Application Note 106

February 2007

Instrumentation Circuitry Using RMS-to-DC Converters

RMS Converters Rectify Average Results

Jim Williams

INTRODUCTION Isolated Power Line Monitor

It is widely acknowledged that RMS (Root of the Mean BEFORE PROCEEDING ANY FURTHER, THE READER
of the Square) measurement of waveforms furnishes IS WARNED THAT CAUTION MUST BE USED IN THE
the most accurate amplitude information.1 Rectify-and- CONSTRUCTION, TESTING AND USE OF THIS CIRCUIT.
average schemes, usually calibrated to a sine wave, are HIGH VOLTAGE, LETHAL POTENTIALS ARE PRESENT IN
only accurate for one waveshape. Departures from this THIS CIRCUIT. EXTREME CAUTION MUST BE USED IN
waveshape result in pronounced errors. Although accurate, WORKING WITH, AND MAKING CONNECTIONS TO, THIS
RMS conversion often entails limited bandwidth, restricted CIRCUIT. REPEAT: THIS CIRCUIT CONTAINS DANGER-
range, complexity and difficult to characterize dynamic OUS, HIGH VOLTAGE POTENTIALS. USE CAUTION.
and static errors. Recent developments address these
Figure 3’s AC power line monitor has 0.5% accuracy over
issues while simultaneously improving accuracy. Figure 1
a sensed 90VAC to 130VAC input and provides a safe, fully
shows the LTC®1966/LTC1967/LTC1968 device family. Low
isolated output. RMS conversion provides accurate report-
frequency accuracy, including linearity and gain error, is
ing of AC line voltage regardless of waveform distortion,
inside 0.5% with 1% error at bandwidths extending to
which is common.
500kHz. These converters employ a sigma-delta based
computational scheme to achieve their performance.2 , LT, LTC and LTM are registered trademarks of Linear Technology Corporation.
All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners.
1See Appendix A, “RMS-to-DC Conversion” for complete discussion of
Figure 2’s pinout descriptions and basic circuits reveal an
RMS measurement.
easily applied device. An output filter capacitor is all that is 2Appendix A details sigma-delta based RMS-to-DC converter operation.
required to form a functional RMS-to-DC converter. Split
and single supply powered variants are shown. Such ease
of implementation invites a broad range of application;
examples begin with Figure 3.

LINEARITY CONVERSION 1% ERROR 3dB ERROR

ERROR GAIN ERROR BANDWIDTH BANDWIDTH SUPPLY VOLTAGE ISUPPLY
PART NUMBER TYP/MAX (%) TYP/MAX (%) (kHz) (kHz) MIN(V) MAX(V) MAX (µA)
LTC1966 0.02/0.15 0.1/0.3 6 800 2.7 ±5 170
LTC1967 0.02/0.15 0.1/0.3 200 4MHz 4.5 5.5 390
LTC1968 0.02/0.15 0.1/0.3 500 15MHz 4.5 5.5 2.3mA

Figure 1. Primary Differences in RMS to DC Converter Family are Bandwidth and Supply Requirements.
All Devices Have Rail-to-Rail Differential Inputs and Output

an106f

AN106-1
Application Note 106
POSITIVE SUPPLY
2.7V TO 5.5V
DEPENDING ON DEVICE CHOICE

DIFFERENTIAL +V
OUTPUT TO FILTER CAPACITOR
INPUTS. INPUT 1 OUTPUT OUTPUT
LTC1966
MAX COMMON MODE
LTC1967
RANGE = ±V SUPPLY. OUTPUT REFERRED
INPUT 2 LTC1968 OUTPUT RETURN TO THIS PIN.
MAX DIFFERENTIAL = 1V.
MINIMUM INPUT = 5mV NORMALLY GROUNDED
ENABLE –V* GND

SET HIGH TO LTC1966 ONLY. POWER *NO –V PIN ON THE LTC1967/LTC1968

SHUT DOWN 0V TO –5V GROUND
SUPPLY

±5V Supplies, Differential, DC-Coupled 5V Single Supply, Differential, AC-Coupled

RMS-to-DC Converter RMS-to-DC Converter
5V 5V

VDD VDD
LTC1966 LTC1966
DC + AC DC OUTPUT DC OUTPUT
INPUTS IN1 VOUT AC INPUTS IN1 VOUT
CAVE ZO = 85kΩ (1VPEAK CAVE ZO = 85kΩ
(1VPEAK IN2 OUT RTN 1µF DIFFERENTIAL) IN2 OUT RTN 1µF
DIFFERENTIAL)
VSS GND EN CC VSS GND EN
0.1µF
AN106 F02
–5V

Figure 2. RMS Converter Pin Functions (Top) and Basic Circuits (Bottom).
Pin Descriptions are Common to All Devices, with Minor Differences

BIAS SUPPLY
1k
–5V
100µF
+
1k
1 T1 5 5V DANGER! Lethal Potentials Present—See Text

LINE INPUT
+
100Ω 100µF
90VAC A
1W
TO 140VAC
4 6 RMS CONVERTER
7 ISOLATED LINE SENSE
5V –5V
100Ω
B 1W
0.25% +V –V
1k 100Ω C1
IN1
LTC1966
OUT +
8 A1 RMS OUT
IN2 OUT RTN 1µF 0.9V TO 1.4V =
120VAC 10Ω LT®1006
TRIM 0.25% EN GND 90VAC TO 140VAC
–
100k*

T1 = TAMURA-PAN MAG 3FS-212

= 1N4148 100k*

AN106 F03
= 1N4689 5.1V

*1% METAL FILM RESISTOR

1µF = WIMA MKS-2

Figure 3. Isolated Power Line Monitor Senses Via Transformer with 0.5% Accuracy Over 90VAC to 130VAC Input.
Secondary Loading Optimizes Transformer Voltage Conversion Linearity

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AN106-2
 Application Note 106
The AC line voltage is divided down by T1’s ratio. An isolated Fully Isolated 2500V Breakdown,
and reduced potential appears across T1’s secondary B, Wideband RMS-to-DC Converter
where it is resistively scaled and presented to C1’s input.
NOTE: BEFORE PROCEEDING ANY FURTHER, THE
Power for C1 comes from T1’s secondary A, which is
READER IS WARNED THAT CAUTION MUST BE USED
rectified, filtered and zener regulated to DC. A1 takes gain
IN THE CONSTRUCTION, TESTING AND USE OF THIS
and provides a numerically convenient output. Accuracy
CIRCUIT. HIGH VOLTAGE, LETHAL POTENTIALS ARE
is increased by biasing T1 to an optimal loading point,
PRESENT IN THIS CIRCUIT. EXTREME CAUTION MUST
facilitated by the relatively low resistance divider values.
BE USED IN WORKING WITH, AND MAKING CON-
Similarly, although C1 and A1 are capable of single supply
NECTIONS TO, THIS CIRCUIT. REPEAT: THIS CIRCUIT
operation, split supplies maintain symmetrical T1 loading.
CONTAINS DANGEROUS, HIGH VOLTAGE POTENTIALS.
The circuit is calibrated by adjusting the 1k trim for 1.20V
USE CAUTION.
output with the AC line set at 120VAC. This adjustment is
made using a variable AC line transformer and a well floated Accurate RMS amplitude measurement of SCR chopped
(use a line isolation transformer) RMS voltmeter.3 AC line related waveforms is a common requirement. This
measurement is complicated by the SCR’s fast switching
Figure 4’s error plot shows 0.5% accuracy from 90VAC
of a sine wave, introducing odd waveshapes with high
to 130VAC, degrading to 1.4% at 140VAC. The beneficial
frequency harmonic content. Figure 5’s conceptual SCR-
effect of trimming at 120VAC is clearly evident; trim-
based AC/DC converter is typical. The SCRs alternately
ming at full scale would result in larger overall error,
chop the 220VAC line, responding to a loop enforced,
primarily due to non-ideal transformer behavior. Note
phase modulated trigger to maintain a DC output. Figure
that the data is specific to the transformer specified.
6’s waveforms are representative of operation. Trace A is
Substitution for T1 necessitates circuit value changes
one AC line phase, trace B the SCR cathodes. The SCR’s
and recharacterization.
irregularly shaped waveform contains DC and high fre-
quency harmonic, requiring wideband RMS conversion
2.0 for measurement. Additionally, for safety and system
1.5
interface considerations, the measurement must be fully
RMS OUTPUT READING ERROR (%)

isolated.
1.0
3See Appendix B, “AC Measurement and Signal Handling Practice,” for
0.5 recommendations on RMS voltmeters and other AC measurement related
120VAC TRIM POINT
0
gossip.

–0.5 DANGER! Lethal Potentials Present—See Text

–1.0
220VAC
–1.5 DC
INPUT OUTPUT
–2.0
90 100 110 120 130 140 NEUTRAL
RMS INPUT VOLTAGE (V)
AN106 F04

Figure 4. Error Plot for Isolated Line Monitor Shows 0.5% 220VAC
Accuracy from 90VAC to 130VAC, Degrading to 1.4% at 140VAC.
Transformer Parasitics Account for Almost All Error
AC LINE SYNC
AND PHASE TRIGGER
MODULATION
AN106 F05

REF

Figure 5. Conceptual AC/DC Converter is Typical of SCR-Based

Configurations. Feedback Directed, AC Line Synchronized
Trigger Phase Modulates SCR Turn-On, Controlling DC Output

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AN106-3
Application Note 106
Figure 7 provides isolated power and data output paths to
an RMS-to-DC converter, permitting safe, wideband, digital
A = 100V/DIV output RMS measurement. A pulse generator configured
comparator combines with Q1 and Q2 to drive T1, resulting
B = 50V/DIV
in isolated 5V power at T1’s rectified, filtered and zener
ON 170 VDC regulated output. The RMS-to-DC converter senses either
LEVEL
135VAC or 270VAC full-scale inputs via a resistive divider.
The converter’s DC output feeds a self-clocked, serially
1ms/DIV
AN106 F06
interfaced A/D converter; optocouplers convey output data
across the isolation barrier. The LTC6650 provides a 1V
Figure 6. Typical SCR-Based Converter Waveforms Taken at AC reference to the A/D and biases the RMS-to-DC converter’s
Line (Trace A) and SCR Cathodes (Trace B). SCR’s Irregularly
Shaped Waveform Contains DC and High Frequency Harmonic,
inputs to accommodate the voltage divider’s AC swing.
Requiring Wideband RMS Converter for Measurement Calibration is accomplished by adjusting the 20k trim while
noting output data agreement with the input AC voltage.
Circuit accuracy is within 1% in a 200kHz bandwidth.
PULSE GENERATOR POWER 5V
DRIVER
1N4148 1k
1k
220k
Q2 ISOLATED POWER SUPPLY
ZTX-749
– 100Ω
2Ω 1N5817
0.001µF 1k Q1
LT1671 5V ISO
2N2369 3 1 +
+ 1N4148
1N4689
100µF
750k 5.1V
4 6
750k
5V
T1
750k ISOLATION/POWER
TRANSFORMER

2500V BREAKDOWN DANGER! Lethal Potentials Present—See Text

ISOLATION BARRIER
182k*
DATA 5V 4.7k
ISOLATORS 5V ISO A/D RMS CONVERTER
182k*
5V ISO
5V ISO
SCK CALIBRATE INPUT
– 5V ISO 20k 135VAC
+V OR
SCK VIN LT1006 0.1µF 270VAC
+V
+ FULL SCALE
DATA LTC2400 OUT IN1
5V
OUTPUTS SDO 1µF†
LTC1967 1k*
FO GND CS REF
OUT RTN IN2
EN GND
SDO
+
10µF
5V ISO
4.7k
5V ISO

1µF LT6650
ISOLATORS = AGILENT-HCPL-2300-010 400mV 1VDC
T1 = BI TECHNOLOGIES HM-41-11510 REFERENCE
+ OUT
AN106 F07

* = 1% METAL FILM RESISTOR

† = WIMA MKS-2
– 15k*
FB
= CIRCUIT COMMON 1µF

= AC LINE GROUND 10k*

Figure 7. Isolated RMS Converter Permits Safe, Digital Output, Wideband RMS Measurement. T1-Based Circuitry Supplies Isolated
Power. RMS-to-DC Converter Senses High Voltage Input via Resistive Divider. A/D Converter Provides Digital Output Through
Optoisolators. Accuracy is 1% in 200kHz Bandwidth
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AN106-4
 Application Note 106
Low Distortion AC Line RMS Voltage Regulator Almost all AC line voltage regulators rely on some form of
NOTE: BEFORE PROCEEDING ANY FURTHER, THE waveform chopping, clipping or interruption to function.
READER IS WARNED THAT CAUTION MUST BE USED This is efficient, but introduces waveform distortion, which
IN THE CONSTRUCTION, TESTING AND USE OF THIS is unacceptable in some applications. Figure 8 regulates
CIRCUIT. HIGH VOLTAGE, LETHAL POTENTIALS ARE the AC line’s RMS value within 0.25% over wide input
PRESENT IN THIS CIRCUIT. EXTREME CAUTION MUST swings and does not introduce distortion. It does this by
BE USED IN WORKING WITH, AND MAKING CON- continuously controlling the conductivity of a series pass
NECTIONS TO, THIS CIRCUIT. REPEAT: THIS CIRCUIT MOSFET in the AC lines path. Enclosing the MOSFET in
CONTAINS DANGEROUS, HIGH VOLTAGE POTENTIALS. a diode bridge permits it to operate during both AC line
USE CAUTION. polarities.

AC SERIES PASS
AND CURRENT LIMIT
DANGER! Lethal Potentials Present—See Text

AC 1.5A Q2
SB IRF-840 AC HIGH
HIGH

+V REGULATORS 0.03µF 430k 10k

Q6
170V 2N3904
0.7Ω
470k 100k
Q4
MPSA42
0.47µF
5V
BAT85 2.2M*
1N5281B 1N4690
0.1µF
200V 5.6V
UNREGULATED FEEDBACK VAC
10k 170V SENSE
AC LINE REGULATED
2W
INPUT ISOLATED 0.1µF CONTROL OUTPUT
200k GATE BIAS AMPLIFIER
Q3 OVERVOLTAGE
2N5210 PROTECTION 1µF
0.22µF 200k 22k RMS-TO-DC CONVERTER
5V
5V C1
10k 1k 105VAC
– +V TO 120VAC
OUT IN1
5.6k LTC1966 ADJUST
Q1 A1 1µF
2N3440 LT1077 OUT RTN IN2
AC + EN –V GND 7.32k*
LOW

REFERENCE 1N4689
330k 5.1V
5V IN 0.4V OUT 2.2µF AC LOW
HEAT SINK IRF-840 LT6650 1µF MYLAR
*1% METAL FILM RESISTOR
OPTODRIVER = TOSHIBA TLP190B GND FB
= 1N4005

1M
Q5
2N4393
0.22µF 100k

AN106 F08

SOFT-START/–VBIAS

Figure 8. Adjustable AC Line Voltage Regulator Introduces No Waveform Distortion. Line Voltage RMS Value is Sensed and
Compared to a Reference by A1. A1 Biases Photovoltaic Optocoupler via Q1, Setting Q2-Diode Bridge Conductivity and Closing a
Control Loop. VIN Must be ≥2V Above VOUT to Maintain Regulation

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AN106-5
Application Note 106
The AC line voltage is applied to the Q2-diode bridge. The legitimate input. More subtly, the preamplifier must have
Q2-diode bridge output is sensed by a calibrated variable far more bandwidth than is immediately apparent. The
voltage divider which feeds C1. C1’s output, representing amplifiers –3db bandwidth is of interest, but its closed
the regulated lines RMS value, is routed to control ampli- loop 1% amplitude error bandwidth must be high enough
fier A1 and compared to a reference. A1’s output biases to maintain accuracy over the RMS converter’s 1% error
Q1, controlling drive to a photovoltaic optoisolator. The passband. This is not trivial, as very high open-loop gain
optoisolator’s output voltage provides level-shifted bias at the maximum frequency of interest is required to avoid
to diode bridge enclosed Q2, closing a control loop which inaccurate closed-loop gain.
regulates the output’s RMS voltage against AC line and
Figure 9 shows an x1000 preamplifier which preserves the
load shifts. RC components in A1’s local feedback path
LTC1966’s DC-6kHz 1% accuracy. The amplifier may be
stabilize the control loop. The loop operates Q2 in its
either AC or DC coupled to the RMS converter. The 1mV
linear region, much like a common low voltage DC linear
full-scale input is split into high and low frequency paths.
regulator. The result is absence of introduced distortion
AC coupled A1 and A2 take a cascaded, high frequency
at the expense of lost power. Available output power is
gain of 1000. DC coupled, chopper stabilized A3 also has
constrained by heat dissipation. For example, with the
X1000 gain, but is restricted to DC and low frequency by
output adjustment set to regulate 10V below the normal
its RC input filter. Assuming the switch is set to “DC + AC,”
input, Q2 dissipates about 10W at 100W output. This figure
high and low frequency path information recombine at the
can be improved upon. The circuit regulates for VIN ≥ 2V
RMS converter. The high frequency paths 650kHz –3db
above VOUT, but operation in this region risks regulation
response combines with the low frequency sections micro-
dropout as VIN varies.
volt level offset to preserve the RMS converters DC-6kHz
Circuit details include JFET Q5 and associated components. 1% error. If only AC response is desired, the switch is set
The passive components associated with Q5’s gate form to the appropriate position. The minimum processable
a slow turn-on negative supply for C1. They also provide input, set by the circuits noise floor, is 15µV.
gate bias for Q5. Q5, a soft-start, prevents abrupt AC power
application to the output at start-up. When power is off, Wideband Decade Ranged X1000 Preamplifier
Q5 conducts, holding A1’s “+” input low. When power The LTC1968, with a 500kHz, 1% error bandwidth, poses
is applied, A1 initially has a zero volt reference, causing a significant challenge for an accurate preamplifier, but
the control loop to set the output at zero. As the 1MΩ Figure 10 meets the requirement. This design features
0.22µF combination charges, Q5’s gate moves negative, decade ranged gain to X1000 with a 1% error bandwidth
causing its channel conductivity to gradually decay. Q5 beyond 500kHz, preserving the RMS converters 1% er-
ramps off, A1’s positive input moves smoothly towards ror bandwidth. Its 20µV noise floor maintains wideband
the LT6650’s 400mV reference, and the AC output similarly performance at microvolt level inputs.
ascends towards its regulation point. Current sensor Q6,
measuring across the 0.7Ω shunt, limits output current Q1A and Q1B form a low noise buffer, permitting high
to about 1A. At normal line inputs (90VAC to 135VAC) Q4 impedance inputs. A1 and A2, both gain switchable, take
supplies 5V operating bias to the circuit. If line voltage cascaded gain in accordance with the figure’s table. The
rises beyond this point, Q3 comes on, turning off Q4 and gains are settable via reed relays controlled by a 2-bit code.
shutting down the circuit. A2’s output feeds the RMS converter and the converter’s
output is smoothed by a Sallen-Keys active filter. The
X1000 DC Stabilized Millivolt Preamplifier circuit maintains 1% error over a 10Hz to 500kHz band-
width at all gains due to the preamplifiers –3db, 10MHz
The preceding circuits furnish high level inputs to the RMS
bandwidth. The 10Hz low frequency restriction could be
converter. Many applications lack this advantage and some
eliminated with a DC stabilization path similar to Figure
form of preamplifier is required. High gain pre-amplification
9’s but its gain would have to be switched in concert with
for the RMS converter requires more attention than might
the A1-A2 path.
be supposed. The preamplifier must have low offset error
because the RMS converter (desirably) processes DC as
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AN106-6
 Application Note 106
INPUT HIGH FREQUENCY PATH AC/DC SUMMATION RMS CONVERTER
0mV TO 1mV 1µF
+ 5V –5V
A1
1M LT1122 + 1µF
A2 +V –V OUTPUT
– 10k* LT1222 IN1 OUT + 0V TO 1V
LTC1966 A4
– IN2 OUT RTN 1µF
10k* LT1077
EN GND –
1M 536Ω*
200Ω* 100k
AN106 F09

LOW FREQUENCY/DC PATH

+ DC + AC AC
100pF A3
LTC1050 RMS STAGE INPUT COUPLING
*1% METAL FILM RESISTOR – 1M*
1µF = WIMA MKS-2

1k*

Figure 9. X1000 Preamplifier Allows 1mV Full-Scale Sensitivity RMS-to-DC Conversion. Input Splits Into High and Low Frequency
Amplifier Paths, Recombining at RMS Converter. Amplifier’s –3dB, 650kHz Bandwidth Preserves RMS-to-DC Converter’s 6kHz, 1%
Error Bandwidth. Noise Floor is 15µV

INPUT BUFFER OUTPUT FILTER

5V
INPUT 1µF 10µF
Q1A
SWITCHED GAIN AMP 43k
1M A = 1, 100
100Ω
RMS CONVERTER
SWITCHED GAIN AMP
+ A = 1, 10 5V – OUTPUT
A1 A3
Q1B LT1227 + 1µF
LT1077
A2 +V 5.62k* 24.9k*
ZERO – 499Ω* LT1227
IN1 OUT + AN106 F10
LTC1968
10µF 1µF
100Ω – 750Ω* IN2 OUT RTN
470Ω EN GND
50Ω 1k
10k 22Ω 5.62Ω*
A = 10 10k
90.9Ω* TRIM
A=1
–5V 200k A = 100 100Ω 5V
TRIM TRIM
5V 10k 0.1µF
S1 S2 GAIN FS OUTPUT TRIM NOTES*
Q1 = 2N6485. GROUND CASE LO LO 1 1V TRIM A = 1
*1% METAL FILM RESISTOR 5V LO HI 10 0.1V TRIM A = 10
RELAYS = COTO-COIL 800-05-001 HI LO 100 0.01V TRIM A = 100
10µF, 1µF = WIMA MKS-2 HI HI 1000 0.001V NO TRIM
= 1N4148 *SET ZERO ADJUSTMENT FOR A2
20k 1M
OUTPUT = 0 VDC WITH INPUT GROUNDED
20k 1M AND S1, S2 HIGH BEFORE TRIMMING
= VN2222L

S1
S2

Figure 10. Switched Gain 10MHz (–3dB) Preamplifier Preserves LTC1968’s 500kHz, 1% Error Bandwidth. Decade Ranged Gains
(See Table) Allow 1mV Full Scale with 20µV Noise Floor. JFET Input Stage Presents High Input Impedance. AC Coupling, 3rd Order
Sallen-Key Filter Maintains 1% Accuracy Down to 10Hz

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AN106-7
Application Note 106
Figure 11 shows preamplifier response to a 1mV input circuit output, in accordance with the table in the figure.
step at a gain of X1000. A2’s output is singularly clean, Continue this procedure for the remaining three gains
with trace thickening in the pulse flat portions due to the given in the table. A good way to generate the accurate
20µV noise floor. The 35ns risetime indicates a 10MHz low level inputs required is to set a 1.00VAC level and
bandwidth. divide it down with a high grade 50Ω attenuator such
To calibrate this circuit first set S1 and S2 high, ground as the Hewlett Packard 350D or the Tektronix 2701. It is
the input and trim the “zero” adjustment for zero VDC at prudent to verify the attenuator’s output with a precision
A2’s output. Next, set S1 and S2 low, apply a 1V, 100kHz RMS voltmeter.4
input, and trim “A = 1” for unity gain, measured at the
Wideband, Isolated, Quartz Crystal RMS Current
Measurement
Quartz crystal RMS operating current is critical to long-
term stability, temperature coefficient and reliability. Ac-
200mV/DIV
curate determination of RMS crystal current, especially
in low power types, is complicated by the necessity to
minimize introduced parasitics, particularly capacitance,
which corrupt crystal operation. Figure 12, a form of
Figure 10’s wideband amplifier, combines with a com-
50ns/DIV AN106 F11
mercially available closed core current probe to permit
the measurement. An RMS-to-DC converter supplies
Figure 11. Figure 10’s A2 Output Responds to a 1mV Input Step
at X1000 Gain. 35ns Risetime Indicates 10MHz Bandwidth. Trace the RMS value. The quartz crystal test circuit shown in
Thickening in Pulse Flat Portions Represents Noise Floor dashed lines exemplifies a typical measurement situa-
tion. The Tektronix CT-2 current probe monitors crystal
TEKTRONIX CT-2
CURRENT PROBE 4See Appendix B for recommendations on RMS voltmeters.
1mV/mA 1.5V

4.3k 100kHz 10k

330k CRYSTAL
Q1 150pF OSCILLATOR
2N3904 TEST CIRCUIT
680pF
1N4148s

RMS CONVERTER
PRE-AMPLIFIER
+ 5V
A = 1000 5V
A1
50Ω*
LT1227 + 1µF
A2 +V
– 499Ω* LT1227
IN1 OUT +
LTC1968 OUTPUT
1µF 1N5712 A3
– 750Ω* IN2 OUT RTN LT1077
0 – 1V =
0 – 1mA
–5V
EN GND –
5.62Ω*
10k
64.9Ω* AN106 F12
+
47µF 20Ω
0.1µF 1mA 10k
47µF 0.1µF *0.25% METAL FILM RESISTOR
+ TRIM

5V

Figure 12. Figure 10’s Wideband Amplifier Adapted for Isolated RMS Current Measurement of Quartz Crystal Current. FET Input Buffer
is Deleted; Current Probe’s 50Ω Impedance Allows Direct Connection to A1. Current Probe Provides Minimal Crystal Loading
in Oscillator Test Circuit
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AN106-8
 Application Note 106
current while introducing minimal parasitic loading (see AC Voltage Standard with Stable Frequency and Low
Figure 14). The probe’s 50Ω termination allows direct Distortion
connection to A1—Figure 10’s FET buffer is deleted. Ad- Figure 15 utilizes the RMS-to-DC converter’s stability in an
ditionally, because quartz crystals are not common below AC voltage standard. Initial circuit accuracy is 0.1% and
4kHz, A1’s gain does not extend to low frequency. long-term (6 months at 20°C to 30°C) drift remains within
Figure 13 shows results. Crystal drive, taken at Q1’s col- that figure. Additionally, the 4kHz operating frequency is
lector (trace A), causes a 25µA RMS crystal current which within 0.01% and distortion inside 30ppm.
is represented at the RMS-to-DC converter input (trace B).
A1 and its power buffer A3 sense across a bridge composed
The trace enlargement is due to the preamplifier’s 5µA
of a 4kHz quartz crystal and an RC impedance in one arm;
RMS equivalent noise contribution.
resistors and an LED driven photocell comprise the other
arm. A1 sees positive feedback at the crystals 4kHz reso-
nance, promoting oscillation. Negative feedback, stabiliz-
A = 0.5V/DIV
ing oscillation amplitude, occurs via a control path which
includes an RMS-to-DC converter and amplitude control
amplifier, A5. A5 acts on the difference between A3’s RMS
B = 50mA/DIV converted output and the LT1009 voltage reference. Its
output controls the LED driven photocell to set A1’s negative
feedback. RC components in A5’s feedback path stabilize the
2ms/DIV AN106 F13 control loop. The 50k trim sets the optically driven resistor’s
value to the point where lowest A3 output distortion occurs
Figure 13. Crystal Voltage (Trace A) and Current (Trace B) for while maintaining adequate loop stability.
Figure 12’s Test Circuit. 25µA RMS Crystal Current Measurement
Includes Preamplifier 5µA RMS Noise Floor Contribution Normally the bridge’s “bottom” would be grounded. While
this connection will work, it subjects A1 to common mode
PARAMETER CT-1 CT-2 swings, increasing distortion due to A1’s finite common
Sensitivity 5mV/mA 1mV/mA mode rejection versus frequency. A2 eliminates this con-
Accuracy 3% 3% cern by forcing the bridges mid-points, and hence common
Low Frequency Additional 98kHz 6.4kHz mode voltage, to zero while not influencing desired circuit
1% Error BW*
operation. It does this by driving the bridge “bottom” to
–3dB Bandwidth 25kHz to 1GHz 1.2kHz to 200MHz
force its input differential to zero. A2’s output swing is
Noise Floor with Amplifier 1µA RMS 5µA RMS
Shown* 180° out of phase with A3’s circuit output. This action
Capacitive Loading 1.5pF 1.8pF
eliminates common mode swing at A1, reducing circuit
Insertion Impedance at 1Ω 0.1Ω
output distortion by more than an order of magnitude. Fig-
10MHz ure 16 shows the circuits 1.414VRMS (2.000VPEAK) output
*As measured. Not vendor specified in trace A while trace B’s distortion constituents include
Figure 14. Relevant Specifications of Two Tektronix Current
noise, fundamental related residue and 2F components.
Probes. Primary Trade-Off is Low Frequency Error and The 4kHz crystal is a relatively large structure with very
Sensitivity. Noise Floor is Due to Amplifier Limitations
high Q factor. Normally, it would require more than 30
Figure 14 details characteristics of two Tektronix closed seconds to start and arrive at full regulated amplitude.
core current probes. The primary trade-off is low frequency This is avoided by inclusion of the Q1-LTC201 switch
error versus sensitivity. There is essentially no probe circuitry. At start-up A5’s output goes high, biasing Q1.
noise contribution and capacitive loading is notably low. Q1’s collector goes low, turning on the LTC201. This sets
Circuit calibration is achieved by putting 1mA RMS current A1’s gain abnormally high, increasing bridge drive and
through the probe and adjusting the indicated trim for a 5This measurement technique has been extended to monitor 32.768kHz
1V circuit output. To generate the 1mA, drive a 1k, 0.1% “watch crystal” sub-microampere operating currents. Contact the author
resistor with 1VRMS.5 for details.
an106f

AN106-9
Application Note 106
4kHz
OUTPUT
1.414VRMS
–5V

CRYSTAL BRIDGE BRIDGE AMPLIFIER 2.5k*

LT1009
2.5V 100k* 10µF
4kHz 47k RMS-TO-DC CONVERTER
39k +
JCUT +
A1 A3 5V – 5V
LT1010
–LT1792 A4
28k* –
1k*
DISTORTION V+ LT1077
430pF
TRIM IN1 OUT
+ A5
50k
909Ω* LTC1966 1µF +LT1006
560k IN2
200Ω
OUTPUT EN RTN GND V –
470Ω SET
–5V AMPLITUDE
– CONTROL
A2 AMPLIFIER
LT1792
1k 1k AN106 F15
+ 5V
COMMON = 1N4148
MODE 5V
SUPPRESSION 1M 510k
*IRC-CAR-6 1% RESISTOR
AMPLIFIER
–5V GROUND CRYSTAL CASE
Q1
1/4 LTC201 2N3904
START-UP 100k = SILONEX NSL-32SR3

Figure 15. Quartz Stabilized Sine Wave Output AC Reference Has 0.1% Long-Term Amplitude Stability. Frequency Accuracy is 0.01%
with <30ppm Distortion. Positive Feedback Around A1 Causes Oscillation at Crystal’s Resonance. A5, Acting on A3’s RMS Amplitude,
Supplies Negative Feedback to A1 via Bridge Network, Stabilizing RMS Output Amplitude. Optocoupler Minimizes Feedback Induced
Distortion. Q1 Closes Switch During Start-Up, Ensuring Rapid Oscillation Build-Up

the trim for minimal output distortion as measured on a

distortion analyzer. Note that the absolute lowest level
A = 2V/DIV
of distortion coincides with the point where control loop
gain is just adequate to maintain oscillation. As such,
find this point and retreat from it into the control loop’s
B = 30ppm active region. This necessitates giving up about 5ppm
DISTORTION
distortion, but 30ppm is achievable with good control loop
stability. Output amplitude is trimmed with the indicated
100µs/DIV AN106 F16
adjustment for exactly 1.414VRMS (2.000VPEAK) at the
circuit output.
Figure 16. A3’s 1.414VRMS (2.000VPEAK), 4kHz Reference
Output (Trace A) Shows 30ppm Distortion in Trace B. Distortion
Constituents Include Noise, Fundamental Related Residue and RMS Leveled Output Random Noise Generator
2F Components
Figure 17 uses the RMS-to-DC converter in a leveled
accelerating crystal start-up. When the bridge arrives at output random noise generator. Noise diode D1 AC biases
its operating point A5’s output drops to a lower value, Q1 A1, operating at a gain of 2.6 A1’s output feeds a 1kHz to
and the LTC201 switch go off, and the circuit transitions 500kHz switch selectable lowpass filter. The filter output
into normal operation. Start-up time is several seconds. biases the variable gain amplifier, A2-A3. A2-A3, contained
6See Appendix C “Symmetrical White Gaussian Noise,” guest written by
The circuit requires trimming for amplitude accuracy and Ben Hessen-Schmidt of Noise Com, Inc. for turorial on noise and noise
lowest distortion. The distortion trim is made first. Adjust diodes.

an106f

AN106-10
 Application Note 106
FILTER
NOISE DIODE NOISE DIODE 1µF
10µF PREAMP 1kHz
75k 75k
15V + 0.1µF
10kHz
A1 160Ω
1µF NC103 1k –3dB
LT1220 0.01µF
100kHz
– 1k
7VDC TO 10VDC 0.002µF
+NOISE 500kHz RMS
500pF AMPLITUDE
1k 500kHz FLAT STABILIZED
NOISE OUTPUT

1µF
TO ALL +VZ
POINTS
VARIABLE GAIN AMPLIFIER 1N4689 5.1V RMS CONVERTER
1.5k
LT1228 15V
+ + 0.01µF
+V
A2 100pF A3 IN1 OUT +
ISET 900Ω 10k LTC1968 A4
– – 510Ω +VZ IN2 OUT RTN 1N5712 1/2 LT1013
0.1µF 10k
EN GND –

GAIN CONTROL AMPLIFIER

5Ω
1µF
150k 10µF 1µF
3k
0.1µF
475k*
AN106 F17

– 1.1M* 4.7k *1% METAL FILM RESISTOR

–15V CONNECTIONS INSIDE DASHED LINES WITHIN A SINGLE IC
A5 INTERNAL NC103 = NOISE COM
1/2 LT1013 AMPLITUDE
909k* 10k LT1004-1.2V 10µF = WIMA MKS-2
+ ADJUST

EXTERNAL
15V Q1 40.2k*
TPO610L 510k 0V TO 1V
+VZ
SOFT-START
1N4148 1M

1M

0.33µF

Figure 17. An RMS Levelled Output Random Noise Generator. Amplified (A1) Diode Noise Is Filtered, Variable Gain Amplified (A2-A3)
and RMS Converted. Converter Output Feeds Back to A5 Gain Control Amplifier, Closing RMS Stabilized Loop. Output Amplitude, Taken
at A3, is Settable

on one chip, include a current controlled transconductance stabilize this loop. Output amplitude is variable by the 10k
amplifier (A2) and an output amplifier (A3). This stage takes potentiometer; a switch permits external voltage control.
AC gain, biases the LTC1968 RMS-to-DC converter and Q1 and associated components, a soft-start circuit, prevent
is the circuit’s output. The RMS converter output at A4, output overshoot at power turn-on.
feeds back to gain control amplifier A5, which compares
Figure 18 shows circuit output noise in the 10kHz filter
the RMS value to a variable portion of the 5.1V zener
position; Figure 19’s spectral plot reveals essentially flat
potential. A5’s output sets A2’s gain via the 3k resistor,
RMS noise amplitude over a 500kHz bandwidth.
completing a control loop to stabilize noise RMS output
amplitude. The RC components in A5’s local feedback path

an106f

AN106-11
Application Note 106

AMPLITUDE VARIANCE
–3dB/DIV
2V/DIV

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

FREQUENCY (kHz) AN106 F19

AN106 F18
Figure 19. Amplitude vs Frequency for the Random Noise
5ms/DIV Generator is Essentially Flat to 500kHz. NC103 Diode Contributes
Even Noise Spectrum Distribution; RMS Converter and Loop
Figure 18. Figure 17’s Output in the 10kHz Filter Position Stabilize Amplitude. Sweep Time is 2.8 Minutes, Resolution
Bandwidth, 100Hz

INPUT VARIABLE GAIN AMPLIFIER

0.4VRMS TO
5VRMS
10k OUTPUT BUFFER
+ + 1µF RMS LEVELLED
A1 A2 OUTPUT
100Ω 1/2 LT1228 1/2 LT1228 + 0VRMS TO 0.5VRMS
300Ω A3
– – 10k
LT1220
470Ω
–

1k 10Ω 1µF

RMS CONVERTER 5V
0.15µF
V+
+ OUT C1 IN1
100k* A4 LTC1968
– 1/2 LT1013 1µF
OUT RTN IN2
A5
1/2 LT1013 100k* – GND EN
+
10k
GAIN CONTROL 4.7k 5V
–5V
AMPLIFIER
13.3k* 10k 0.1µF
LT1004
1.2V
AN106 F20
10k REFERENCE

EXT INPUT *0.1% METAL FILM RESISTOR

0V TO –0.5V OUTPUT CONNECTIONS INSIDE DASHED
0VRMS TO 0.5VRMS LEVEL LINES ARE WITHIN A SINGLE IC
OUTPUT 0VRMS TO 0.5VRMS

Figure 20. RMS Amplitude Level Control Uses Figure 17’s Gain Control Loop. A1-A3 Provide Variable Gain to Input. RMS Converter
Feeds Back to A5 Gain Control Amplifier, Closing Amplitude Stabilization Loop. Variable Reference Permits Settable, Calibrated RMS
Output Amplitude Independent of Input Waveshape

RMS Amplitude Stabilized Level Controller taken by RMS-to-DC converter C1-A4, which feeds the
A5 gain control amplifier. A5 compares the RMS value to
Figure 20 borrows the previous circuit’s gain control
a variable reference and biases A1, closing a gain control
loop to stabilize the RMS amplitude of an arbitrary input
loop. The 0.15µF feedback capacitor stabilizes this loop,
waveform. The unregulated input is applied to variable gain
even for waveforms below 100Hz. This feedback action
amplifier A1-A2 which feeds A3. DC coupling at A1-A2
stabilizes output RMS amplitude despite large variations
permits passage of low frequency inputs. A3’s output is
an106f

AN106-12
 Application Note 106
in input amplitude while maintaining waveshape. Desired would not be processable. Similar considerations apply to
output level is settable with the indicated potentiometer or Figure 22’s response to an input waveform step change.
an external control voltage may be switched in. Trace A is the circuit’s input and trace B its output. The
Figure 21 shows output response (trace B) to abrupt refer- output settles in 60 milliseconds due to A5’s compensa-
ence level set point changes (trace A). The output settles tion. Reducing compensation value speeds response at the
within 60 milliseconds for ascending and descending expense of low frequency waveform processing capability.
transitions. Faster response is possible by decreasing A5’s Specifications include 0.1% output amplitude stability
compensation capacitor, but low frequency waveforms for inputs varying from 0.4VRMS to 5VRMS, 1% set point
accuracy, 0.1kHz to 500kHz passband and 0.1% stability
for 20% power supply deviation.
Note: This Application Note was derived from a manuscript originally
prepared for publication In EDN magazine.

A = 0.5V/DIV

A = 2V/DIV
B = 1V/DIV

B = 1V/DIV

AN106 F21
20ms/DIV
AN106 F22
10ms/DIV
Figure 21. Amplitude Level Control Response (Trace B) to
Abrupt Reference Changes (Trace A). Settling Time is Set by Figure 22. Amplitude Level Control Output Reacts (Trace B) to
A5’s Compensation Capacitor, Which Must be Large Enough Input Step Change (Trace A). Slow Loop Compensation Allows
to Stabilize Loop at Lowest Expected Input Frequency Overshoot But Output Settles Cleanly

REFERENCES 7. Williams, J., “High Speed Amplifier Techniques,” Linear

1. Hewlett-Packard Company, “1968 Instrumentation. Technology Corporation, Application Note 47, “Parallel
Electronic—Analytical—Medical,” AC Voltage Measure- Path Amplifiers,” August 1991, pp. 35-37.
ment, Hewlett-Packard Company, 1968, pp. 197-198. 8. Williams, J., “Practical Circuitry for Measurement and
2. Sheingold, D. H. (editor), “Nonlinear Circuits Hand- Control Problems,” Broadband Random Noise Generator,”
book,” 2nd Edition, Analog Devices, Inc., 1976. “Symmetrical White Gaussian Noise,” Appendix B, Linear
Technology Corporation, Application Note 61, August 1994,
3. Lambda Electronics, Model LK-343A-FM Manual. pp.24-26, pp. 38-39.
4. Grafham, D. R., “Using Low Current SCRs,” General 9. Williams, J., “A Fourth Generation of LCD Backlight
Electric AN200.19. Jan. 1967. Technology,” “RMS Voltmeters,” Linear Technology Corpo-
5. Williams, J., “Performance Enhancement Techniques ration, Application Note 65, November 1995, pp. 82-83.
for Three-Terminal Regulators,” Linear Technology Corp. 10. Meacham, L. A., “The Bridge Stabilized Oscillator,”
AN-2. August, 1984. “SCR Preregulator,” pp. 3-6. Bell System Technical Journal, Vol. 17, p. 574, October
6. Williams, J., “High Efficiency Linear Regulators,” 1938.
Linear Technology Corporation, Application Note 32, “SCR 11. Williams, Jim, “Bridge Circuits—Marrying Gain and
Preregulator.” March 1989, pp. 3-4. Balance,” Linear Technology Corporation, Application Note
43, June, 1990.
an106f

AN106-13
Application Note 106
APPENDIX A The last two entries of Table A1 are chopped sine waves
as is commonly created with thyristors such as SCRs and
RMS-TO-DC CONVERSION Triacs. Figure A2a shows a typical circuit and Figure A2b
shows the resulting load voltage, switch voltage and load
Joseph Petrofsky currents. The power delivered to the load depends on the
firing angle, as well as any parasitic losses such as switch
Definition of RMS “ON” voltage drop. Real circuit waveforms will also typi-
RMS amplitude is the consistent, fair and standard way to cally have significant ringing at the switching transition,
measure and compare dynamic signals of all shapes and dependent on exact circuit parasitics. Here, “SCR Wave-
sizes. Simply stated, the RMS amplitude is the heating forms” refers to the ideal chopped sine wave, though the
potential of a dynamic waveform. A 1VRMS AC waveform LTC1966/LTC1967/LTC1968 will do faithful RMS-to-DC
will generate the same heat in a resistive load as will 1V conversion with real SCR waveforms as well.
DC. See Figure A1. The case shown is for Θ = 90°, which corresponds to 50%
Mathematically, RMS is the “Root of the Mean of the of available power being delivered to the load. As noted
Square”: in Table A1, when Θ = 114°, only 25% of the available
power is being delivered to the load and the power drops
VRMS = V 2 quickly as Θ approaches 180°.
With an average rectification scheme and the typical
1V DC + R calibration to compensate for errors with sine waves, the
–
RMS level of an input sine wave is properly reported; it is
SAME
only with a non-sinusoidal waveform that errors occur.
1V ACRMS R
HEAT Because of this calibration, and the output reading in VRMS,
the term True-RMS got coined to denote the use of an
1V (AC + DC) RMS R
actual RMS-to-DC converter as opposed to a calibrated
AN106 FA1
average rectifier.

Figure A1

Alternatives to RMS + VLOAD –

+
Other ways to quantify dynamic waveforms include peak +
ILOAD VTHY
AC –
detection and average rectification. In both cases, an aver- MAINS
VLINE CONTROL
–
age (DC) value results, but the value is only accurate at AN106 FA2a

the one chosen waveform type for which it is calibrated, Figure A2a
typically sine waves. The errors with average rectification
are shown in Table A1. Peak detection is worse in all cases VLINE
and is rarely used. Θ
VLOAD
Table A1. Errors with Average Rectification vs True RMS
AVERAGE VTHY
RECTIFIED
WAVEFORM VRMS (V) ERROR* ILOAD
Square Wave 1.000 1.000 11% AN106 FA2b

Sine Wave 1.000 0.900 *Calibrate for 0% Error

Figure A2b
Triangle Wave 1.000 0.866 –3.8%
SCR at 1/2 Power, 1.000 0.637 –29.3%
Θ = 90°
SCR at 1/4 Power, 1.000 0.536 –40.4%
Θ = 114°
an106f

AN106-14
 Application Note 106
How an RMS-to-DC Converter Works How the LTC1966/LTC1967/LTC1968 RMS-to-DC
Converters Work
Monolithic RMS-to-DC converters use an implicit compu-
tation to calculate the RMS value of an input signal. The The LTC1966/LTC1967/LTC1968 use a completely new
fundamental building block is an analog multiply/divide topology for RMS-to-DC conversion, in which a ΔΣ modu-
used as shown in Figure A3. Analysis of this topology is lator acts as the divider, and a simple polarity switch is
easy and starts by identifying the inputs and the output used as the multiplier as shown in Figure A4.
of the lowpass filter. The input to the LPF is the calcula-
VIN
tion from the multiplier/divider; (VIN)2/VOUT. The lowpass Dα
VOUT
filter will take the average of this to create the output,
∆-Σ
mathematically: REF

⎛ (V )2 ⎞
VIN

VOUT = ⎜ IN ⎟ , ±1
⎜⎝ VOUT ⎟⎠ LPF VOUT
AN106 FA4

Because VOUT is DC,

Figure A4. Topology of the LTC1966/LTC1967/LTC1968

⎛ (V )2 ⎞ (VIN)
⎜ IN ⎟ =
( )
, so
2
The ΔΣ modulator has a single-bit output whose average
duty cycle (⎯D) will be proportional to the ratio of the input
⎜⎝ VOUT ⎟⎠ VOUT signal divided by the output. The ΔΣ is a 2nd order modula-
tor with excellent linearity. The single-bit output is used to

VOUT =
((V ) ) , and
IN
2 selectively buffer or invert the input signal. Again, this is a
circuit with excellent linearity, because it operates at only
VOUT two points: ±1 gain; the average effective multiplication over
time will be on the straight line between these two points.
(VOUT )2 = (VIN)2, or The combination of these two elements again creates a
lowpass filter input signal equal to (VIN)2/VOUT, which, as
shown above, results in RMS-to-DC conversion.
VOUT = (VIN)2 = RMS (VIN) The lowpass filter performs the averaging of the RMS func-
tion and must be a lower corner frequency than the lowest
(VIN )2 frequency of interest. For line frequency measurements,
VOUT this filter is simply too large to implement on-chip, but
the LTC1966/LTC1967/LTC1968 need only one capacitor
VIN × ÷ LPF VOUT
on the output to implement the lowpass filter. The user
AN106 FA3
can select this capacitor depending on frequency range
and settling time requirements.
Figure A3 RMS-to-DC Converter with Implicit Computation
This topology is inherently more stable and linear than
log/antilog implementations primarily because all of the
Unlike the prior generation RMS-to-DC converters, the
signal processing occurs in circuits with high gain op
LTC1966/LTC1967/LTC1968 computation does NOT use
amps operating closed loop.
log/antilog circuits, which have all the same problems,
and more, of log/antilog multipliers/dividers, i.e., linearity Note that the internal scalings are such that the ΔΣ out-
is poor, the bandwidth changes with the signal amplitude put duty cycle is limited to 0% or 100% only when VIN
and the gain drifts with temperature. exceeds ±4 • VOUT.

an106f

AN106-15
Application Note 106
Linearity of an RMS-to-DC Converter But the input nonlinearity will still cause problems in
Linearity may seem like an odd property for a device that an RMS-to-DC converter because it will corrupt the ac-
implements a function that includes two very nonlinear curacy as the input signal shape changes. Although an
processes: squaring and square rooting. RMS-to-DC converter will convert any input waveform to
a DC output, the accuracy is not necessarily as good for
However, an RMS-to-DC converter has a transfer function, all waveforms as it is with sine waves. A common way
RMS volts in to DC volts out, that should ideally have a to describe dynamic signal wave shapes is Crest Factor.
1:1 transfer function. To the extent that the input to output The crest factor is the ratio of the peak value relative to
transfer function does not lie on a straight line, the part the RMS value of a waveform. A signal with a crest factor
is nonlinear. of 4, for instance, has a peak that is four times its RMS
A more complete look at linearity uses the simple model value. Because this peak has energy (proportional to volt-
shown in Figure A5. Here an ideal RMS core is corrupted by age squared) that is 16 times (42) the energy of the RMS
both input circuitry and output circuitry that have imperfect value, the peak is necessarily present for at most 6.25%
transfer functions. As noted, input offset is introduced in (1/16) of the time.
the input circuitry, while output offset is introduced in the The LTC1966/LTC1967/LTC1968 perform very well with
output circuitry. crest factors of 4 or less and will respond with reduced
Any nonlinearity that occurs in the output circuity will cor- accuracy to signals with higher crest factors. The high
rupt the RMS in to DC out transfer function. A nonlinearity performance with crest factors less than 4 is directly
in the input circuitry will typically corrupt that transfer attributable to the high linearity throughout the LTC1966/
function far less simply because with an AC input, the LTC1967/LTC1968.
RMS-to-DC conversion will average the nonlinearity from
a whole range of input values together.

INPUT CIRCUITRY IDEAL OUTPUT CIRCUITRY

INPUT • VIOS RMS-TO-DC • VOOS OUTPUT
• INPUT NONLINEARITY CONVERTER • OUTPUT NONLINEARITY
AN106 FA5

Figure A5. Linearity Model of an RMS-to-DC Converter

an106f

AN106-16
 Application Note 106
APPENDIX B Layout is critical. The most prevalent parasitic in AC
measurement is stray capacitance. Keep signal path
AC Measurement and Signal Handling Practice connections short and small area. A few picofarrads of
Accurate AC measurement requires trustworthy instru- coupling into a high impedance node can upset a 500kHz,
mentation, proper signal routing technique, parasitic 1% accuracy signal path. To the extent possible, keep
minimization, attention to layout and care in component impedances low to minimize parasitic capacitive effects.
selection. The text circuits DC-500kHz, 1% error band- Consider individual component parasitics and plan to
width seems benign, but unpleasant surprises await the accommodate them. Examine effects of component
unwary. placement and orientation on the circuit board. If a
ground plane is in use it may be necessary to relieve it
An accurate RMS voltmeter is required for serious AC in the vicinity of critical circuit nodes or even individual
work. Figure B1 lists types used in our laboratory. These components.
are high grade, specialized instruments specifically in-
tended for precise RMS measurement. All are thermally Passive components have parasitics that must be kept in
based1. The first three entries, general purpose instru- mind. Resistors suffer shunt capacitance whose effects
ments with many ranges and features, are easily used and vary with frequency and resistor value. It is worth noting
meet almost all AC measurement needs. The last entry is that different brands of resistors, although nominally
more of a component than an instrument. The A55 series similar, may exhibit markedly different parasitic behav-
of “thermal converters” provide millivolt level outputs ior. Capacitors in the signal path should be used so that
for various inputs. Typical input ranges are 0.5VRMS, their outer foil is connected to the less sensitive node,
1VRMS, 2VRMS and 5VRMS and each converter is sup- affording some relief from pick-up and stray capacitance
plied with individual calibration data. They are somewhat induced effects. Some capacitors are marked to indicate
cumbersome to use and easily destroyed but are highly the outer foil terminal, others require consulting the
accurate. Their primary use is as reference standards to data sheet or vendor contact. Avoid ceramic capacitors
check other instrument’s performance. in the signal path. Their piezoelectric responses make
them unsuitable for precision AC circuitry. In general,
AC signal handling for high accuracy is a broad topic, any component in the signal path should be examined
involving a considerable degree of depth. This forum in terms of its potential parasitic contribution.
must suffer brevity, but some gossip is possible. 1See references 1 and 2 for details on thermally based RMS-to-DC
conversion.

MODEL MANUFACTURER 1V RANGE INPUT BANDWIDTH COMMENTS

3400A/3400B Hewlett-Packard 1% AC 10MHz/20MHz Metered Instrument. Most Common RMS
Voltmeter
3403C Hewlett-Packard 0.2% AC, AC + DC 100MHz Digital Display, 1µV Sensitivity (2MHz BW),
dB Ranges, Relative dB
8920/8921A Fluke 0.7% AC, AC + DC 20MHz Digital Display, 10µV Sensitivity (2MHz BW),
dB Ranges, Relative dB
A55 Fluke 0.05% AC + DC 50MHz Set of Individually Calibrated Thermal
Converters. Reference Standards. Not for
General Purpose Measurement

Figure B1. Precision Wideband RMS Voltmeters Useful for AC Measurement. All are Thermally Based, Permitting High Accuracy
and Wide Bandwidth Independent of Input Waveshape. A55 Reference Standards, Although Unsuitable for General Purpose
Measurement, Have Best Accuracy

an106f

AN106-17
Application Note 106
Active components, such as amplifiers, must be treated have tolerances that can corrupt a 1% amplitude accuracy
as potential error sources. In particular, as stated in the measurement. Verify such terminator and attenuator
text, ensure that there is enough open loop gain at the tolerances by measurement and account for them when
frequency of interest to assure needed closed loop gain interpreting measurement results. Similarly, verify the
accuracy. Margins of 100:1 are not unreasonable. Keep accuracy of any associated instruments 50Ω input or
feedback values as low as possible to minimize parasitic output impedance and account for deviations.
effects.
This all seems painful but is an essential part of achieving
Route signals to and from the circuit board coaxially and 1% accurate, 500kHz signal integrity. Failure to observe
at low impedance, preferably 50Ω, for best results. In the precautions listed above risks degrading the RMS-
50Ω systems, remember that terminators and attenuators to-DC converters system level performance.

APPENDIX C p(f) is close to unity for frequencies below 40GHz when T

Symmetrical White Gaussian Noise is equal to 290°K. The resistance is often assumed to be
independent of frequency, and Údf is equal to the noise
by Ben Hessen-Schmidt, bandwidth (B). The available noise power is obtained when
NOISE COM, INC. the load is a conjugate match to the resistor, and it is:
White noise provides instantaneous coverage of all fre- 2
quencies within a band of interest with a very flat output V
N = n = kTB (3)
spectrum. This makes it useful both as a broadband 4R
stimulus and as a power-level reference.
where the “4” results from the fact that only half of the
Symmetrical white Gaussian noise is naturally generated in noise voltage and hence only 1/4 of the noise power is
resistors. The noise in resistors is due to vibrations of the delivered to a matched load.
conducting electrons and holes, as described by Johnson
Equation 3 shows that the available noise power is pro-
and Nyquist.1 The distribution of the noise voltage is sym-
portional to the temperature of the resistor; thus it is often
metrically Gaussian, and the average noise voltage is:
called thermal noise power, Equation 3 also shows that
Vn = 2 kT ∫ R(f) p(f) df (1) white noise power is proportional to the bandwidth.
An important source of symmetrical white Gaussian noise
where: is the noise diode. A good noise diode generates a high
k = 1.38E–23 J/K (Boltzmann’s constant) level of symmetrical white Gaussian noise. The level is
T = temperature of the resistor in Kelvin often specified in terms of excess noise ratio (ENR).
f = frequency in Hz
h = 6.62E–34 Js (Planck’s constant)
( )
ENR in dB = 10Log
(Te − 290) (4)
R(f) = resistance in ohms as a function of frequency 290
hf Te is the physical temperature that a load (with the same
p(f) =
[ ]
(2) impedance as the noise diode) must be at to generate the
kT exp(hf/kT) − 1
same amount of noise.
1See “Additional Reading” at the end of this section.

an106f

AN106-18
 Application Note 106
The ENR expresses how many times the effective noise When amplifying noise it is important to remember that
power delivered to a non-emitting, nonreflecting load the noise voltage has a Gaussian distribution. The peak
exceeds the noise power available from a load held at the voltages of noise are therefore much larger than the average
reference temperature of 290°K (16.8°C or 62.3°F). or RMS voltage. The ratio of peak voltage to RMS voltage
is called crest factor, and a good crest factor for Gaussian
The importance of high ENR becomes obvious when the
noise is between 5:1 and 10:1 (14 to 20dB). An amplifier’s
noise is amplified, because the noise contributions of the
1dB gain-compression point should therefore be typically
amplifier may be disregarded when the ENR is 17dB larger
20dB larger than the desired average noise-output power
than the noise figure of the amplifier (the difference in
to avoid clipping of the noise.
total noise power is then less than 0.1dB). The ENR can
easily be converted to noise spectral density in dBm/Hz For more information about noise diodes, please contact
or µV/√Hz by use of the white noise conversion formulas NOISE COM, INC. at (973) 386-9696.
in Table 1.
Additional Reading
Table 1. Useful White Noise Conversion
dBm = dBm/Hz + 10log (BW) 1. Johnson, J.B, “Thermal Agitation of Electricity in Con-
dBm = 20log (Vn) – 10log(R) + 30dB ductors,” Physical Review, July 1928, pp. 97-109.
dBm = 20log(Vn) + 13dB for R = 50Ω
dBm/Hz = 20log(µVn√Hz) – 10log(R) – 90dB 2. Nyquist, H. “Thermal Agitation of Electric Charge in Con-
dBm/Hz = –174dBm/Hz + ENR for ENR > 17dB ductors,” Physical Review, July 1928, pp. 110-113.

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Information furnished by Linear Technology Corporation is believed to be accurate and reliable.

However, no responsibility is assumed for its use. Linear Technology Corporation makes no representa-
tion that the interconnection of its circuits as described herein will not infringe on existing patent rights. AN106-19
Application Note 106

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