;
Majority of solids collected by it are Internally Recycled within furnace;
IR-CFB boilers.
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2. Cyclone CFB
¾ Hot-Cyclone
Ž Use plate/refractory as inner liner
Ž Operate at high temperature, ~850 °C
Ž Main problems
Mechanical erosion: at cyclone inlet
• High temperature (~850)
• High particle concentration (~10)
• High gas velocity (~25)
• Severe attack angle
Chemical wear:
• result from fuel alkali & sulfur;
• chemical reaction with refractory
Thermal wear:
• from rapid temperature change
• result in cracking or spalling
Ž Two thick layers of refractory coverage
• an insulating layer (~20cm)
• an abrasion-resistant layer (~12cm)
Ž Result in high thermal inertia of system;
long start-up or cool-down period;
high operation costs
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¾ Cold-Cyclone CFB
Ž Formed from steam-cooled tubing;
Ž Aimed at reducing refractory maintenance;
Ž Features:
• Refractory can last years due to low surface temperature (~550°C);
• Having one layer of abrasion resistant over the cyclone tubes;
• Providing minimum operating costs due to less refractory maintenance & heat
loss from the shell to ambient;
• Having a somewhat higher capital costs
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¾ Compact-Cyclone CFB
Ž An improved CFB design Ž Design features
• Developed since late 1980s • Flat walls instead of curved walls
• 1st unit commissioned in 1993
• Gas & entrained solids from furnace
come in through a tall, narrow opening
in its center & out through two outlets
in its roof
• Its inlet relative to its outlet imparts a
swirl to flow, causing solids separation
just as if separator walls were curved
• Its walls formed from panels of tubing
cooled by water or steam
• Inner walls covered with thin refractory
• Outer walls covered with insulation &
lagging, to reduce heat loss
• Low operating costs at a reduced
capital cost
• Combine advantages of hot- & cold-
cyclones
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Ž Demonstration

One CFB, with the largest compact separator (deep 7.3 m), is in successful operation in
Indonesia
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3. IR-CFB (Internally Recycled)

Ž Developed since 1990
Ž Two-stage solid separation
• 1st stage: an impact-type solids separator, i.e., an array of U-beams,
- located at furnace exit & collect most of the entrained solids in gas
• 2nd stage: located in lower gas temperature region of boiler convection pass
- using a mechanical dust collector (MDC) or the first field of an ESP;
- collecting the finest fraction of circulating solids.
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¾ Scheme of U-beams Separator

Ž In-furnace U-beams
• Collected solids returned directly to bed along furnace rear-wall
Ž External U-beams
• Collected solids returned first to a storage hopper, then to the bed along rear-wall
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Design Temperature
Continuous Operation, °C ~ 825
High alarm, °C ~ 855

Beam Size 11
Depth, mm ~ 176
Width, mm ~ 160
Length, mm As required

Material Stainless steel

Rows of U-beams 11
In-Furnace U-beams 2 (Generally)
External U-beams ~ 7 (Depending on fuel fired)
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In-furnace
U-beams 75% 90%

2.5 ESP 0.2

100 1st & 2nd field

Heat Ž Two-path model in furnace

exchangers
External
0.1 • Upward in furnace-center;
U-beams • Downward near-wall.
18
Ž 1st stage: U-beams
• Collect most of solids;
97.5 2.2
• Solids Internally-Recycled
into bed along rear-wall.

Ž 2st separation stage

• Collect & return the finest
solids that can not be
captured by U-beams;
118
• Only a small amount.

Solids recycle flows in IR-CFB (Denoted with )

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Ž Most of the entrained solids are

separated by U-beams at furnace
exit, returned internally to lower
furnace by gravity, falling as a
curtain along rear furnace wall.

Ž In lower furnace, these solids are

re-entrained by PA & SA, and
carried back to furnace exit.

Ž This intensive solids back-mixing

provides uniform distribution &
optimum residence time.

Ž Finer solids, not collected by U-

beams, are carried by the gas
through convection pass;
then collected by secondary
separator; and re-circulated to
the lower furnace.
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4. Comparison: Cyclone-CFB vs. IR-CFB

Boiler Feature Hot-Cyclone Cold-Cyclone Compact-cyclone IR-CFB

Single-stage Two-stage
Separation (100% for d>80 micron
(100% efficiency for particles of d>100 micron;
System 50% for d<20 micron)
50% efficiency for particles of d=40~60 micron)

Upper furnace
density, kg/m3 8~11 5~8 8~11 11~16

Controlled by cold Designed value can be

Controlled in design
Furnace using heat exchanger;
ash recycle rate. Same as controlled thin +/-5°C
Temperature Temperature span interval by adjusting
Or pre-determined hot cyclone CFB
across furnace secondary solids
Control by boiler design height is up to 100°C. recycle rate.

Refractory
Thickness ~75 mm ~75 mm ~50 mm 15~50 mm
Cov. Area Lower furnace, Entire furnace, Same as Hot-Cyclone Lower furnace, U-beam
cyclone, recycle loop cyclone CFB zone enclosure walls

Hot-temperature Depend on
3~5 / cyclone None None
expansion joints arrangement
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(Continued)

Boiler Feature Hot-cyclone Cold-cyclone Compact-cyclone IR-CFB

Furnace velocity 4.9~5.5 m/s 4.0~4.5 m/s 4.9~5.5 m/s 4.9~7.3 m/s

Furnace exit 22~26 -- 22~26 6.4~9.8

velocity, m/s

Required for Required for Required for

High-pressure air Not Required
J-valves siphons J-valves

Total pressure
~1.0
drop across 1.5~2.0 1.0~1.5 ~1.5
(1st & 2nd stages)
separator, kPa

Auxiliary power
Higher Moderate Higher Lower
consumption
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Topic 4. Why Is CFB Clean?

ISSUES:

1. SO2 Removal

2. NOx Reduction

3. CO & Other PICs (Products of Incomplete Combustion)

4. Particulate Emissions
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1. SO2 Removal
Ž Sulfur capture in CFB process is achieved by adding limestone

Ž Limestone: >95% CaCO3; and a few impurities such as MgCO3

Ž Chemical reactions involved
CaCO3 ------> CaO + CO2 (endothermic reaction: -425 kcal/kg CaCO3)
CaO + ½ O2 + SO2 ------> CaSO4 (exothermic reaction: +3740 kcal/kg S)

Ž Influenced by factors, such as

• Sulfur content
• Ca/S molar ratio (typically 2~2.5)
• Limestone reactivity
• Furnace temperature
• Gas and solids residence time
• Limestone particle size.

Ž Bed temperature in CFB [815°C to 925°C] is ideal for removal of SO2/SO3 by

limestone, more than 90% SO2 can be removed from CFB.
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2. NOx Reduction
Ž NOx formation
N2 + O2 ------> 2 NO & 2 NO + O2 ------> 2 NO2
Ž Main NOx sources
• Fuel NOx: from N in fuel
• Thermal NOx: from N2 in combustion air
Ž Influenced by factors, such as
• Furnace temperature
• Excess air
• Bed stoichiometry
• limestone feed-rate
• N & volatile matter in fuel

Ž Low Temperature & Staging Air lead to a very low NOx emission
• At T < 1500°C, thermal NO can be ignored; fuel NOx production is also limited
• 60%~70% air pass distributor into dense bed: sub-stoichiometric / fuel-rich
condition limits NOx production.

Ž Very low CFB-process NOx: typically lower than 150ppm

Ž Further NOx reduction (~50%): by easy NH3 injection before/after furnace exit
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3. CO & Other PICs

Ž PICs, normally including
• CO;
• PCDD - polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (often referred to as dioxins);
• PCDF - polychlorinated dibenzofurans (often referred to as furans);
• VOC - volatile organic compounds;
• PAH - polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Ž Produced due to incomplete combustion, affected by one or all of

• Overall low and/or fluctuating temperatures;
• Uneven temperature distribution across the combustion chamber;
• Inconsistent fuel feed;
• Insufficient turbulence;
• Insufficient residence time.

Ž In practical combustion, PICs produced most probably due to

• Poor furnace design
where combustion gases follow “cool” path avoiding the turbulent hot zones;
• transient upset conditions, often caused by fuel heat-value / feed-rate fluctuations
It causes rapid devolatilization of fuel, depleting or lowering local O2 in furnace
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Ž A delicate tradeoff between complete combustion and low emissions

• Too high temperature, too much O2, NOx will increase largely;
• Time, Temperature & Turbulence: the 3T’s of combustion to achieve this balance.

Ž Widely accepted that CFB operates at low levels of PICs, due to

• Strong turbulence in CFB provides ultimate mixing, helpful for carbon to form CO2;
• Uniform & complete combustion feature in CFB;
• CO level is used often as an indicator of other PICs.
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4. Particulate Emissions
Ž Very low, believed less than the level of 20 mg/Nm3
• Most of particles are collected by high-efficiency separators & returned to the bed;
• Few fine particles remaining in gas are further removed by bag-house (or ESP)
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Topic 5. Why Select CFB?

Ž PC plays a major role in electricity generation worldwide, issues needed to face:

fuel in-flexibility, environmental aspects & higher maintenance costs, etc.

Description CFB Boiler PC Boiler Benefit of CFB

Fuel Size 6-12 mm >70% of < 75 micron Lower crushing cost

Fuel Range Up to 75% Up to 60% Wider range of fuels

(ash & moisture)

High S Fuel (1~6%) Inject limestone Need FGD plant Cheaper SO2 removal

Auxiliary Fuel Up to 20~30% Up to 60% Consume less oil/gas

(oil or gas)

Combustion Lower NOx formation

840~900 1350~1500
Temperature, °C & Easy SO2 removal

Fuel Residence Time High (tens of s) Low (~5 seconds) Compensate low T effect
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(Continued)

Description CFB Boiler PC Boiler Benefit of CFB

Combustion Efficiency Good (may >98%) Better (normally >99%)

Heat Transfer Coeff. Higher (double PC) Lower Compacter furnace

SO2, ppm <200 <250 with FGD Lower emission, cheaper

NOx, ppm <100 <100 with SCR No SCR or SNCR

Boiler Efficiency, % High A little higher

Auxiliary Power Use Slightly higher Lower If FGD used, CFB lower

Operation &
5~10% lower 5~10 % higher Due to less moving units
Maintenance cost

5~10% higher 5~10% lower without FGD&SCR

Capital Cost
8~15% lower 8~15% higher with FGD & SCR
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Topic 6. How Build CFB?

ISSUES:

1. CFB Design Considerations

2. Furnace Design Considerations

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1. CFB Design Considerations

Ž Furnace design;
Ž Separator design;
Ž Recycle system design;
Ž Fuel and limestone feed system design;
Ž Auxiliary equipment selection;
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2. Furnace Design Considerations

Ž Superficial fluidizing velocity;
Ž Bed temperature;
Ž Furnace exit gas temperature;
Ž Furnace aspect ratio;
Ž Furnace height;
Ž Furnace gas residence time;
Ž Primary air / secondary air split;
Ž Suspension density and pressure differential;
Ž Furnace heating surface to control bed temperature;
Ž Solid circulation rate (or solid suspension density);
Ž Excess air;
Ž Over-fire air nozzles;
Ž Furnace pressure parts, including:
• distributor nozzles arrangements;
• circulation, and so on.
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Limitations of CFB

¾ Difficult for Large-Scale Use

Ž Primarily intended for utilization of low grade, low volatiles, high ash coals
that are difficult to pulverize in smaller capacity units.
Ž Difficult to scale up to 700~1000MWe range
• mainly because of large number of feed points it requires to ensure uniform
distribution of the coal in the bed.
Ž Most CFB units in operations: 250~260MWe; Newly built: up to 300MWe

¾ Maximum Particle Size limited to 300mm

¾ Relatively high pressure-drop required to form fluidization
¾ Fluidized bed regulation and control are not straightforward
¾ Possibility of sintering of bed material limits operating temperature
¾ Limited operating experience with fluidized bed combustors
¾ Overall carbon conversion efficiency is a little lower than PC.
Thermal efficiency is a little lower than PC, by ~3% for ~150MWe units.