Sequence Stratigraphy in Exploration

By: Andy Davies

WHAT IS SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY?

Sequence stratigraphy describes the organization of sedimentary
packages, expressed as stratal stacking patterns, through an
understanding of changes in accommodation versus sediment supply, with
time. The technique allows the identification of packages of strata that were
deposited during similar conditions of accommodation change (stationary,
increasing, or decreasing) in relation to sediment supply, and the key
stratigraphic surfaces that bound them. A sequence corresponds to a cycle
of change in stratal stacking patterns, as identified by the re-occurrence of
a key stratigraphic surface (Catuneanu, 2019). Sequence stratigraphy
allows the integration of a range of disparate geological datasets, provides
a powerful framework for correlation, and allows the informed prediction of
sedimentary geometries, architecture, facies, and lithologies away from
data control.

APPLICATIONS
Sequence stratigraphy was developed in the 1970s and represents one of
the most recent paradigm shifts in geoscience. It has helped revolutionize
our understanding of sedimentary systems on a range of spatial and
temporal scales, and has many applications in oil and gas exploration,
including:
• Enabling disparate geological datasets (e.g. wireline, outcrop,
seismic, biostratigraphy, porosity-permeability, and organic
geochemistry) to be meaningfully integrated.
• Allowing the informed prediction of facies, lithologies, and
sedimentary geometries away from data control, so that the
occurrence of reservoirs, source rocks, and seals may be inferred
regionally from relatively sparse datasets. Thus, it provides a
framework for understanding reservoir architecture and rock
properties, such as porosity, permeability, and TOC characteristics, at
a variety of scales.
• Providing a mechanism to move away from potentially misleading
lithostratigraphic correlations.
• Enabling the chronology of basin fill to be visualized, allowing the
generation of precise paleogeographic maps, and resulting play
fairway and common risk segment maps.
Figure 1 > Changes in accommodation that would occur in South America if global sea level were 200 m
higher or lower than at present

SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHIC CONCEPTS

Although the nuances of sequence stratigraphy remain a topic of debate,
the fundamental concept is simple to grasp; sedimentary systems respond
to variations in accommodation (Figure 1) and sediment supply, and in so
doing, form characteristic stratal stacking patterns within the sedimentary
record.
Sediment supply determines how quickly any accommodation is filled and
is related to a number of factors, including the hinterland geology, relief,
drainage basin size, and climate. For carbonate systems, the nature of the
carbonate producers, the size of the carbonate factory, water depth, and
tropic levels are also important.
Changes in accommodation relate to the interplay of various independent
factors. In the marine realm, accommodation relates to relative sea level,
which is primarily controlled by tectonism (subsidence or uplift) and eustatic
(global) sea level. Relative sea level also has a significant influence on
accommodation within the downstream portion of fluvial and lacustrine
systems. However, in upstream portions of the fluvial and lacustrine
system, accommodation is controlled by changes in tectonism (e.g.
subsidence in lakes or the gradient of a river system) and discharge, which
in turn, may be controlled by climate.
The characteristic stratal stacking patterns resulting from changes in
accommodation and sediment can be determined by assessing the vertical
stacking pattern of depositional facies, and by analyzing the path taken by
the shoreline as it changes position, also known as shoreline trajectory.
The different stratal stacking patterns (Figure 2) are classified as:
Aggradational — when sediments of the same facies stack broadly
vertically and the shoreline trajectory rises vertically. Aggradation develops
when accommodation creation and sediment supply are balanced.

Retrogradational — when facies belts display a landward movement and

the shoreline trajectory rises towards the land. Retrogradation occurs when
accommodation creation outpaces sediment supply.

Progradational — when facies belts move basinward and the shoreline

trajectory rises towards the basin center. Progradation occurs when
sediment supply outpaces accommodation creation.

Forced progradational — when sediments are forced to prograde,

irrespective of sediment supply, and the shoreline trajectory falls towards
the basin center. Forced progradation is related to the active destruction of
accommodation, by a drop in relative sea level for instance.

Figure 2 > Diagrammatic representation of the four stratal stacking patterns relating to the evolution of
accommodation versus sedimentation rate, over time. Modified from Van Wagoner e al., 1998.

These stacking patterns and geometries allow sediments to be grouped

into different ‘systems tracts’ that are bound by key stratigraphic surfaces
(Figure 3). An important distinction can be made between clastic and
carbonate systems (Schlager, 2005) because carbonates can grow rapidly
in-situ (Figure 3B), although the basic sequence stratigraphic principles are
common to both systems. While the expression of accommodation change
versus sediment supply is well understood, the exact means of classifying
the different systems tracts and stratal surfaces remains a subject of
debate (Catuneanu, 2019), but can be summarized as follows:
»»
Transgressive Systems Tract — when the creation of accommodation
outpaces sediment supply, such as during periods of rapid sea level rise or
when sediment supply is dramatically reduced, stratal stacking patterns
display a retrogradation pattern. Sediments deposited under these
conditions are grouped into a transgressive systems tract (TST). TST
deposits display a rising shoreline trajectory as the shoreface transgresses
towards the land. The top of the TST is marked by a maximum flooding
surface (MFS), which represents the most landward migration of the
shoreline and the maximum amount of accommodation. In carbonate
systems, it is possible to develop isolated carbonate build-ups during the
TST that may be drowned, if the creation of accommodation is sufficiently
rapid (Figure 3B).
»»
Highstand Systems Tract — above the TST, sediments occur that comprise
the highstand systems tract (HST). They are characterized by initial
aggradation, reflecting a balance between accommodation creation and
sediment supply, and later by progradation, as sediment supply outpaces
any new accommodation creation. In the marine realm, HST sediments
record the slowing of relative sea level rise. HST sediments display a rising,
followed by a flat, shoreline trajectory.
»»
Lowstand Systems Tract and Falling Stage Systems Tract — above the
HST, sediments may occur that mark the onset of the active destruction of
accommodation, due to a drop in relative sea level. Sediments deposited
under these conditions are forced to prograde, irrespective of sediment
supply, and display a falling, basinward shoreline trajectory. They may form
part of the lowstand systems tract (LST), or can be classified into a discrete
falling stage systems tract (FSST).
The base of the LST is marked by the sequence boundary (SB) or, if an
FSST is recognized, by the surface of forced regression with the SB
instead marking the top of the FSST. Once base level fall has ceased,
sediment supply may be able to outpace accommodation creation, so that
sediments continue to prograde. Sediments deposited under these
conditions are always taken as part of the LST and display a rising,
basinward shoreline trajectory. The top of the LST is marked by a
maximum regression surface (MRS), representing the most basinward
migration of the shoreline.

LOCAL VERSUS GLOBAL CONTROLS

Sediment supply is an inherently local factor, although the nature of the
sediments may be modulated
by global processes (e.g. the nature of carbonate builders). Changes in
accommodation, however, relate to various factors that may have local or
global effects. Local changes in accommodation
may be driven by basin or fault-block specific tectonic uplift or subsidence,
changes in discharge, or the gradient.
Eustatic sea level variation relates to changes in the volume of seawater
(e.g. the growth and demise of continental ice sheets), and changes in the
volume of the ocean basins (e.g. changes in the mid-ocean ridge length).
Eustatic variability happens over different timescales and amplitudes. For
example, in the Carboniferous, the waxing and waning of large, polar ice
sheets resulted in high amplitude (>80 m), global sea level cycles on
hundred-thousand-year time scales (3rd order). In contrast, changes in the
volumes of ocean basins result in long-term trends (1st order), such as the
general increase in global sea level during the Mesozoic that culminated in
the Late Cretaceous highstand. Any marine or downstream sedimentary
succession will reflect a combination of both local and global signals.

APPLICATIONS OF SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY

Sequence stratigraphy has many direct applications in assisting successful
hydrocarbon exploration. Examples include:
»»
Providing a time-based framework for generating precise paleogeographic
maps, which can be used to create play fairway and common risk segment
maps.
»»
Predicting stratigraphic traps. For example, isolated depositional reservoirs
(e.g. perched LST wedge or drowned pinnacle reefs), up-dip pinch outs
(e.g. LST channel fill), subcrop traps beneath major sequence boundaries,
and diagenetic traps (e.g. dolomitization resulting from LST exposure).
»»
Providing a better understanding of stratigraphic geometries and reservoir
heterogeneity to help identify bypassed zones.
»»
Providing a mechanism to identify or predict zones of enhanced reservoir
quality. Reworking of sediments during the LST can improve the textural
and composition maturity of sandstones and increase net to gross. In
carbonates, vertical porosity-permeability changes can be understood and
predicted in a sequence stratigraphic framework, with HST sediments often
demonstrating better reservoir quality than TST sediments. Subaerial
exposure during the LST can also lead to karst development in HST
deposits.
»»
Providing a means to help identify where thick, amalgamated deep-water
fans may have been deposited. An over-steepened slope results in a
stationary shelf edge, which ensures sediment is delivered to the base of
the slope for a protracted amount of time. Over-steepening can occur
following major transgressions, with subsequent shelf-edge deltas (HST or
LST) efficiently feeding coarse sediment into deep water.
»»
Providing a means to predict the occurrence of potential source rocks.
Source rocks may form regionally during major transgressions, due to low
sedimentation rates enhancing the concentration of organic matter in
basinal sediments. Alternatively, the degree of restriction within
epicontinental basins is impacted by accommodation changes, and
enhanced restriction can help improve source rock characteristics through
better developed bottom water hypoxia and increased nutrient flux.
»»
Helping to better understand and extrapolate the stratigraphic architecture
of organic-rich versus organic-lean sediments, to improve the exploitation
of resource plays.

The benefits of sequence stratigraphy in exploration are clear. However, if

a eustatic sequence stratigraphic model can be applied, then the technique
holds even greater promise (e.g. Vail et al., 1977). A eustatic model allows
any subsurface, or outcrop, data to be attributed using a single stratigraphic
scheme. This, in turn, allows all geoscience data to be meaningfully
integrated, enabling data to be analyzed and visualized in both space and
time, further enhancing the predictive power of sequence stratigraphy. The
benefits of this include a framework for detailed and precise global
correlation, the ability to create global paleoenvironment and isopach
maps, and being able to readily identify analogues and generic play
concepts.
 Figure 3 > Diagrammatic representation of the response of a clastic (A) and carbonate (B) system to
changes in accommodation. Stratal stacking patterns and the shoreline trajectory help to define three
systems tracts (the FSST has been grouped into the LST) and their bounding stratal surfaces. Note the
potential to form isolated carbonate build-ups during transgression
FUTURE TRENDS
With the advent of the digital revolution and major efficiency gains in
interpreting 3D seismic volumes, a truly quantitative sedimentological
approach to sequence stratigraphy is now possible. Such an approach
holds the potential to provide abundant information on the impact of
changing accommodation and sedimentation on
progradation/aggradation/retrogradation rates, depositional volumes, and
the pace and magnitude of relative sea level change. This information can
be used to better constrain forward stratigraphic models, generating
enhanced insights into play fairway extents and reservoir heterogeneity.
Quantitative analysis will also allow more robust eustatic signals to be
extracted from vast global datasets.
The integration of disparate geological datasets into a sequence
stratigraphic framework is currently a manual, and often laborious, effort.
However, emerging techniques, such as machine learning hold the promise
of assisting geoscientists with this task in the near future. Ongoing research
by Halliburton has demonstrated that it is possible to determine biozones
and paleoenvironments automatically from raw biostratigraphic data, to a
standard comparable with human interpretation, using Random Forest and
Naïve Bayesian algorithms (see article by Mike Simmons et al. in this
edition of the Exploration Insights Magazine). Using similar techniques, it
has also been demonstrated that lithology can be interpreted from wire
logs, automatically. When combined with future research into the
classification of wireline log signatures and the assisted extraction of
horizons, geomorphology, and facies from seismic volumes, an assisted
approach to the identification of different systems tracts and their bounding
stratigraphic surfaces does not seem too far away.

REFERENCES
Catuneanu, O., V., 2019. Model-independent sequence stratigraphy. Earth-
Science Reviews, v. 188, p. 312-388. (XURBB_641091)
Embry, A.F. 2002. Transgressive-Regressive (T-R) Sequence Stratigraphy.
Sequence Stratigraphic Models for Exploration and Production. Geological
Survey of Canada, p. 151-172. (RURBB_007100)
Emery, D. and K. Myers 1996. Sequence Stratigraphy. Blackwell
Publishing Ltd (Wiley-Blackwell), 1-297 p. (GURBB_157986)
Posamentier, H.W., C.P. Summerhayes, B.U. Haq and G.P. Allen 1993.
Sequence stratigraphy and facies associations. IAS - Special Publication
(International Association of Sedimentologists - Special Publication) no. 18,
Blackwell Publishing Ltd (Wiley-Blackwell), 1-644 p. (GURBB_188660)
Schlager, W. 2005. Carbonate Sedimentology and Sequence Stratigraphy.
SEPM - Concepts in Sedimentology and Paleontology no. 8, Society of
Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists (SEPM), 1-200 p.
(GURBB_153794)
Vail, P.R., R.M. Mitchum and S. Thompson III 1977. Seismic stratigraphy
and global changes of sea-level, Part 4: Global Cycles of Relative Changes
of Sea Level. In C.E .Payton (Eds.), Seismic stratigraphy - applications to
hydrocarbon exploration. AAPG Memoir no. 26, p. 83-97. (MEBIB21069)
van Wagoner, J.C., H.W. Posamentier, R.M. Mitchum, P.R. Vail, J.F. Sarg,
T.S. Loutit and J. Hardenbol 1988. An overview of the fundamentals of
sequence stratigraphy and key definitions. In C.K. Wilgus, B.S. Hastings,
C.G. St. Kendall and H.W. Posamentier (Eds.), Sea Level Changes: An
Integrated Approach, p. 39-45. (MEBIB21129)

AUTHOR
Andy Davies, Geoscience Advisor, Halliburton
Andy’s main role is to help develop the next generation of geoscience tools for use in
exploration, which has recently led to the development of an Earth Systems solution. Previously,
he held various roles at Neftex, including Senior R&D Geoscientist and Head of Innovation,
acting as part of the Neftex leadership team. Andy also holds the position of senior visiting
research fellow at the University of Leeds, UK.