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Intermediate SQL!

1
 Chapter 4: Intermediate SQL!

  Join Expressions"
  Views"
  Transactions"
  Integrity Constraints"
  SQL Data Types and Schemas"
  Authorization"

2
 Joined Relations!

  Join operations take two relations and return as a result

another relation."
  A join operation is a Cartesian product which requires that
tuples in the two relations match (under some condition).
It also specifies the attributes that are present in the result
of the join "
  The join operations are typically used as subquery
expressions in the from clause"

3
 Join operations – Example!
  Relation course"

  Relation prereq"

  Observe that "

prereq information is missing for CS-315 and "
course information is missing for CS-437" 4
 Outer Join!

  An extension of the join operation that avoids loss of

information."
  Computes the join and then adds tuples form one relation
that does not match tuples in the other relation to the result
of the join. "
  Uses null values."

5
 Left Outer Join!

  course natural left outer join prereq"

6
 Right Outer Join!

  course natural right outer join prereq!

7
 Joined Relations!
  Join operations take two relations and return as a result
another relation."
  These additional operations are typically used as subquery
expressions in the from clause"
  Join condition – defines which tuples in the two relations
match, and what attributes are present in the result of the join."
  Join type – defines how tuples in each relation that do not
match any tuple in the other relation (based on the join
condition) are treated."

8
 Full Outer Join!

  course natural full outer join prereq!

9
 Joined Relations – Examples!

  course inner join prereq on


course.course_id = prereq.course_id!

  What is the difference between the above, and a natural join? "
  course left outer join prereq on

course.course_id = prereq.course_id!

10
 Joined Relations – Examples!
  course natural right outer join prereq!

  course full outer join prereq using (course_id)"

11
 Views!
  In some cases, it is not desirable for all users to see the
entire logical model (that is, all the actual relations stored in
the database.)"
  Consider a person who needs to know an instructors name
and department, but not the salary. This person should see a
relation described, in SQL, by 

" "

select ID, name, dept_name

from instructor"
"
  A view provides a mechanism to hide certain data from the
view of certain users. "
  Any relation that is not of the conceptual model but is made
visible to a user as a “virtual relation” is called a view."

12
 View Definition!
  A view is defined using the create view statement which has
the form"
" "create view v as < query expression >"
"
"where <query expression> is any legal SQL expression. The
view name is represented by v."
  Once a view is defined, the view name can be used to refer to
the virtual relation that the view generates."
  View definition is not the same as creating a new relation by
evaluating the query expression "
  Rather, a view definition causes the saving of an expression;
the expression is substituted into queries using the view."

13
 Example Views!
  A view of instructors without their salary

create view faculty as 

select ID, name, dept_name

from instructor"
  Find all instructors in the Biology department

select name

from faculty

where dept_name = ‘Biology’"
  Create a view of department salary totals

create view departments_total_salary(dept_name, total_salary) as

select dept_name, sum (salary)

from instructor

group by dept_name;"
!!

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 Views Defined Using Other Views!
  create view physics_fall_2009 as

select course.course_id, sec_id, building, room_number

from course, section

where course.course_id = section.course_id

and course.dept_name = ’Physics’

and section.semester = ’Fall’

and section.year = ’2009’;"
  create view physics_fall_2009_watson as

select course_id, room_number

from physics_fall_2009

where building= ’Watson’;"

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 View Expansion!
  Expand use of a view in a query/another view"

create view physics_fall_2009_watson as!

(select course_id, room_number!
from (select course.course_id, building, room_number!
from course, section!
where course.course_id = section.course_id!
and course.dept_name = ’Physics’"
and section.semester = ’Fall’"
and section.year = ’2009’)"
where building= ’Watson’;"
"

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 Views Defined Using Other Views!
  One view may be used in the expression defining another view"
  A view relation v1 is said to depend directly on a view relation
v2 if v2 is used in the expression defining v1"
  A view relation v1 is said to depend on view relation v2 if either
v1 depends directly to v2 or there is a path of dependencies
from v1 to v2 "
  A view relation v is said to be recursive if it depends on itself."

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 View Expansion!
  A way to define the meaning of views defined in terms of other
views."
  Let view v1 be defined by an expression e1 that may itself
contain uses of view relations."
  View expansion of an expression repeats the following
replacement step:"
" "repeat

! !Find any view relation vi in e1

" "Replace the view relation vi by the expression defining vi 

"until no more view relations are present in e1"
  As long as the view definitions are not recursive, this loop will
terminate"

18
 Update of a View!
  Add a new tuple to faculty view which we defined earlier!
" "insert into faculty values (’30765’, ’Green’, ’Music’);"
"This insertion must be represented by the insertion of the tuple!
" " "(’30765’, ’Green’, ’Music’, null)"
"into the instructor relation"

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Some Updates cannot be Translated Uniquely!
  create view instructor_info as

select ID, name, building

from instructor, department

where instructor.dept_name= department.dept_name;"
  insert into instructor_info values (’69987’, ’White’, ’Taylor’);"
  which department, if multiple departments in Taylor?"
  what if no department is in Taylor?!
  Most SQL implementations allow updates only on simple views "
  The from clause has only one database relation."
  The select clause contains only attribute names of the
relation, and does not have any expressions, aggregates, or
distinct specification."
  Any attribute not listed in the select clause can be set to null"
  The query does not have a group by or having clause."

20
 And Some Not at All!
  create view history_instructors as

select *

from instructor

where dept_name= ’History’;"
  What happens if we insert (’25566’, ’Brown’, ’Biology’,
100000) into history_instructors?"

21
 Materialized Views!
  Materializing a view: create a physical table containing all the tuples
in the result of the query defining the view"
  If relations used in the query are updated, the materialized view result
becomes out of date"
  Need to maintain the view, by updating the view whenever the
underlying relations are updated."

22
 Transactions!
  Unit of work"
  Atomic transaction"
  either fully executed or rolled back as if it never occurred"
  Isolation from concurrent transactions"
  Transactions begin implicitly"
  Ended by commit work or rollback work!
  But default on most databases: each SQL statement commits
automatically"
  Can turn off auto commit for a session (e.g. using API)"
  In SQL:1999, can use: begin atomic …. end!
  Not supported on most databases"

23
 Integrity Constraints!
  Integrity constraints guard against accidental damage to the
database, by ensuring that authorized changes to the
database do not result in a loss of data consistency. "
  A checking account must have a balance greater than
$10,000.00"
  A salary of a bank employee must be at least $4.00 an
hour"
  A customer must have a (non-null) phone number"

24
 Integrity Constraints on a Single Relation!

  not null!
  primary key!
  unique"
  check (P), where P is a predicate"

25
 Not Null and Unique Constraints!

  not null!
  Declare name and budget to be not null!
! name varchar(20) not null

budget numeric(12,2) not null!
  unique ( A1, A2, …, Am)"
  The unique specification states that the attributes A1, A2, …
Am

form a candidate key."
  Candidate keys are permitted to be null (in contrast to primary
keys)."

"

26
 The check clause!

  check (P)"
where P is a predicate"

Example: ensure that semester is one of fall, winter, spring

or summer:"
!
create table section (!
course_id varchar (8),"
sec_id varchar (8),"
semester varchar (6),"
year numeric (4,0),"
building varchar (15),"
room_number varchar (7),"
time slot id varchar (4), "
primary key (course_id, sec_id, semester, year),"
check (semester in (’Fall’, ’Winter’, ’Spring’,
’Summer’))

27
);"
 Referential Integrity!

  Ensures that a value that appears in one relation for a given

set of attributes also appears for a certain set of attributes in
another relation."
  Example: If “Biology” is a department name appearing in
one of the tuples in the instructor relation, then there exists
a tuple in the department relation for “Biology”."
  Let A be a set of attributes. Let R and S be two relations that
contain attributes A and where A is the primary key of S. A is
said to be a foreign key of R if for any values of A appearing
in R these values also appear in S."

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 Cascading Actions in Referential Integrity!

  create table course (


course_id char(5) primary key,

title varchar(20),

dept_name varchar(20) references department

)"
  create table course (

…

dept_name varchar(20),

foreign key (dept_name) references department

on delete cascade

on update cascade,

...

)"
  alternative actions to cascade: set null, set default"
!
!
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 Integrity Constraint Violation During
Transactions!
  E.g."
create table person (

ID char(10),

name char(40),

mother char(10),

father char(10),

primary key ID,

foreign key father references person,

foreign key mother references person)"
  How to insert a tuple without causing constraint violation ?"
  insert father and mother of a person before inserting person"
  OR, set father and mother to null initially, update after
inserting all persons (not possible if father and mother
attributes declared to be not null) "
  OR defer constraint checking (next slide)"
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 Complex Check Clauses!
  check (time_slot_id in (select time_slot_id from time_slot))"
  why not use a foreign key here?"
  Every section has at least one instructor teaching the section."
  how to write this?"
  Unfortunately: subquery in check clause not supported by
pretty much any database"
  Alternative: triggers (later)"
  create assertion <assertion-name> check <predicate>;"
  Also not supported by anyone"

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 Built-in Data Types in SQL!
  date: Dates, containing a (4 digit) year, month and date"
  Example: date ‘2005-7-27’"
  time: Time of day, in hours, minutes and seconds."
  Example: time ‘09:00:30’ time ‘09:00:30.75’"
  timestamp: date plus time of day"
  Example: timestamp ‘2005-7-27 09:00:30.75’"
  interval: period of time"
  Example: interval ‘1’ day"
  Subtracting a date/time/timestamp value from another gives
an interval value"
  Interval values can be added to date/time/timestamp values"

32
 Index Creation!
  create table student!

(ID varchar (5),

name varchar (20) not null,

dept_name varchar (20),

tot_cred numeric (3,0) default 0,

primary key (ID))"
  create index studentID_index on student(ID)"
  Indices are data structures used to speed up access to records
with specified values for index attributes"
  e.g. select * 

from student

where ID = ‘12345’"
can be executed by using the index to find the required
record, without looking at all records of student!
More on indices in Chapter 11"
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 User-Defined Types!

  create type construct in SQL creates user-defined type"

"
! !create type Dollars as numeric (12,2) final 

"
  create table department

(dept_name varchar (20),

building varchar (15),

budget Dollars);"

34
 Domains!
  create domain construct in SQL-92 creates user-defined
domain types"
"
! !create domain person_name char(20) not null!
"
  Types and domains are similar. Domains can have
constraints, such as not null, specified on them."
  create domain degree_level varchar(10)

constraint degree_level_test

check (value in (’Bachelors’, ’Masters’, ’Doctorate’));"

35
 Large-Object Types!
  Large objects (photos, videos, CAD files, etc.) are stored as a
large object:"
  blob: binary large object -- object is a large collection of
uninterpreted binary data (whose interpretation is left to an
application outside of the database system)"
  clob: character large object -- object is a large collection of
character data"
  When a query returns a large object, a pointer is returned
rather than the large object itself."

36
 Authorization!

Forms of authorization on parts of the database:"

  Read - allows reading, but not modification of data."

  Insert - allows insertion of new data, but not modification of
existing data."
  Update - allows modification, but not deletion of data."
  Delete - allows deletion of data."
"
Forms of authorization to modify the database schema"
  Index - allows creation and deletion of indices."
  Resources - allows creation of new relations."
  Alteration - allows addition or deletion of attributes in a relation."
  Drop - allows deletion of relations."

37
 Authorization Specification in SQL!

  The grant statement is used to confer authorization"

" "grant <privilege list>"
" "on <relation name or view name> to <user list>"
  <user list> is:"
  a user-id"
  public, which allows all valid users the privilege granted"
  A role (more on this later)"
  Granting a privilege on a view does not imply granting any
privileges on the underlying relations."
  The grantor of the privilege must already hold the privilege on
the specified item (or be the database administrator)."

38
 Privileges in SQL!

  select: allows read access to relation,or the ability to query

using the view"
  Example: grant users U1, U2, and U3 select
authorization on the instructor relation:"
" " "grant select on instructor to U1, U2, U3"
  insert: the ability to insert tuples"
  update: the ability to update using the SQL update
statement"
  delete: the ability to delete tuples."
  all privileges: used as a short form for all the allowable
privileges"

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 Revoking Authorization in SQL!

  The revoke statement is used to revoke authorization."

revoke <privilege list>"
on <relation name or view name> from <user list>"
  Example:"
revoke select on branch from U1, U2, U3!
  <privilege-list> may be all to revoke all privileges the revokee
may hold."
  If <revokee-list> includes public, all users lose the privilege
except those granted it explicitly."
  If the same privilege was granted twice to the same user by
different grantees, the user may retain the privilege after the
revocation."
  All privileges that depend on the privilege being revoked are
also revoked."
" 40
 Roles!
  create role instructor;"
  grant instructor to Amit;"
  Privileges can be granted to roles:"
  grant select on takes to instructor;"
  Roles can be granted to users, as well as to other roles"
  create role teaching_assistant!
  grant teaching_assistant to instructor;"
  Instructor inherits all privileges of teaching_assistant!
  Chain of roles"
  create role dean;"
  grant instructor to dean;"
  grant dean to Satoshi;"

41
 Authorization on Views!
  create view geo_instructor as

(select *

from instructor

where dept_name = ’Geology’);"
  grant select on geo_instructor to geo_staff!
  Suppose that a geo_staff member issues"
  select *

from geo_instructor;"
  What if "
  geo_staff does not have permissions on instructor?!
  creator of view did not have some permissions on
instructor?"

42
 Other Authorization Features!
  references privilege to create foreign key"
  grant reference (dept_name) on department to Mariano;"
  why is this required?"
  transfer of privileges"
  grant select on department to Amit with grant option;"
  revoke select on department from Amit, Satoshi cascade;"
  revoke select on department from Amit, Satoshi restrict;"
  Etc. read Section 4.6 for more details we have omitted here."

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The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then
insert it again.

End of Chapter 4!

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Figure 4.01!

45
Figure 4.02!

46
Figure 4.03!

47
Figure 4.04!

48
Figure 4.05!

49
Figure 4.07!

Taylor

50
 Figure 4.06!

Join types Join conditions

inner join natural
le! outer join on < predicate>
right outer join using (A1, A2, . . ., An)
full outer join

51
 Figure 4.03!
U1 U4

DBA U2 U5

U3

52