Solutions to Homework #3.

1. Given a metric space (X, d), a point x ∈ X and ε > 0, define Bε (x) =
{y ∈ X : d(y, x) ≤ ε}, called the closed ball of radius ε centered at x.

(a) Prove that Bε (x) is always a closed subset of X.

(b) Deduce from (a) that Nε (x) ⊆ Bε (x), that is, the closure of the open
ball of radius ε centered at x is contained in the respective closed
ball.
(c) Is it always true that Nε (x) = Bε (x)? Prove or give a counterexam-
ple.

Solution: (a) By definition, it suffices to show that X \ Bε (x) is open.

Take any z ∈ X \ Bε (x). Then d(z, x) > ε, so if set δ = d(z, x) − ε, then
δ > 0. Now take any y ∈ Nδ (z). Then d(z, x) ≤ d(y, x)+d(z, y) < d(y, x)+δ,
whence d(y, x) > d(z, x)−δ = d(z, x)−(d(z, x)−ε) = ε. Hence y ∈ X\Bε (x).
Thus, we showed that for any z ∈ X \ Bε (x), there is δ > 0 such that
Nδ (z) ⊆ X \ Bε (x), so by definition, X \ Bε (x) is open.
Another solution for (a): Here is a completely different solution to
(a) which uses the fact that the preimage of a closed set under a continuous
function is closed. Indeed, fix x ∈ X, and define the function f : X → R
by f (y) = d(y, x). By Problem 6 in this homework, f is continuous. Note
that Bε (x) = {y ∈ X : f (y) ≤ ε} = f −1 ((−∞, ε]). Since (−∞, ε] is a closed
subset of R and f is continuous, the preimage f −1 ((−∞, ε]) is a closed subset
of X, as desired.
(b) By Theorem 5.1(c) from class, any closed subset of X which contains
Nε (x) must also contain Nε (x). By (a), Bε (x) is a closed subset (which
obviously contains Nε (x)), so Nε (x) ⊆ Bε (x).
(c) No. For instance, take any set X with |X| ≥ 2 and let d be the
discrete metric on X (d(x, y) = 1 if x 6= y and d(x, y) = 0 if x = y).
Then for any x ∈ X we have N1 (x) = B1/2 (x) = {x} (one element set
consisting of the point x itself). Thus, the set {x} is both open and closed
since it is simultaneously an open ball and a closed ball (in fact, it is easy
to show that any subset of X is both open and closed). In particular,
N1 (x) = N1 (x) = {x}. On the other hand, the closed ball B1 (x) is the
entire space X, so B1 (x) 6= N1 (x) since |X| ≥ 2.
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2. Let X be a metric space, and let Z ⊆ Y be subsets of X. Prove that

Z is closed as a subset of Y ⇐⇒ Z = Y ∩ K for some closed subset K of
X. Deduce that if Z is closed in X, then Z is closed in Y .
Solution: “⇒” Assume that Z is closed in Y . Then Y \ Z is open in Y ,
so by the inheritance principle for open sets, there exists G open in X such
that Y \ Z = Y ∩ G. Then
Z = Y \ (Y \ Z) = Y \ (Y ∩ G) = Y \ G = Y ∩ (Y \ G) = Y ∩ (X \ G),
and X \ G is closed in X. Thus, if we set K = X \ G, then K is closed in
X and Y = K ∩ X.
“⇐” Assume that Z = Y ∩ K where K is closed in X. Then, by a similar
computation Y \ Z = Y ∩ G where G = X \ K. Then G is open in X, so by
the inheritance principle, Y \ Z is open in Y and hence Z is closed in Y .
Finally, since Z ⊂ Y , we can always write Z = Y ∩ Z, so if Z is closed in
X, applying the above criterion, we deduce that Z is closed in Y .
3. Let (X, d) be a non-empty metric space and S a subset of X. Prove
that the following three conditions are equivalent (as defined in class, S is
called bounded if it satisfies either of those conditions):
(i) There exists x ∈ X and R ∈ R such that S ⊆ NR (x).
(ii) For any x ∈ X there exists R ∈ R such that S ⊆ NR (x).
(iii) The set {d(s, t) : s, t ∈ S} is bounded above as a subset of R.
Solution: “(ii)⇒ (i)” This is clear since X 6= ∅.
“(iii)⇒ (ii)” Let K be an upper bound for {d(s, t) : s, t ∈ S}. Take any
x ∈ X. If S = ∅, there is nothing to prove. If S 6= ∅, fix some s0 ∈ S
and let R = K + 1 + d(s0 , x). Then for any s ∈ S we have d(s, x) ≤
d(s, s0 ) + d(s0 , x) ≤ K + d(s0 , x) < R, so S ⊆ NR (x).
“(i)⇒ (iii)” Suppose that S ⊆ NR (x) for some x ∈ X and M ∈ R. Then
for any s, t ∈ S we have d(s, x) < R and d(x, t) < R, so by the triangle
inequality d(s, t) < 2R. So the set {d(s, t) : s, t ∈ S} is bounded above by
2R.
Definition: Let (X, d) be a metric space and ε > 0. A subset S of X is
called an ε-net if for any x ∈ X there exists s ∈ S such that d(x, s) < ε. In
other words, S is an ε-net if X is the union of open balls of radius ε centered
at elements of S.
4. Let S be a subset of a metric space (X, d). Prove that the following
are equivalent:
(i) The closure of S is the entire X;
(ii) U ∩ S 6= ∅ for any non-empty open subset U of X;
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(iii) S is an ε-net for every ε > 0.

The subset S is called dense (in X) if it satisfies these equivalent conditions.
Solution: As suggested in the hint, we will prove that negations of (i),
(ii) and (iii) are equivalent to each other. We start by explicitly formulating
the negations, denoted below by (a), (b) and (c)
(a) The closure of S is strictly contained in X, that is, there exists x ∈ X
which is NOT a contact point of S
(b) There exists a non-empty open subset U of X such that U ∩ S = ∅
(c) There exists ε > 0 such that S is not an ε-net.
Now we prove that (a), (b) and (c) are equivalent
“(a)⇒ (b)” If x ∈ X is not a contact point of S, there exists ε > 0 such
that Nε (x) ∩ S = ∅. This means that (b) holds with U = Nε (x) (since Nε (x)
is open and non-empty).
“(b)⇒ (a)” Take any x ∈ U (such x exists since U is non-empty). Since
U is also open, there exists ε > 0 such that Nε (x) ⊆ U . Since U ∩ S = ∅,
we must have Nε (x) ∩ S = ∅, so x is not a contact point of S.
“(a)⇒ (c)” As in implication “(a)⇒ (b)”, there exists x ∈ X and ε > 0
such that Nε (x) ∩ S = ∅. This means that d(s, x) ≥ ε for all s ∈ S, so S is
not an ε-net.
“(c)⇒ (a)” Analogous to the proof of “(a)⇒ (c)”.
5. Let X be any set with discrete metric (d(x, y) = 1 if x 6= y and
d(x, y) = 0 if x = y), and let Y be an arbitrary metric space.
(a) Let {xn } be a sequence in X. Prove that {xn } converges if and only
if it is eventually constant, that is, there exists M ∈ N and x ∈ X
such that xn = x for all n ≥ M .
(b) Prove that any function f : X → Y is continuous in two different
ways: first using sequential definition of continuity and then using
the ε-δ definition.

Solution: (a) “⇐” Suppose that there exists M ∈ N and x ∈ X such that
xn = x for all n ≥ M . Then for any ε > 0 we have d(xn , x) = 0 < ε for
all n ≥ M , so {xn } converges to x. Of course, this direction holds in any
metric space.
“⇒” Now suppose that {xn } converges to x. By the definition of limit
with ε = 1, there exists M ∈ N such that d(xn , x) < 1 for all n ≥ M . But
since the only possible values of d are 0 and 1, the inequality d(xn , x) < 1
forces d(xn , x) = 0 and hence xn = x. Thus, xn = x for all n ≥ M , as
desired.
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(b) Using the ε-δ definition. Fix an arbitrary a ∈ X. Given any ε > 0,
choose δ = 1. If x ∈ X and d(a, x) < 1, we must have x = a and hence
f (x) = f (a), so dY (f (x), f (a)) = 0 < ε. Thus, f is continuous at a, and
since a ∈ X was arbitrary, f is continuous on X.
Using the sequential definition. Again fix a ∈ X, and take any sequence
{xn } in X which converges to a. By (a), there exists M ∈ N such that
xn = a for all n ≥ M . Then f (xn ) = f (a) for all n ≥ M and (again by (a)),
{f (xn )} converges to f (a), whence f is continuous at a.
6.
(a) Let (X, dX ) and (Y, dY ) be metric spaces, and let f : X → Y be a
function such that

dY (f (u), f (v)) ≤ dX (u, v) for all u, v ∈ X. (∗ ∗ ∗)

Prove that f is continuous.

(b) Let (X, d) be a metric space, and fix a ∈ X. Use (a) to prove that
the function f : X → R (where R is equipped with the usual metric)
given by f (x) = d(a, x) is continuous. Warning: be careful with
absolute values.

Solution: (a) Given any ε > 0, choose δ = ε. If u, v ∈ X with dX (u, v) < δ,

then by (***) we have dY (f (u), f (v)) ≤ dX (u, v) < δ = ε. Thus, by the ε-δ
definition, f is continuous.
(b) In the notations of (a) we have dX = d and dY (y1 , y2 ) = |y1 − y2 |. By
(a), to prove continuity of f it suffices to check that |f (u) − f (v)| ≤ d(u, v)
for all u, v ∈ X or equivalently,

|d(a, u) − d(a, v)| ≤ d(u, v) for all u, v ∈ X

Note that for any real number t the absolute value |t| is equal to max{t, −t}.
Thus, if we want to prove |t| ≤ r where r is another real number, this is
equivalent to showing that t ≤ r and −t ≤ r.
By the triangle inequality, d(a, u) ≤ d(a, v)+d(v, u) = d(a, v)+d(u, v) and
d(a, v) ≤ d(a, u) + d(u, v). Hence d(a, u) − d(a, v) ≤ d(u, v) and −(d(a, u) −
d(a, v)) = d(a, v) − d(a, u) ≤ d(u, v). Therefore, using the above observation
with t = d(a, u) − d(a, v) and r = d(u, v), we conclude that |d(a, u) −
d(a, v)| ≤ d(u, v), as desired.
7. A metric space (X, d) is called ultrametric if for any x, y, z ∈ X the
following inequality holds:

d(x, z) ≤ max{d(x, y), d(y, z)}.

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(Note that this inequality is much stronger than the triangle inequality).
If X is any set and d is the discrete metric on X (that is, d(x, y) = 1 if
x 6= y and d(x, y) = 0 if x = y), then clearly (X, d) is ultrametric. A more
interesting example of an ultrametric space is given in the next problem.
Prove that properties (i) and (ii) below hold in any ultrametric space
(X, d) (note that both properties are counter-intuitive since they are very
far from being true in R).
(i) Take any x ∈ X, ε > 0 and take any y ∈ Nε (x). Then Nε (y) =
Nε (x). This means that if we take an open ball of fixed radius around
some point x, then for any other point y from that open ball, the
open ball of the same radius, but now centered at y, coincides with
the original ball. In other words, any point of an open ball happens
to be its center.
(ii) Prove that a sequence {xn } in X is Cauchy ⇐⇒ for any ε > 0
there exists M ∈ N such that d(xn+1 , xn ) < ε for all n ≥ M . Note:
The forward implication holds in any metric space.
Solution: (i) Let d = d(x, y). Since y ∈ Nε (x), we have d < ε. Take
any z ∈ Nε (y). Then d(y, z) < ε, so d(z, x) ≤ max{d(y, z), d(x, y)} =
max{d(y, z), d} < ε, so z ∈ Nε (x). Thus we showed that Nε (y) ⊆ Nε (x).
The reverse inclusion Nε (x) ⊆ Nε (y) is proved similarly.
(ii) The forward implication is clear. Assume now that for any ε > 0
there exists M ∈ N such that d(xn+1 , xn ) < ε for all n ≥ M . Then
for all n ≥ M we also have d(xn+2 , xn+1 ) < ε whence d(xn+2 , xn ) ≤
max{d(xn+1 , xn ), d(xn+2 , xn+1 )} < ε. Repeating the same trick several
times, we deduce that d(xn+p , xn ) < ε for all n ≥ M and p ≥ 0; equiv-
alently, d(xm , xn ) < ε for all n, m ≥ M . Therefore, the sequence {xn } is
Cauchy.