Chapter 2

Railway Geometric Design

 Introduction
• Rail line is the foundation of operation.
• It is a whole structure consisted of the roadbed, bridge building and rail.
• Center line of the route is all about every Thing!
– Economy(cost)
– Safety
– Type of structures to design
– Station location … all determined by CL.

track
sleeper
Ballaste
d bed

Road
bed
Typical ballasted
track section
 2.1 Route selection…
Route selection criteria： Balancing these
- shortest , direct route, parameters and
requirements
- detour unsuitable geology, link important sites
- Cost effective (user & construction)
- Minimum earthwork,
- locally materials,
- Environmental friendly
- aesthetic value etc.

target
 Survey and Economy- for classification
- Railway level based on the annual volume of
freight and passenger
- Directly affect your survey & route selection

According to the economic importance, Chinese classification as an example

Railway Volume of freight

Status
level and passenger

Level Ⅰ play the backbone role ≥20Mt

play the backbone role ＜20Mt
Level Ⅱ Play the contact and
≥10Mt
auxiliary role
Level Ⅲ Serve for a region ＜10Mt
 2.2 Selection of main technical standards
1) Design speed
shall be determined after technical and economic
comparisons in terms of the project role in railway
passenger and fright transport network, transport
demand, engineering specifications to meet the
demand of travel time target.
2) Maximum gradient
 The maximum gradient is the steepest grade allowed to be used on
a railway line.
 The maximum gradient shall be determined according to the
design speed, locomotive power, traffic organization mode, safety
and ride comfort, annual volume of traffic, etc.
 Selection of main technical standards…cont’d

3) Numbers of main lines

-double track or single track railway

4) Minimum plane curve radius

 Minimum plane curve radius is the minimum one to be
used in a projected railway.
 Minimum plane curve radius shall be determined
according to railway classification, designed speed, traffic
organization mode, safety and ride comfort, and
engineering working conditions.
 Selection of main technical standards…cont’d
5) Available length of arrival and departure line
 Arrival-departure lines are built at stations specially for train
reception and departure
 The available length of arrival and departure line is the
maximum length of arrival and departure line that can be
used to trains stopping without influencing the operation
working on adjacent lines

6) Kind of traction and types of locomotives(or EMU type)

 There three kinds of traction in railway industry, electric traction,
diesel traction and vapor traction.
 Kind of tractive energy greatly influences the railway with respect
to traffic capacity, line standard and economy.
 Selection of main technical standards… cont’d
7）Tonnage Ratings

• Tonnage ratings tell how many tons a given locomotive

can haul over a particular engine district
• Comparative tonnage ratings over alternative routes can
be a major factor in route location.

• In building trains，yardmasters need to know how many

tons can be placed behind a given locomotive consist or
what horsepower is needed to move a proposed tonnage
 2.3 Plane section of Railroad line

Centre line is used to show the place of a line in space.

Line AB is the center line of the track as well as cross section of the track.
 Alignment
 Railway alignment means space position of the
central line of railway permanent way. It is
expressed in the line linked central points of
cross-section longitudinally, as in figure right. It is
called as center line in short.
 Planar and longitudinal section of alignment
 Plane and profile sections
• The planar projection of centre line is called plane
section of the rail; and its vertical projection is called
longitudinal section of the rail.
• The plane section of the rail is consisted of straight line
and curve (circular curve and easement curve).

plane section of the rail longitudinal section

of the rail
1. Plane design
Constituent parts of the curve

The curve is set when the line turns

or when two straight lines intersect.
It includes：
curve radius, R
corner curve, α
curve length, L
Tangent length, T
easement curve length, L0 .
 Composition of plane design
circular curve
When out of consideration of easement
curve:
tangent length:

curve length:

External length:
R
arc length of L0: L  m
180
(1)Curve radius’s effect for
operation

It is harmful while it is small, because:

• Limit the speed of train;

• Increase wheel abrasion;

• Increase rail equipment;

• Increase maintenance costs.

(2)The relationship of speed and curve radius
hR V - speed of train，km/h；
V h - elevation of outer rail，mm；
11.8
R - curve radius ，m
(3) The maximum speed on curve
The maximum permissible value for elevation of
outer rail:
 125mm for single track，and 150mm for
double track.
 In addition, can consider some inadequate
superelevation, 70mm for ordinary district and
90mm for hard district.
And the formula can be: V 
 hmax  hq  R
11.8
 3. Easement curve
Easement curve is set between straight line and circular curve.

easement
curve
circula
r
curve
outer rail

inner rail

(a) Without easement curve (b) With easement curve

Characteristic of easement curve
۞ Its curve radius decreased gradually from the infinite to circular
curve radius R, or on the contrary;

۞ While running, the centrifugal force of train is gradually added or

gradually reduced;

۞ The widen value of track gauge is also gradually added or gradually

reduced;

۞ And so as to the elevation of outer rail.

It is set for safety and riding comfortableness.

Formula of easement curve

Y - ordinate, m;

X - abscissa, m;

R - circular curve radius , m;

L0 - easement curve length, m.

Curve Level l Level Ⅱ Level Ⅲ
radius
（m） （1） （2） （3） （1） （2） （3） （1） （2）

4000 30 30 20 20 20 20 20 20
3000 40 30 20 30 20 20 20 20
2500 50 40 20 30 30 20 20 20
2000 60 50 30 40 30 20 20 20
1500 80 70 40 50 40 30 30 20
1200 100 80 50 60 50 30 30 30
1000 120 100 60 70 60 40 40 30
800 150 120 70 90 70 40 50 40
700 150 120 90 70 40 40 50 40
600 140 110 90 110 90 60 60 60
550 140 110 90 130 110 70 70 50
500 130 100 90 130 100 80 70 60
450 120 100 80 120 100 80 80 80
400 120 90 80 120 90 80 90 70
350 110 90 70 110 90 70 100 70
300 100 80 70 100 70

250 90 70
Element calculation

tangent
length:

curve
length:

external
distance:

length of
tangent:

inset :
 Length of easement curve
1) calculated according to the diminishing gradient of super
elevation
The principle: the inside wheel which is impending can‘t climb
up the rail.
point of
outside wheel
h

point of
inside wheel
 h if h and i0 are known, so :
 i0 
L 0 h
 i0  k L0  (m)
L
min

max
i 0

Kmin- the minimum height of wheel(mm); L0 —length of easement curve (m);

Lmax- the maximum wheelbase(mm); h —super elevation(mm) .
I0 -gradient of super elevation, usually
≯2 %;

2) calculated according to the comfort level of passengers

The principle: wheel’s speed of up and down cannot be too fast.
h h  Vmax
f  (mm / s) f — speed of wheel
L0 Vmax 3.6 L0 L0 — length of easement curve (m);
h  Vmax h — superelevation(mm) .
L 0
 ( m)
3.6f
 rules:
Existing lines
ordinary district: f=28mm/s and
L0≥10h/Vmax
hard district : f=40mm/s and
L0≥7h/Vmax

of which, Vmax is the real maximal velocity, km/h.

ordinary district: f=32mm/s
new lines
hard district : f=40mm/s
of which, Vmax is the designed maximal velocity, km/h.
Attentions :
① use the two methods to work out L0 , chose the bigger one;
② length of L0 is usually between 20-150m. 23
 Principles of straight Line
-Straight lines shall be to reduce intersections, based on topography
-To reduce curve resistance which can be calculated as;

-Intermediate straight line /b/n two adjacent curves

•Track maintenance requirement
•2-3 standard rail
•orient maintaining machine
•prevent lateral swing of train-safety and comfort,
•to avoid vibration
same direction adjacent curve, reverse curve and intermediate
straight line

Definition

•The two same directional curve are

called same direction adjacent curve;

•And the two adverse directional curve

are called reverse curve;

The line between them is called

intermediate straight line.
The length of intermediate:

Rail level Ordinary district Hard district

Ⅰ 80 40

Ⅱ 60 30

Ⅲ 50 25
 Train resistance
Basic resistance: the resistance exists even the train is running
on flat and straight line; it resists any time;
Additional resistance: such as ramp resistance, curve resistance,
tunnel resistance and so on; the direction of the additional
resistance and the train are opposite.
curve additional resistance:
The resistance is larger on curve than on the straight line;
the increased part is called curve additional resistance,
curve resistance for short.
causes:
when running on curve, there exists more friction.
 ωr - unit curve
Formula :
resistance(N/KN);
600
  （N/KN）
r R R - curve radius(m);
600 - experiment data.

600
From  r  R （N/KN） The minimum curve radius:
minimum curve radius
we know: the smaller Rail Speed
level (km/h) Hard
Ordinary district
the curve radius is, the district
160 2000 1600
larger curve resistance Ⅰ 120 1200 800

there exists, the more 80 500 450

120 1000 800
adverse influence it has. Ⅱ
80 450 400
100 600 550
Ⅲ
80 400
Principles of determining minimum radius
 Superelevation
Raising the outside rail a distance
h in mm above the inside rail
1.Elevate outside rail by h or
2.elevate outside rail by h/2 and
lower inside rail by h/2
 Superelevation formula

For standard gauge track, s= 1500mm

 Maximum allowable superelevation
From the requirements of safety operation and stability of train and
travelling comfort of passengers (when it negotiates the curve or stops at
the curve in case of emergency)
- with some eccentricity factor of safety of center of mass of the train
- it should be limited to some value
On any curve there is always
unbalanced superelevation.
- Deficient superelevation

- Surplus superelevation
Maximum allowable superelevation- AREMA Calculation
Overbalance, Equilibrium and Underbalanced
 Minimum radius, maximum radius and
maximum speed at curve

1. from comfort and stability requirement minimum radius

of the curve should be determined
2. from track maintenance and regularity the maximum
radius should be limited to allowable value

۞ Maximum speed at the curve also has to satisfy

stability and comfort against overturning.
2.4. Profile design of Railway Line

Main design components are

1.Gradient (algebraic difference)
2.Vertical curve (sag or crest)
3.Radius of curve
 2.3. The longitudinal section of rail line
The longitudinal section of rail line is consisted of flat road,
ramp and vertical curve.

1. The gradient and vertical curve

 Features of grade
section Gradient
Altitude of
two grade
change
points
Length of grade
section

Gradient and length are used to What to do…?

represent characteristic of grade
section.
Length of grade section is refer to
the horizontal range between two
grade change points.
 Vertical Geometry - Grades
Rail – rarely exceeds 1%
(2-2.5% for industry lines)
Highway –
4% common
6% on ramps
Up to 8% on
county roads

LRT – maximum 4 to 6%
Up to 10% for short sections
 2. Radius of vertical curves

- Ensure No derailment
- Riding comfort
- No coupler separation
- Meet maintenance requirement

sag or crest vertical curves

Take care
Minimum length of grade section……… of phasing
of curves
 2. Additional resistance for gradient

It exists when train is running on the ramp.

Its value i (N/KN) is equal to the thousandth of

gradient.

There are positive and negative additional

resistance for gradient, the negative one has the
same effect as traction.
 3. Limiting gradient and pusher grade
（1）Selection for limiting gradient
The bigger the gradient is, the bigger the resistance there exists,
and the smaller the train traction weight is.

Definition:
The gradient which can decide the maximum cargo weight of a
locomotive is called the limiting gradient.
It is often equaled to the maximum gradient.
 (2) Conversion gradient
If there has curve on the ramp, the additional resistance is
include of additional resistance for curve and gradient.
so: ＝ r   i The conversion gradient:
ic ‰＝ r   i  ‰   ir  i  ‰
Example: Evaluate the conversion gradient of BC section.(length
of train is 800m).
(3）The pusher grade
On some special hard sections, we can :
a) Build a tunnel to across it;
b) or use a ramp with its gradient beyond the limiting gradient,
which is called the pusher grade .
4. longitudinal profile of railway
 Design Views
• Rail Track Interface • 3-D model

Sample software output THE END