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Energy storage for electric vehicles

Conference Paper · April 2010

DOI: 10.1109/ICIT.2010.5472647 · Source: IEEE Xplore

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 Energy Storage for Electric Vehicles
Juan Dixon, Senior Member IEEE

Abstract— Electric vehicles have reached a mature technology regenerative braking and fast charging. The last one is quite
today because they are superior to internal combustion engines important because charging time must be shorter than five
(ICE) in efficiency, endurance, durability, acceleration capability minutes to compete with ICE cars.
and simplicity. Besides, they can recover some energy during
regenerative braking and they are also friendly with the
environment. However, the energy storage capability is one of
II. ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS
their big drawbacks. Autonomous vehicles must carry all the The most important energy storage systems used today for
energy they need for a given distance and speed. It means an EVs are electrochemical batteries. At present, the most utilized
energy storage system with high specific energy (Wh/kg) and high and also under experimental stages are: Lead-acid, Ni-MH, Li-
specific power (W/kg), which allows rapid charge to reduce the ion, Na-NiCl (ZEBRA) and Zn-O2 (from “Electric Fuel”). The
long charging time required today. This presentation shows some
last one uses mechanical charging instead of conventional
of the options under study to increase the energy storage
capability and to reduce the charging time. A comparative study electric charging. All these electrochemical batteries will be
of different storage alternatives, such as chemical battery systems, compared in terms of specific energy, specific power, cycle
ultracapacitors, flywheels and fuel cells are evaluated, showing life and cost.
the advantages and disadvantages of each one of them. The second energy storage group under research comprises
mechanical storage with flywheels, electrostatic storage with
I. INTRODUCTION
ultracapacitors and hydrogen storage using the efficient fuel
Electric vehicles (EVs) will probably be the only way for cell systems.
transportation in the near future because of two important and Table I shows a comparison of different energy storage
related reasons: oil is running down and global warming is systems (excluding fuel cells that depends on hydrogen tank
reaching dangerous limits. EVs have many advantages when characteristics) [1]-[5].
compared with internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles.
TABLE I
Some of these advantages are simplicity, high endurance, Energy Wh/kg W/kg Cycle life Cost
reliability and high efficiency. An electric motor is hundred Source US$/kWh
times simpler than ICEs. Besides, EVs do not need mechanical USABC* 200 400 1,000 100
or automatic gearbox and it is also possible the elimination of Lead-acid 35 150 700 150
every mechanical transmission using wheel-drive motors. Ni-MH 70 220 1,500 1,500
Li-ion 130 350 1,000 2,000
Because of its simplicity, they are also more reliable and can ZEBRA 110 150 1,500 700
resist very hard work, but the most important advantage of Zn-O2 200 100 1 (Electric Fuel) 5,000**
EVs is their high efficiency (more than 90% against an average flywheels 40 3,000 5,000 20,000
of 30% for ICEs). Ultracap 5 2,000 500,000 25,000
Despite the number of advantages that EVs have when * United States Advanced Battery Consortium goals
** It needs an expensive system to recover Zn anodes
compared with ICEs, their utilization continues being very
scarce. One important reason is the energy storage because 2.1. Electrochemical Energy Storage.
nothing can be compared with the specific energy (Wh/kg) Battery requirements for EV applications should include:
found in gasoline, which is around 10,000 Wh/kg against 150
• Energy storage large enough to ensure a desired
Wh/kg found in the best Li-ion battery. Other alternatives
driving range.
instead of batteries are the flywheels and the ultracapacitors,
• Input power capability that is high enough to give
which present the same energy limitation as electrochemical
good acceleration, good regenerative braking for
batteries. On the other hand, fuel cells are expensive and need
achieving high-energy efficiency, and to accept
complicated systems to store and manage hydrogen. But not
fast charge for vehicle convenience.
only the low specific energy is limiting the use of EVs since
• Life that is long enough to meet the general
most of the best options mean high cost and short cycle life,
standard of automotive component life.
which limits mass production even for small city cars.
However, the high efficiency of EVs and the elimination of • Durability against environmental demands (e.g.
heavy mechanical components permit to cover similar climatic stress, mechanical stress, etc) so that EVs
distances when compared with ICE, with just a storage system may work in harsh environment where
of around 200-300 Wh/kg. Besides the poor energy storage conventional vehicles should normally work.
and high cost, a third problem is specific power (W/kg). High • Abuse tolerance to keep battery safe under
specific power is required because it means good acceleration, extreme conditions (e.g. overcharge, internal
efficient short-circuits, etc).
Lead-Acid: Li-Ion:
The lead-acid battery is the oldest and the more common In Li-Ion batteries the specific energy is notably high. By
energy storage device because is cheaper and simple to use. now a high level of intrinsic safety can be reached already on
However, it has reached its limits in specific energy and for cell level. New cathode materials such as lithium-cobalt-
this reason it never will be an option for long-range EVs. nickel-manganese oxide or lithium-iron-phosphate react in
Besides, its cycle life is also low and then the battery pack will case of misuse less exothermally than the conventionally used
need to be replaced every two or three years. Charging lithium-cobalt oxide variety in consumer cells. The safety on
behavior of these batteries also plays a central role. Typically, cell level can be significantly increased when these cathode
a fast recharge of the batteries within a few minutes is desired. materials are used in combination with improved separators
The experience with lead acid batteries has shown that there is i.e. with ceramic parts and high-boiling electrolyte. Li-Ion
low potential for charging it with high currents, because the
cells make it possible to combine many different, partially
cycle life will be shortened dramatically. Despite those
unexplored electrode materials and electrolytes, and so further
drawbacks, the use of lead-acid batteries will not decline in the
progress of safety in combination with attractive energy and
near future, because it is far less expensive than other energy
storage alternatives. In general, lead-acid batteries present a power densities is possible. In addition, various safety
cycle life of around 700, specific energy of around 35 Wh/kg measurements are integrated at the system level. By
and around 150 W/kg of specific power. A typical lead-acid monitoring of sub-optimal operating conditions, management
battery is shown in Fig. 1. of these conditions and effective cooling, the battery is always
kept in a safe state of operation. With such precautions a very
high safety level is reached.
In the Li-Ion cells the lithium is stored in, and released from
a solid lattice (intercalation). The lattice structure remains and
helps to significantly increase the number of charge and
discharge cycles. Whereas lead-acid-systems have reached the
zenith in their development, lithium-ion battery systems have
just started to unfold their potential. It is the significantly
higher specific energy of lithium-ion batteries that makes a
Fig. 1. Typical lead-acid battery (Cyclon). high-volume market entry of electric vehicles possible.
At present, some lithium-ion batteries exhibit average
Ni-MH:
This battery has demonstrated to be a good option for EVs, charging currents of about 5 C (five times the charging current
because it has good performance in terms of specific energy in relation to the nominal capacity) with very good cycle
and cycle-life. The Ni-MH battery is composed of non-toxic endurance. This shows that from battery side fast recharge is
recyclable materials, it is environmentally friendly and no longer a problem. However, the actual battery capacities for
maintenance free. This battery, composed of nickel hydroxide electric vehicle are between 15 kWh and 20 kWh resulting in a
as positive electrodes and negative electrodes made from high charging power of 60kW. Thus the fast recharge
hydrogen absorbing alloys, has been proceeding since the limitation of the Li-Ion technology is on the side of the
1970s when Philips succeeded to develop the hydrogen charging stations and chargers. This recharge power cannot be
absorbing properties of LaNi5. At present, new hydrogen supported from conventional household sockets (220V/16A =
absorbing alloys using different combinations of Al, Mn, Co, approximately 3.3 kW), so the infrastructure of charging
Zr, V and others, have permitted a large capacity. In general, stations have to be implemented in the future. With the gradual
Ni-MH batteries present a cycle life of around 1,500, a availability of high power charge stations and the acceptance
specific energy of around 70 Wh/kg and more than 200 W/kg of the use of an electric vehicle, which must be regularly
of specific power [6]. One of the main drawbacks of this loaded at the "pump", it will be possible to skip the
battery is its high cost (around ten times the value of a lead- requirement of an on-board charger [7]. A typical Li-ion
acid battery). A typical Ni-MH battery is shown in Fig. 2. battery is shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 2. Typical Ni-MH battery (Yuasa). Fig. 3. Li-ion battery (Varta)

ZEBRA: steps which require a special infrastructure. That is why in
The Na-NiCl battery (ZEBRA) [8] works at high Table 1 this battery shows only one charge-discharge cycle.
temperature (270ºC) and needs a special container to keep it The Electric Fuel zinc-air battery consists of a battery pack
warm inside but cold outside. Despite this drawback, this with removable zinc-anode cassettes [11]. The battery
battery is a good choice for electric vehicles because is safe, currently provides a specific energy of around 200 Wh/kg and
low cost and can endure 1,500 cycles without significant a specific power of 100 W/kg. An automated battery exchange
degradation. Besides, it can be discharged almost to 100% of unit, located at specific places or at a refueling station, enables
its total capacity without degradation in its cycle-life. Its rapid vehicle turn-around. A refueling machine is used to
specific energy (Wh/kg) is comparable with high quality replace the depleted anode cassettes with recycled and
batteries, like Li-ion (120 Wh/kg). Another interesting feature recharged cassettes. In the regeneration process, the
of this battery is that keeping it cold, it can remain at that state discharged zinc oxide is dissolved in an electrolytic process
for unlimited time without damage. However, specific power that forms charged zinc particles that are then made into new
(W/kg) of ZEBRA is low when compared with other batteries anode cassettes. As this battery has very poor specific power
as shown in Table 1. For example, Li-ion batteries have almost and scarce charging attribute, EVs with this battery cannot use
three times more specific power than ZEBRA (near 400 regenerative braking. Also the cost becomes high because it
W/kg), but Li-ion price in terms of dollars per kWh has to consider all the process of charging using a special
(US$/kWh) is around three times higher. Today, it is quite electrochemical plant to recover zinc anodes. The advantages
difficult to get a Li-ion battery at an affordable price. The of this battery are the long distance it can cover with one
cheapest Li-ion batteries available today in the market are the charge and the rapid charging time (five minutes to change the
small cells type 18650 (3.6 V, 2.4 Ah), from which a battery zinc anodes). The battery also can last “forever” because
car, using around 4,000 units can be implemented [9]. anodes are always new. A Zn-air battery is shown in Fig. 5.
However, the lowest market price per unit, buying more than
1,000 of these cells, is US$ 4.75 per unit, which means for
4,000 units, a cost of 19,000 dollars. This value does not
consider the large amount of electronic circuits for voltage
balancing, temperature control and current balancing, which
may increase total cost to more than 40,000 dollars. The
implementation of such a battery, with container,
reinforcements and mechanical protections, cost and time to
build and calibrate will finally give a battery with a cost higher
than US$ 50,000. This container with 4,000 cells stores about
25 kWh of energy, which gives a battery with a cost per kWh
higher than US$ 2,000/kWh. The price of a ZEBRA battery of
30 kWh is around 20,000 dollars [10] (real cost in March Fig. 5. Zinc-Air battery (Electric Fuel).
2009), which includes auxiliary control circuits. Then price per
kWh of ZEBRA is less than US$ 700/kWh, which means three 2.2. Flywheels
times less expensive than Li-ion. A typical ZEBRA battery is Flywheel is a kind of energy conversion and storage device
shown in Fig. 4. also known as electro-mechanical battery. Usually it consists
of a wheel made of high strength carbon fiber, magnet floating
bear supporting device, motor/generator and power electronic
control device. Flywheel is supported by magnet floating bear
in vacuum and converts electric energy into kinetic energy and
also kinetic energy into electric energy through the same
motor/generator [12]. At present, flywheels have the following
characteristics:
1 Specific energy of around 40 Wh/kg, a number
similar to lead acid battery.
2 Specific power much higher than that of ordinary
chemical battery and ICEs, because it can reach more
Fig. 4. ZEBRA battery (MES-DEA) than 3,000 W/kg.
3 Pure mechanical device without pollution
Zinc-Air: 4 No chemical reaction like the chemical batteries, no
The “Electric Fuel” zinc-air battery has a very poor cycle gas emission and waste materials
life and for this reason is not recharged electrically. It is
5 Long cycle life
“charged” through a series of mechanical and electrochemical
 6 Fast charge due to high specific power.
7 High cycle efficiency of around 90%. cycle-life their most important characteristics. Its present
8 Fast charging has low effect on life cycle. drawback is the incipient specific energy (Wh/kg), which do
9 Long maintenance periods of over 10 years. not permit the direct replacement of conventional battery
10 Low rate of self-discharge (three months). systems in electric cars [13].
Ucaps capacity is measured in Farads and not in
11 Flexibility in design and operation.
microfarads, being available elements of more than 1,000 F. A
The specific energy of flywheels increases proportionally as conventional capacitor, with plates 1 m2 size, separated by just
the weight of rotating material is reduced, when compared in one tenth of a millimeter, gives only 0.09 uF. This result
terms of equal mechanical strength of the flywheel. An makes difficult to imagine a small capacitor with more than
experimental flywheel is shown in Fig. 6 1,000 Farads. Its enormous capacity depends on highly porous
carbon electrodes with huge surface areas, separated by very
small distances. Fig. 7 shows an Ucap bank and Fig. 8 the
structure inside the ultracapacitor.

Fig. 6. Flywheel system

2.3. Ultracapacitors:
Ultracapacitors (Ucaps) are a new technology for energy
storage, being the “fast charge” (High specific power) and
long Fig. 7. Ultracapacitor bank.

An ultracapacitor depends on highly porous

carbon. The carbon becomes electrically charged
when connected to a battery. Pink in figure 8
means a positive and ligh blue a negative charge.
The carbon then attracts oppositely charged ions
from the electrolyte solution. Te ions move through
the paper separator if necesary, to get to the
appropiate charged carbon, and they insinuate
themselves into the porous material. The
arrangement provides the two features needed for
high capacitance: electrodes with huge surface
areas, and charges separated by very small
distances.
Fig 8. Inside an ultracapacitor cell
Application of Nanotechnology for Future Ucaps: Technical problems in PEM cells keep their price high.
Nanotechnology is being applied at laboratory level to Main problems are short life and high cost of catalyzer
implement, in the near future, a new family of more (platinum). Another serious associated problem is the
powerful Ucaps. The devices are based on carbon managing of hydrogen (the real energy source).
nanotubes instead of porous carbon. A carbon nanotube is
Storing Hydrogen:
made rolling a graphene to form a tube with a diameter of
Hydrogen is difficult to carry and store. It is highly
1/50,000 of a human hair. A graphene is just a sheet of
flammable and exists in gaseous state at room temperature.
graphite. Fig. 9 shows a picture of carbon nanotube.
Some solutions are being explored for storing this fuel into
EV tanks. The most researched ways are [15]: a) High-
pressure tank system, b) Liquid hydrogen tank and c)
Hydrogen-absorbing alloy tank.
a) High-pressure tank system.
Most vehicles currently in road testing phase are
equipped with a composite high-pressure tank. High-
Fig. 9. Carbon nanotube.
pressure tanks of 35 MPa are used and 70 MPa are being
Carbon nanotubes are aligned to form a very organized tested. Pressure tank means simple structure and charge–
structure, which optimizes the capacity for a given space. discharge easiness. The typical hydrogen tank is made of
Figure 10 shows a comparison between conventional Ucaps carbon composite. This is different from the one used for
and a device made with carbon nanotubes [14]. natural gas vehicle, which mainly employs metal alloys. It is
because the hydrogen vehicle uses higher pressure than the
natural gas vehicle, which is normally compressed to 20 to
25 MPa. Recently there is a trend to move to 70 MPa tank
to carry more hydrogen in order to extend vehicle range.
However, pressure of this range makes the relationship
between the hydrogen amount and pressure unlinear.
Double pressure cannot lead to the storing of twice much
hydrogen, and only results in 40 to 50 % increase. The 70-
Fig. 10. Ucaps made of porous carbon and with carbon nanotubes. MPa high-pressure hydrogen storage tank consists of an
A matrix of carbon nanotubes, vertically aligned forming an inner aluminum liner and an outer shell of carbon-fiber-
electrode structure, allows getting a very high capacitance. reinforced plastic (CFRP). The CFRP layer contains a high-
The expected specific energy should be as high as a Ni-Cd strength, high-elasticity carbon fiber [16].
or Ni-MH batteries (60 Wh/kg), with a specific power of b) Liquid hydrogen tank
more than 10 kW/kg. this value represents more than two- Hydrogen exists in a liquid form when it is cooled down
fold the typical value of a battery (100 W/kg). The expected to 20ºK at atmospheric pressure, and its density is much
cycle-life of this Ucap could be more than 300.000. higher than in gaseous form. Liquid hydrogen is attractive
2.4. Fuel Cells: for the extension of vehicle driving range because of storing
A fuel cell is a kind of primary (non-rechargeable) a large amount of hydrogen on board. In addition, from the
electrochemical cell, where the electrodes are gaseous infrastructure point of view, the potential of a large amount
(normally hydrogen and Oxygen). It converts the fuel to of hydrogen that can be easily stored and transported is also
electricity directly, without the need to go to inefficient very attractive. Some studies show that extra energy
thermodynamic cycles. There exist various types of fuel consumption of the liquefaction process can be
cells (Polymer Exchange Membrane or “PEM”, Phosphoric compensated by the easiness of delivery and storage. Liquid
Acid, Alkaline, Molten Carbonate and Solid Oxide) but the hydrogen tanks have a double wall construction to keep the
most utilized fuel cell in EVs is the PEM Cell. The Fig. 11 ultra low temperature with the thermal insulation. The
shows a typical reaction inside a PEM cell. newest tanks have the capability of limiting the heat flow to
a few watts per second, resulting in the liquid hydrogen
evaporation of a few percent per day.
c) Hydrogen-absorbing alloy tank.
Hydrogen-absorbing alloy tanks have an advantage of
storing hydrogen more dense than the liquid hydrogen, thus
the tank can be built small and has a characteristic of
reversible hydrogen charge and discharge capability.
However, it has a low gravimetric density (hydrogen weight
Fig. 11. Electrochemical reaction of a PEM fuel cell. per tank weight). Several attempts have been made to
increase the density with materials such as Ti-V-Mn, Ti-V- International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle
Symposium & Exposition, EVS-17, Montreal, Canada, Oct. 2000.
Cr, Ti-V-Cr-Mn and Ti-Cr. However, vehicle tests showed
some difficulties such as handling of a large amount of heat [7] Michael Keller, Peter Birke and Michael Schiemann, “Li-Ion
Battery Systems for zero emission vehicles”, Ecologic Vehicles and
while absorbing hydrogen (which requires refrigerator for Vehicle Symposium & Exposition, EVS-22, Yokohama, Japan,
the quick charge), and low hydrogen release in the cold Oct. 23-28, 2006.
environment. [8] MES-DEA, ZEBRA batteries for Electric cars,
http://www.cebi.com/content/index_html?a=8&b=151&c=208
2.5. Other Energy Sources:
[9] AC Propulsion Inc., AC Propulsion debuts Tzero with LiIon
There are many more available energy sources that can battery,http://www.acpropulsion.com/LiIon_tzero_release.pdf
be mentioned, like other electrochemical sources: Ni-Zn,
[10] Renato Manzoni from MES-DEA S.A. Via Laveggio, 15 CH-6855
Ni-Cd, Ni-Fe, Ag-Zn (used in the Moon Rover), Ag-Cd, STABIO Switzerland, Tel +41(0)91 6415311 Fax +41(0)91
Mn-Zn, Al-O2, Li-O2 and Li-Polymer. Some of them are not 6415333 E-mail [email protected], Web: www.mes-dea.ch
being used today and some others are under development. [11] Jonathan Whartman, Binyamin Koretz and Jill Twersky, “Status of
This work has showed only the sources in mature stage that Programs utilizing the Electric Fuel® Zinc-Air Battery System”.
are being used today in EVs. There are also other different The 14th International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric
Vehicle Symposium & Exposition, EVS-14, Orlando, Florida, Oct.
energy sources, like compressed air and magnetic storage in 1997.
sub-zero systems, which need a lot of research yet.
[12] Liqing SUN, Xianming WANG, Zeng , “State-of-art of Flywheel
Battery Technology and Its Application in Field of Electric
VI. CONCLUSIONS Vehicle”. The 22nd International Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell
Electric
Electric Vehicles are now in a mature stage, but the
problem of storing energy inside the car has not been [13] Juan Dixon, Micah Ortúzar and Jorge Moreno, Monitoring System
for Testing the Performance of an Electric Vehicle Using
completely solved yet. The paper has shown some of the Ultracapacitors, Electric Vehicle Symposium, EVS19, Busan,
most conventional methods to store energy for electric Corea, October 2002.
vehicles, such as chemical battery systems, ultracapacitors, [14] Joel Shindall, “The Charge of the Ultracapacitors, Nanotechnology
flywheels and fuel cells, showing the advantages and Takes Energy Storage Beyond Batteries”, IEEE Spectrum, Nov.
disadvantages of each one of them. However, until now, 2007, pp. 38-42.
none of these alternatives satisfy all the features required to [15] Koichi Kojima, Hiroshi Suzuki and Katsuhiko Hirose, “Recent
compete with ICE cars, but the future is promising. Challenges of Hydrogen Storage Technologies for Hydrogen-
Powered Fuel Cell Vehicles”. The 22nd International Battery,
Research continues and some new interesting developments, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Symposium & Exposition,
like ultracapacitors made with carbon nanotubes, look as a EVS-22, Yokohama, Japan, Oct. 23-28, 2006.
good alternative and a solution for the near future, because [16] Tomoyuki Hanada, “The development of Nissan 70-MPa hydrogen
they are simpler, can be charged rapidly and can store storage system for FCVs”. The 22nd International Battery, Hybrid
and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Symposium & Exposition, EVS-22,
enough energy to compete with ICE vehicles. May be in this
Yokohama, Japan, Oct. 23-28, 2006.
new decade cost problems will also become solved, and
EVs could be commercialized at competitive prices.
Juan Dixon (SM) was born in Santiago, Chile.
He received the Ms. Eng. and the Ph.D. degrees
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