MEASUREMENT OF VERTICAL DISTANCES

LEVELING
Leveling is the process of directly or indirectly measuring vertical distances to determine
the elevation of points or their differences in elevation.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Level Surface – It is a curved surface which is at any point perpendicular to the direction
of gravity or the plumb line.
2. Level Line – A level line is a curved line in a level surface all points of which are normal
to the direction of gravity and equidistant from the center of the earth.
3. Horizontal Surface – It is a plane that is tangent to a level surface at a particular point.
The horizontal surface is also perpendicular to the plumb line at the same point.
4. Horizontal Line – A straight line in a horizontal plane which is tangent to a level line at
one point. This line is perpendicular to the direction of gravity at the point of tangency.
5. Vertical Line – A vertical line at any point is a line parallel to the direction of gravity. It
is exemplified by the direction taken by a string supporting a suspended plumb bob
passing through a point.
6. Mean Sea Level – Mean sea level is an imaginary surface of the sea which is midway
between high and low tides.
7. Datum – Datum is any convenient level surface coincident or parallel with mean sea
level to which elevations of a particular area are referred.
8. Elevation – For a particular point, its elevation is the vertical distance above or below
mean sea level or any other selected datum.
9. Difference in Elevation – The difference in elevation between two points is the vertical
distance between the two level surfaces in which the points lie.
LEVELING METHODS
There are various methods which could be employed to determine the elevation of points
and their differences in elevation. These methods may be undertaken either directly or indirectly
in the field. The principle involved in each method differ in some aspects.
1. Direct or Spirit Leveling – Direct leveling is the commonly employed method of
determining the elevation of points some distance apart by a series of set ups of a leveling
instrument along a selected route.
2. Reciprocal Leveling – Reciprocal leveling is the process of accurately determining the
difference in elevation between two intervisible points located at a considerable distance
apart and between which points leveling could not be performed in the usual manner.
3. Profile Leveling – This method of leveling is used to determine differences in elevation
between points at designated short measured intervals along an established line to provide
data from which a vertical section of the ground surface can be plotted.
 4. Trigonometric Leveling – This method of leveling is employed in determining by
trigonometric computations the differences in elevation between two points from
measurement of its horizontal or slope distance and the vertical angle between between
the points.
5. Stadia Leveling – Stadia leveling combines features of direct leveling with those of
trigonometric leveling.
6. Barometric Leveling – Barometric leveling involves the determination of differences in
elevation between points by measuring the variation in atmospheric pressure at each point
by means of a barometer. This leveling method depends on the basic principle that
differences in elevation are proportional to the differences in atmospheric pressure.
7. Cross-Section Leveling – In highway or railroad constructions it is often necessary to
obtain a representation of the ground surface on either side of the centerline.
8. Barrow-Pit Leveling – Barrow-pit leveling is a method of determining the relative
elevations of points in barrow-pit excavations for the purpose of calculating volumes fo
earthwork.
TYPES OF LEVEL
1. Dumpy Level – The dumpty level is the most widely used direct leveling instrument. It
has a long telescope which is rigidly attached to the level bar.
2. Wye Level – The wye level is very identical to the dumpty level. The only distinct
difference between these two instruments is in the manner by which their telescopes are
attached to the supporting level bar.
3. Builder’s Level – This instrument is used primarily in the different phases of building
construction where a high degree of precision is not a primary requisite.
4. Automatic Level – Self-leveling features are incorporated in automatic levels. This type
of level has become popular for conventional leveling work because of the ease and
speed of their operation.
5. Tilting Levels – This type of leveling instrument can be tilted or rotated about its
horizontal axis. A bull’s-eye level is employed for its quick and approximate leveling.
6. Geodetic Level – The geodetic level is basically another type of tilting level. Most of its
metal parts are made of invar to reduce the effect of temperature.
7. Transit as a Level – The engineer’s transit has always been referred to as the “universal
surveying instrument” because of its variety of uses.
8. Laser Level – A new innovation introduced to surveying operations is the use of lasers.
A laser system is a separate unit equipped with a portable power supply and may be a
helium-neon laser or gas laser.
a. Wild NA2 converted to a laser level using a GL02 laser eyepiece.
9. Hand Level – The hand level is a handheld instrument used on surveys involving short
sights and where a low order of accuracy is sufficient. The hand level consists of a brass
tube about 15 cm long having a plain glass objective and a peep sight eyepiece.
LEVELING RODS
A leveling rod is a graduated rod which is used for measuring the vertical distance
between the line of sight through a leveling instrument and the point whose elevation is either
required or known. Rods are made of wood, fiberglass, or metal and have graduations in meters
and decimals which start from zero at the bottom and extending upward to lengths of 3 or 4
meters.
Leveling rods may be either of the following:
1. Self-Reading Rod – This is the most commonly used type of leveling rod. It can be read
directly by the instrumentman through the telescope by nothing the apparent intersection
of the horizontal hair on the rod.
2. Target Rod – This type of rod has a sliding target which is set and read by a rodman at
the position selected by the instrumentman.
OTHER TYPES OF ROD
1. Rods Named after Cities or states
2. Rod Ribbons
3. Precise Rod
4. Geodetic Rod
5. Tape Rod
ROD LEVEL
The rod level is a device used for fast and correct plumbing of a leveling rod.
TARGETS
A target is a small device attached to the rod when extremely long sights make direct
reading of the rod difficult or impossible.
TELESCOPES
The telescope of a surveying instrument is a metal tube containing a system of lenses
which are used to fix the direction of the line of sight and in magnifying the apparent size of
objects in its field of view.
1. Objective Lens – It is compound lens composed of crown and flint glass mounted in the
objective end of the telescope and has its optical axis concentric with the tube axis.
2. Eyepiece – the eyepiece is a form of microscope containing either two or four lenses and
is used to enlarge altogether the image and the cross hairs.
3. Cross Hairs – The cross hairs consists of a pair of lines which are perpendicular to each
other and are used to define the instrument’s line of sight.
MAGNIFICATION
The magnification of a telescope is the ratio of the apparent size of an object viewed
through a telescope to its size as seen by the unaided eye from the same distance. It may alse be
taken as the amount by which an object is increased in apparent size.
LEVEL VIAL
A level vial is a sealed graduated glass tube containing some amount of liquid and a small
air bubble.
COINCIDENCE BUBBLE
This type of bubble is used on most modern and precise instruments such as the tilting
and automatic levels. It employs an optical device which splits the bubble longitudinally, then
turns one end around to make it appear adjacent to the other end.
TRIPODS
Tripods serve as a base to prevent movement of the instrument after it is set up. A tripod
consists of three wooden or aluminum legs which are securely fastened to the tripod head by
means of a hinged joint.
 MEASUREMENT OF VERTICAL DISTANCES
SETTING UP THE LEVEL
The leveling instrument may be set up at any suitable or desired location. When starting a
leveling operation the instrumentman should first consider where he intends to position the
instrument. The level is then pulled out from its box by holding the level bar or base plate and
screwed securely onto the tripod head. The instrument should fit snugly and bear firmly. If
loosely fitted, the instrument will wobble and be unstable; if too tight due to excessive pressure,
it would be difficult to unscrew the instrument later and may cause some damage.
LEVELING THE INSTRUMENT
A considerable amount of practice in leveling the instrument will be needed by a
beginner. Most conventional level are designed with four leveling screws.
1. Instruments with Four Leveling Screws
 The bubble is first centered approximately over one pair of opposite leveling
screws.
2. Instruments with Three Leveling Screws
 For instruments with only three leveling screws, the telescope is turned until the
bubble tube is positioned parallel to the line through any two of the screws.
HOLDING THE LEVELING ROD
The leveling rod is held on a point by a rodman when a sight is to be taken on it. To
obtain the correct distance from the line of sight to the point on which the rod is placed, it is
extremely important that the rod be held plumb when the reading is made.
TAKING A ROD READING
Before readings are taken on a rod, it is important to first examine how the graduations
are indicated on it.
1. Position the Rod – The leveling rod is held by the rodman on the designated point whose
elevation is to be determined.
2. Focuson the Rod – The instrumentman aims and focuses the telescope on the rod at the
same time seeing to it that the bubble continues to remain in the center of the level vial.
3. Read the Rod – If the self-reading rod is used, the instrumentman observes directly from
the telescope and records the reading indicated by the line of sight.
DETERMINING DIFFERENCE IN ELEVATION
The sequence of steps involved are as follows:
1. The instrument is set up and leveled at a point about halfway between A and B.
2. Sight on the rod held vertically at point A and record the rod reading.
 3. Rotate the telescope carefully about the vertical axis and sight on a rod held vertically at
B.
LENGTH OF SIGHT
It is always best to take sight at moderate lengths to attain speed and accuracy in leveling
work. However, very short or extremely long sights should be avoided.
WAVING THE ROD
By aligning the rod with the vertical cross hair, the instrumentman can determine if a rod
is held in a vertical plane passing through the instrument. He cannot, however, tell if the rod is
tipped forward or backward in this plane. This can only be accomplished by waving the rod.
The procedure is used to determine whether the rod is plumb when a reading is taken on it. It is
accomplished by slowly waving or tilting the top of the rod through an arc, first toward the
instrument and then away from it.
As the rod is waved, the instrumentman takes note of the rod readings which will
alternately increase and decrease. The minimum reading observed is considered as the correct
rod reading at the particular point sighted.
When the long rod is used it is always advisable to wave the rod. If the target rod is used,
it must be raised or lowered until there is found just one position when the target rises as high as
the line of sight while the rod is being waved.
CARRYING THE INSTRUMENT
The level should always be kept in a box when it is not used.
ARM AND HAND SIGNALS
1. Move Right or Left
2. Give a Sight
3. All Right
4. This is a Point
5. Move back
6. Pick Up Instruments
7. Raise (or Lower) Target
8. Come In
9. Plumb the Rod
10.Establish a Turning Point
11.This is a Turning Point
12.Wave the Rod
13.Face the Rod
14.Reverse the Rod
15. Move Forward
 16.Use the Long Rod

MEASUREMENT OF VERTICAL DISTANCES

SOURCES OF ERROR IN LEVELING
The accuracy of leveling work may be affected by numerous factors.
1. Instrumental Errors
a. Instrument out of Adjustment
b. Rod not Standard Length
c. Defective Tripod
2. Personal Errors
a. Bubble not Centered
b. Parallax
c. Faulty Rod Readings
d. Rod not Held Plumb
e. Incorrect Setting of Target
f. Unequal Backsight and Foresight Distances
3. Natural Errors
a. Curvature of the Earth
b. Atmospheric Refraction
c. Temperature Variations
d. Wind
e. Settlement of the Instrument
f. Faulty Turning Points
COMMON MISTAKES IN LEVELING
The following are some of the most commonly made mistakes in levelling work:
1. Misreading the Rod
2. Incorrect Recording
3. Erroneous Computations
4. Rod not Fully Extended
5. Moving Turning Points
ADJUSTMENT OF THE DUMPTY LEVEL
1. Adjustment of the Cross hairs – The reticle or the cross hair ring is adjusted to see to it
that the horizontal cross hair lies in a plane perpendicular to the vertical axis of the
instrument. If this particular requirement is not satisfied, an error will occur each time a
reading is made.
 a. Procedure of testing – The instrument is first approximately leveled then one end
of the horizontal cross hair is focused and sighted on some well-defined stationary
point. The telescope is slowly turned about the vertical axis using the tangent
screw to see if the point sighted appears to move along the hair throughout its
length. If the point sighted remains on the horizontal hair, the cross hairs are in
adjustment; if it departs the cross hair, an adjustment is necessary.
b. Making the Adjustment – The adjustment is made by loosening two pairs of
capstan headed screws which hold the reticle. An adjustment pin is inserted into
one of the holes of the screws to turn it slowly while using the pin as a lever.
2. Adjustment of the Level Vial
a. Procedure of testing – Align the level vial along an opposite pair of leveling
screws and carefully center the bubble.
b. Making the Adjustment – This time bring the bubble halfway back to the center
by raising or lowering one end of the level vial by means of a capstan screw.
3. Adjustment of the line of sight
a. Procedure Testing
b. Making Adjustment

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM
1. TWO-PEG TEST. In the two-peg test of a dumpy level the following observations were
taken:
INSTRUMENT SET UP INSTRUMENT SET UP
ROD READING
NEAR A NEAR B
On Point A 1.505 m 0.938 m
On Point B 2.054 m 1.449 m
REQUIREMENTS:
a) Determine if the line of sight is in adjustment and explain your answer
b) If the line of sight is not in adjustment, determine the correct rod reading on A with
the instrument still set up near B.
c) Determine the error in the line of sight for the net distance AB.
d) Explain how the line of sight of the instrument should be adjusted.
SOLUTION:
a) DE a=a−b=1.505−2.054
DE a=−0.549 m (Difference in elevation between A and B determined with instrument set up near A)

DE b=d−c=0.938−1.449
DE b=−0.511 m (Difference in elevation between A and B determined with instrument set up near B)

Since DE a ≠ DE b, the line of sight is not in adjustment

 DE a+ DEb −0.549+(−0.511)
b) TDE= =
2 2
TDE=−0.530 m (True difference in elevation between A and B)

d’ = c + TDE = 1.449 + (-0.530)

d’ = 0.919 m (The correct rod reading on A for a horizontal line of sight with instrument set up near B)

c) e = d – d’ = 0.938 – 0.919
e = 0.019 m (Error in the line of sight)

d) Since d > d’, the line of sight is inclined upward. To adjust the line of sight, loosen
the upper capstan – headed screw and tighten the lower screw until the horizontal
cross hair reads 0.919 m (or d’) on the rod held at A while the instrument is still set
up near B.

MEASUREMENT OF VERTICAL DISTANCES

CURVATURE AND REFRACTION
The effects of earth curvature and atmospheric refraction are taken into account in
leveling work since the measurements are made in vertical planes and these effects all occur in
the same plane.
Atmospheric refraction varies with atmospheric conditions. Under ordinary conditions, it
is approximately equal to 0.0110 m in one kilometer.

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. CURVATURE AND REFRACTION. Determine the combined effects of the earth’s
curvature and atmospheric refraction on sight distances 60. 90, 120, 150, and 500 meters.
SOLUTION:
K R = 6,400 km Where: h = H – 0.011
H
R R2 + K 2=(R+ H )2 h = 0.067 K 2
R R2 + K 2=R 2+2 RH + H 2 K = km
K 2=2 RH h = meters

K2
H=
2(6400)

H=0.078 K 2
 60 2
h' 60=0.0675 K 2=0.0675 ( )
1000
=0.000243 m

90 2
h' 90=0.0675 K 2=0.0675 ( )
1000
=0.000547 m

120 2
h' 120 =0.0675 K 2=0.0675 ( )
1000
=0.000972 m

150 2
h' 150 =0.0675 K 2=0.0675 ( )
1000
=0.001519 m

500 2
' 2
h 500 =0.0675 K =0.0675 ( )
1000
=0.016875 m

2. CURVATURE AND REFRACTION. Two points, A and B, are 525.850 meters apart.
A level is set up on the line between A and B and at a distance of 240.500 m from A. If
the rod reading on A is 3.455 m and that on B is 2.806 m, determine the difference in
elevation between the two points, taking into account the effects of curvature and
atmospheric refraction.
SOLUTION:
240.500 2
h ' a=0.0675 K 2a=0.0675 (
1000 )
h ' a=0.003904 say 0.004 m (Effect of Curvature and refraction on the sight at A)

525.850−240.500 2
h ' b=0.0675 K 2b=0.0675 ( 1000 )
h ' b=0.005496 say 0.005 m (Effect of curvature and refraction on the sight at B)

a ' =a−h' a=3.455−0.004

a ' =3.451m (Corrected rod reading on A)

b ' =b−h' b=2.806−0.005

b ' =2.801m (Corrected rod reading on B)

DE=a' −b' =3.451−2.801

DE = 0.65 m (Difference in elevation between A and B, considering the effect of curvature and refraction)
3. CURVATURE AND REFRACTION. A man on shore standing close to the sea’s water
edge looks out toward the direction of the sea. If his eyes measure 1.72m above sea level,
determine how far out to sea is his visible horizon, neglecting the effect of waves.
SOLUTIONS:
h' =0.0675 K 2 ∨1.72=0.0675 K 2
1.72
K=
√ 0.0675
=5.0479 km∨5,047.9 m

4. CURVATURE AND REFRACTION. A woman standing on a beach can just see the
top of a lighthouse 24.140 km away. If her eye height above sea level is 1.738 m,
determine the height of the lighthouse above sea level.
SOLUTION:
h w =0.0675 K 2w ∨1.738=0.0675 K 2w
1.738
Kw=
√ 0.0675
=5.074 km
(Distance of woman from point of tangency)

Since K w + K L =24.140 km
K L=24.140−K w =24.140−5.074
K L=19.066 km (Distance of lighthouse from point of tangency)

h L =0.0675 K 2L =0.0675(19.066)2
h L =24.537 m (Height of lighthouse above sea level)
5. CURVATURE AND REFRACTION. Neglecting the effect of tide and waves,
determine how far out to sea a boat will be when a light on its mast 60 meters above the
water disappears from the sight of a man on shore whose eye level is 1.583 m above the
water
SOLUTION:
h m=0.0675 K 2m∨1. 583=0.0675 K 2m
1.583
Km=
√0.0675
=4.843 km
(Distance of man from point of tangency)

h b=0.0675 K 2b∨60=0.0675 K 2b
60
Kb=
√ 0.0675
=29.814 km
K= K m + K b=4.843+29.814 (Distance of man from point of tangency)
K=34.657 km (Distance of the boat from the man standing on shore)