Joint CI-JAI advanced accelerator lecture series

Imaging and detectors for medical

physics
Lecture 4: Radionuclides

Dr Barbara Camanzi
[email protected]
 Course layout

Day AM 09.30 – 11.00 PM 15.30 – 17.00

Week 1
6th June Lecture 1: Introduction to Lecture 2: Detectors for
medical imaging medical imaging
7th June Lecture 3: X-ray imaging
8th June Tutorial
Week 2
13th June Lecture 4: Radionuclides
14th June Lecture 5: Gamma Lecture 6: SPECT
cameras
16th June Lecture 7: PET
Week 3
22nd June Tutorial

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 Books & references
1. N Barrie Smith & A Webb
Introduction to Medical Imaging
Cambridge University Press
2. Edited by M A Flower
Webb’s Physics of Medical Imaging
CRC Press
3. A Del Guerra
Ionizing Radiation Detectors for Medical Imaging
World Scientific
4. W R Leo
Techniques for Nuclear and Particle Physics Experiments
Springer-Verlag
Nuclides live charts
− http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat2/
− https://www-nds.iaea.org/relnsd/vcharthtml/VChartHTML.html

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 Nuclear medicine imaging
• Imaging of radioactive decay products of a
radiopharmaceutical (radiotracer) introduced into the
body → emission imaging (as opposed to X-ray
imaging = transmission imaging)
• Spatial distribution depends on how
radiopharmaceutical interacts with tissues in the body
• Administration of radiopharmaceutical:
1. Intravenous injection into bloodstream
2. Inhalation into lungs
3. Subcutaneous administration
4. Oral administration
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 Nuclear medicine imaging
techniques
• SPECT = Single Photon Emission CT = Single
Photon Emission Computed Tomography
• PET = Positron Emission Tomography
• Planar scintigraphy

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 Nuclide notation
Nucleus Notation
• Formed of nucleons Element X

A
• Nucleons:
neutron
proton
Z X
A = mass number = number of
– proton = particle with positive protons + neutrons
charge Z = atomic number = number
– neutron = particle with zero of protons
charge
Isotopes of an element = nuclides with same number of
protons (same 𝑍) but different number of neutrons (different 𝐴)
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 Forces within the nucleus
coulomb
strong
neutron
proton strong
strong
• In stable nuclei forces are well balanced
• In unstable nuclei there are too many neutrons or protons
→ forces are not balanced → nucleus is prone to undergo
nuclear rearrangement and decay
• Line of stability
– For low 𝑍: 𝑁 ≈ 𝑍
– For high 𝑍: 𝑁 ≈ 1.5 × 𝑍
– No stable nuclei for Z > 82 (Lead)
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 Radioactivity
• Intrinsic property of unstable nuclei that have too
many neutrons or protons → unstable nuclei emit
particles or 𝛾-rays to become more stable
• Definitions:
1. Radionuclide = nuclide that is unstable and undergoes
radioactive decay
2. Radioisotope = radioactive isotope
3. Radioactive disintegration or decay = spontaneous
change in nucleus composition with associated
emission of energy to reach a more stable state
4. Radiotracer = radiopharmaceutical
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 Radioactive decay law
• Number of radioactive atoms in a sample decreases
with time:
𝑑𝑁
= −𝜆𝑡
𝑑𝑡
• 𝑁 𝑡 = number of atoms left at given time 𝑡 decreases
exponentially:
𝑁 𝑡 = 𝑁0 exp −𝜆𝑡
𝑁0 = number of atoms at 𝑡 = 0
𝜆 s−1 = decay constant
exp −𝜆𝑡 = decay factor
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 Decay constant
• Probability that any individual radioactive atom will
undergo decay per unit time
• Statistical definition → average rate of decay
• Exercise:
Q: If 𝜆 = 0.01 s−1 on average how many atoms undergo radioactive
decay per unit time?

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 (Radio)activity 𝑸
Ref. 1 – Chapter 3.2 and Ref. 2 – Chapter 5.4.1

• (Radio)activity 𝑄 = number of disintegrations per s = rate

of change of number 𝑁 of radioactive nuclei
𝑑𝑁
𝑄=− = 𝜆𝑁
𝑑𝑡
• Units for 𝑄:
1. SI unit = Bequerel (Bq)
1 Bq = 1 disintegration per second
2. Curies (Ci) = named after Pierre Curie and defined as number
of disintegrations per second from 1 gramme of 226𝑅𝑎
1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 disintegrations per second = 3.7 × 1010 Bq
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 (Radio)activity 𝑸 decay law
• (Radio)activity 𝑄 decreases with time too
• Exercise:
Q: Determine the (radio)activity 𝑄 decay law

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 Half-life
• Half-life 𝜏1/2 = time required for 𝑄 to drop to half
(50%) of its initial value → 𝜏1/2 is independent of 𝑁
• Exercise: Calculate relation between 𝜏1/2 and 𝜆
and express 𝑄 as function of 𝜏1/2

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 Atomic half-lives
𝑍 (protons) 𝑍=𝑁
Half-life (seconds)
> 1e+15 1e-01
1e+10 1e-02
1e+07 1e-03
1e+05 1e-04
1e+04 1e-05
1e+03 1e-06
1e+02 1e-07
1e+01 1e-15
1e+00 < 1e-15
unknown

Courtesy Piero Posocco (Imperial College)

𝑁 (neutrons)
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 Biological and effective half-life
• In many cases excretion of radiotracer from tissue
follows an exponential decay law → biological
half-life 𝜏1/2,𝑏𝑖𝑜 used to characterise the decay →
𝜏1/2,𝑏𝑖𝑜 gives a measure of how long radiotracer
remains in the body
• Effective half-life 𝜏1/2,𝑒𝑓𝑓 given by:
𝜏1/2 ∙ 𝜏1/2,𝑏𝑖𝑜
𝜏1/2,𝑒𝑓𝑓 =
𝜏1/2 + 𝜏1/2,𝑏𝑖𝑜
→ 𝜏1/2,𝑒𝑓𝑓 always less than the shorter between
𝜏1/2 and 𝜏1/2,𝑏𝑖𝑜
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 Exercise
• Q: Two patients undergo nuclear medicine scans. One receives a dose of
radiotracer A with 𝜏1/2 = 6 h and the other a dose of radiotracer B with 𝜏1/2 = 24 h.
If dose of radiotracer A is 3 × dose of radiotracer B and 𝜏1/2,𝑏𝑖𝑜 of A is 6 h and of B
12 h, at what time the radioactivity in the body of the two patients is the same?

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 Radioactive decay modes
Ref. 2 – Chapter 5.4.3

• 𝛼 +2 decay
• 𝛽− decay
• 𝛽+ decay
• Electron Capture (EC)
• Isomeric transitions
– Radiative 𝛼 +2 , 𝛽− and 𝛽+ decays
– Radiative EC
• Internal conversion (IC)

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 +𝟐
𝜶 decay
• High A radionuclide emits 𝛼-particle = helium nucleus
= +2 charge
• Most energy distributed between:
1. Daughter nucleus = recoil energy
2. 𝛼-particle = kinetic energy = 4÷8 MeV → travels few mm in
tissue
• If nucleus left in excited state → de-excitation is
through emission of g-rays
• Not use in medical imaging (shallow penetration in
tissue) but as sealed X- or g-rays sources in therapy

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 −
𝜷 decay

• Neutron-rich radionuclide ejects Example

𝛽− particle = e− = −1 charge in 𝛽 − decay
14 14
the process: 6𝐶 7𝑁 + 𝛽− + 𝜈 + 𝐸
𝑛 → 𝑝 + e− + n
𝐸 = shared randomly between n and
• Three-body decay → energy kinetic energy of 𝛽−
spectrum of e− = continuum up to
a maximum 14
• 𝑍 → 𝑍 + 1, 𝐴 and atomic weight 6𝐶 𝛽− decay
remain the same
• e− penetration in tissue < 2 mm
14
→ not used in medical imaging 7𝑁

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 − −
Radiative 𝜷 decay (𝜷 , 𝜸)

• If following 𝛽− decay daughter nuclide Example

is produced in excited state 𝑋 ∗ → 𝛽− γ
133 133 ∗ 133
prompt de-excitation to more stable 54𝑋𝑒 55𝐶𝑠 55𝐶𝑠
state through emission of g rays
133 g decays
• 𝑍 → 𝑍 + 1, 𝐴 and atomic weight 54𝑋𝑒
133
54𝑋𝑒 0.38 MeV
remain the same
• Typical energy of g rays = 50÷500 keV
→ useful for imaging
• Disadvantage: patient still exposed to 0.16 MeV
𝛽− particle → dose 𝛽− decays
0.08 MeV
0 MeV
133
55𝐶𝑠

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 +
𝜷 decay

• Proton-rich or neutron deficient Example

radionuclide ejects 𝛽+ -particle = e+ = 𝛽 + decay
15 15
+1 charge in the process: 6𝑂 7𝑁 + 𝛽+ + 𝜈 + 𝐸
𝑝 → 𝑛 + e+ + 𝜈
𝐸 = shared randomly between 𝑣 and
• Three-body decay → energy spectrum kinetic energy of 𝛽+
of e+ = continuum up to a maximum
Average kinetic energy 𝐸𝛽+ ≅ 𝐸𝛽𝑚𝑎𝑥
+ /3
• 𝑍 → 𝑍 − 1, 𝐴 and atomic weight
15
remain the same 8𝑂
• e+ travels ~1 mm in tissue → comes 1.022 MeV
to rest → combines with atomic e− → 𝛽+ decay
2 back-to-back 511 keV g-rays
𝐸𝛽𝑚𝑎𝑥
+ = 1.7 MeV
• If daughter nuclide is produced in
15
excited state → de-excitation is 7𝑁
through emission of g-rays
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 Electron Capture (EC) and
radiative Electron Capture (EC, 𝜸)
• In proton-rich radionuclide inner Example
orbital (K-shell) e− = closer to 𝐸𝐶 γ
125 125 125
nucleus, captured within nucleus: 53𝐼 + 𝑒− 52𝑇𝑒
∗ +𝜈+𝐸 52𝑇𝑒
𝑝 + e− → 𝑛 + 𝜈 + 𝐸
125
• 𝑍 →𝑍−1 53𝐼
• e− from outer orbital fills vacancy
→ emission of X-ray characteristic EC
of daughter nuclide = can be useful
for imaging if high enough 𝐸 0.035 MeV
125 ∗
52 𝑇𝑒
• The higher 𝑍 the closer to the
𝛾
nucleus are the e− shells →
probability of EC increases with 𝑍 125
52𝑇𝑒
• If daughter nuclide is produced in
excited state 𝑋 ∗ → de-excitation is
through emission of g-rays
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 Feynman diagrams for
𝜷− , 𝜷+ decays and EC

𝛽−
𝐴 𝐴
𝑍𝑋 𝑍+1𝑌 + e− + 𝑣𝑒

𝛽+
𝐴 𝐴
𝑍𝑋 𝑍−1𝑌 + e+ + 𝑣𝑒

𝐸𝐶
𝐴 𝐴
𝑍𝑋 + e− 𝑍−1𝑌 + 𝑣𝑒
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Courtesy Piero Posocco (Imperial College)
 𝜷 emitters
(𝜷− , 𝜸) emitters1
Nuclide Half-life 𝐸𝛽 (MeV) 𝐸𝛾 (keV)
60𝐶𝑜 5.27 yrs 0.096 1173, 1332
131𝐼 8.04 days 0.192 364
133
𝑋𝑒 5.24 days 0.101 81
137𝐶𝑠
30.00 yrs 0.173 662
𝜷+ emitters
Nuclide Half-life (min) 𝐸𝛽𝑚𝑎𝑥
+ (MeV) 𝛽 + 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 in
water (cm)
11𝐶
20.30 0.961 0.103
13𝑁
10.00 1.190 0.132
15𝑂 2.07 1.720 0.201
18𝐹
110.00 0.635 0.064
1Only dominant 𝛽 − and 𝛾 emissions shown
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EC and (EC, 𝜸) radionuclides
EC radionuclides
Nuclide Half-life 𝑬𝑿−𝒓𝒂𝒚 (keV)
125
𝐼 60.1 days ~30
201
𝑇𝑙 3.04 days ~70
(EC, 𝜸) radionuclides
Nuclide Half-life 𝑬𝜸 (keV)
57𝐶𝑜 270 days 122, 136
67𝐺𝑎 78.3 h 93, 185
111𝐼𝑛
2.83 days 171, 245
123𝐼
13.2 h 159

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 Isomeric transitions (IT)
and metastable states
• Excited state in which daughter Example
nuclide can be produced called
isomeric state • 99𝑇𝑐 𝑚 most common example of
metastable isotope used in nuclear
• Sometimes radiative decays from
medicine
isomeric state to ground state are
called isomeric transition • Decay chain:
• Isomeric transitions can take from 𝛽− γ
99𝑀𝑜 99𝑇𝑐 𝑚 99𝑇𝑐
fractions of seconds (short-lived
states) to many years (long-lived Half-life for 𝛽− decay = 66 h
states) Half-life for isomeric transition = 6 h
• Long-lived isomeric states are
called metastable states 𝐴𝑍𝑋 𝑚

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 Internal Conversion (IC)
• 𝛾-ray emitted in isomeric transition interacts with
atomic e− → e− is ejected = conversion electron
• Interaction is usually with K-shell e− as they are
closest to nucleus
• Conversion e− has kinetic energy 𝐸:
𝐸 = 𝐸𝛾 − 𝐸𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
• e− from outer shell fills vacancy → characteristic
X-ray emitted
• X-ray emitted can interact with other outer shell e−
→ e− get ejected if 𝐸𝑋−𝑟𝑎𝑦 > 𝐸𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = Auger e−
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 Radioactive decay table
𝑍 (protons)

Stable
EC, 𝛽 +
𝛽−
𝛼
P
N
Unknown

Courtesy Piero Posocco (Imperial College)

𝑁 (neutrons)
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 Production of radionuclides
Ref. 2 – Chapter 5.4.2

• Man-made production:
1. Neutron capture = neutron activation
2. Nuclear fission
3. Charged-particle bombardment
4. Radioactive decay

• Naturally-occurring radionuclides

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 Man-made production
technologies
• Nuclear reactors:
1. Neutron capture = nuclear absorption
2. Nuclear fission
• Accelerators:
1. Charged-particle bombardment
• Radionuclide generators:
1. Radioactive decay

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 Neutron capture /
nuclear absorption
• Radionuclides produced when neutron absorbed
by atomic nucleus
𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 + 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠 → 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑒
• For neutron to be captured 𝐸𝑛 needs to be low in
the range 0.03÷100 eV = thermal neutrons
• Radionuclides produced predominantly neutron
rich → decay mainly by 𝛽 −
• Production system:
1. Nuclear reactor: creates thermal neutrons
2. Target: placed inside field of thermal neutrons

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 Neutron capture reaction chain
• Neutron capture leaves nucleus excited → de-excitation
via emission of 𝛾-ray:
𝑛 + 𝐴𝑋 → 𝐴+1𝑋 + 𝛾
Notation: 𝐴𝑋 𝑛, 𝛾 𝐴+1𝑋
• Radionuclide produced = isotope of target material =
same 𝑍 but 𝐴 + 1 → very difficult to separate → low
purity and activity
• Exception that can be easily separated: 125𝐼 from decay
of 125𝑋𝑒 with half-life 17 h:
EC 𝑜𝑟 𝛽 +
124𝑋𝑒 𝑛, 𝛾 125𝑋𝑒 125𝐼

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 Nuclear fission
• Nuclear fission process:
1. Heavy nuclei ( 232𝑇ℎ, 235𝑈, 237𝑈, 239𝑃𝑢 and others with
𝐴 > 92) are irradiated with thermal neutrons = neutron
bombardment → absorb neutrons → become unstable
2. Unstable nuclei undergo fission = break up into two
lighter nuclei of approximately similar atomic weight
• Fission-produced nuclides have 28 < 𝐴 < 65
• Radionuclides produced predominantly neutron rich
→ decay mainly by 𝛽−
• Fission products can be separated chemically with
high specificity → high quality radiopharmaceuticals
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 Nuclear reactor

• Main components:
1. Fuel cells: contain fissionable material
2. Moderator: commonly graphite or 𝐷2 𝑂
surrounding fuel cells = slows down
neutrons
3. Control rods: commonly boron
exposing or shielding fuel cells =
heavy neutron absorbers
4. Ports in reactor core: allow samples to
be inserted for irradiation with
Courtesy Piero Posocco (Imperial College)
neutrons
Fission of 235𝑈 or heavily enriched • Position of fuel cells and control
235𝑈 giving: rods determine rate of chain
1. Fission products reaction
2. Thermal neutrons → can be used to
create radionuclide by neutron capture

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 Reactor-produced
radionuclides
Nuclear absorption
Radionuclide Production reaction 𝑬𝜸 (keV) Half-life 𝝈 (Barn)
51 50 51
𝐶𝑟 𝐶𝑟 𝑛, 𝛾 𝐶𝑟 320 27.7 days 15.8
59𝐹𝑒 58𝐹𝑒 𝑛, 𝛾 59𝐹𝑒 1099 44.5 days 1.28
99𝑀𝑜 98𝑀𝑜 𝑛, 𝛾 99𝑀𝑜 740 66.02 h 0.13
131𝐼 130𝑇𝑒 131𝑇𝑒 131𝐼
𝑛, 𝛾 → 364 8.04 days 0.29
Nuclear fission
Radionuclide 𝑬𝜸 (keV) Half-life Fission yield (%)
99𝑀𝑜 740 66.02 h 6.1
131𝐼
364 8.05 days 2.9
133𝑋𝑒
81 5.27 days 6.5
137𝐶𝑠 662 30 yrs 5.9
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 Charged-particle bombardment
• Radionuclides produced through interaction of
charged particles (𝐻 ± , 𝐷+ , 3𝐻𝑒 2+ , 4𝐻𝑒 2+ ) with
nuclei of stable atoms
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 + 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠 → 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑒
• Radionuclides produced predominantly neutron
deficient → decay by 𝛽 + or EC
• Production system:
1. Accelerator: kinetic 𝐸𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 needs to be high
enough to overcome nucleus (+) electrostatic repulsion
2. Target

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 Accelerators
• Two basic types used for medical imaging:
1. Cyclotron → most commonly used and usually located
near hospitals due to radionuclide short half-lives
2. Linear accelerator

Top view

Target

B field

𝑞𝐵
Cyclotron frequency = 𝑓 =
2𝜋𝑚
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 Path of +ve ion in cyclotron
Magnetic field
into page

+ve ion +ve Ex(x)

source

AC volts

-ve
x
Dees = vacuum
chambers
Courtesy Piero Posocco (Imperial College) Page 38/55
 Path of +ve ion in cyclotron
Magnetic field
into page

+ve ion +ve Ex(x)

source

AC volts

-ve
x
Dees = vacuum
chambers
Courtesy Piero Posocco (Imperial College) Page 39/55
 Path of +ve ion in cyclotron
Magnetic field
into page

+ve ion +ve Ex(x)

source

AC volts

-ve
x
Dees = vacuum
chambers
Courtesy Piero Posocco (Imperial College) Page 40/55
Compact biomedical cyclotron
Power supplies and Retractable shields
Target support unit

Courtesy Piero Posocco (Imperial College)

Page 41/55
 Accelerator-produced
radionuclides
Radionuclide Principal 𝜸-ray Half-life Production reaction
𝑬𝜸 (keV)1
11 14 11
𝐶 511 20.4 min 𝑁 𝑝, 𝛼 𝐶
13 13 13
𝑁 511 9.96 min 𝐶 𝑝, 𝑛 𝑁
15 15 15
𝑂 511 2.07 min 𝑁 𝑝, 𝑛 𝑂
18 18 18
𝐹 511 109.7 min 𝑂 𝑝, 𝑛 𝐹
67 68 67
𝐺𝑎 93, 184, 300 78.3 h 𝑍𝑛 𝑝, 2𝑛 𝐺𝑎
111 112 111
𝐼𝑛 171, 245 67.9 h 𝐶𝑑 𝑝, 2𝑛 𝐼𝑛
120 127 120 120
𝐼 511 81 min 𝐼 𝑝, 8𝑛 𝑋𝑒 → 𝐼
123 112
𝐼 159 13.2 h 𝑇𝑒 𝑝, 2𝑛 123𝐼
127
𝐼 𝑝, 5𝑛 123𝑋𝑒 → 123
𝐼
124 124 124
𝐼 511 4.2 days 𝑇𝑒 𝑝, 𝑛 𝐼
201 203 201 201
𝑇𝑙 68÷80.3 73 h 𝑇𝑙 𝑝, 3𝑛 𝑃𝑏 → 𝑇𝑙
1511 keV 𝛾-rays come from 𝛽 + decay
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 Radioactive decay
• Radioactive decay of parent radionuclide can lead to:
1. Unstable nuclide = radioactive nuclide = daughter
radionuclide
2. Stable nuclide
• 𝑍 of radionuclide daughter depends on decay type
• Good radionuclides for medical imaging:
1. Daughter is short-lived and has 𝑍 different from parent →
can be easily separated
2. Parent has sufficiently long half-life for production,
processing and shipment

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 Radionuclide generator
• The generator:
1. Receives in input radionuclides produced from nuclear
reactors or accelerators
2. Contains:
a) Chemical separation system of daughter radionuclide from parent
radionuclide: chromatographic techniques most common
b) Extraction system
• Main features:
1. Portable → provides local supply of short-lived radionuclides
without a nearby accelerator or nuclear reactor
2. Daughter product replenished continuously by decay of
parent → can be extracted repeatedly
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 Generator-produced
radionuclides
Parent Parent Mode of Daughter Daughter Daughter Daughter
P half-life decay D decay half-life 𝜸 𝑬𝜸 (keV)
P→D mode
62𝑍𝑛 9.1 h 𝛽+ 62𝐶𝑢 𝛽+ 9.8 min 511
EC EC 1173
68𝐺𝑒 280 days EC 68𝐺𝑎 𝛽+ 68 min 511
EC 1080
81𝑅𝑏 81𝐾𝑟
4.7 h EC IT 13 s 190
82𝑆𝑟 25 days EC 82𝑅𝑏 EC 76 s 777
𝛽+ 511
99𝑀𝑜 66.02 h 𝛽− 99𝑇𝑐 𝑚 IT 6.02 h 140
113 113
𝑆𝑛 115.1 days EC 𝐼𝑛𝑚 IT 1.66 h 392
195
𝐻𝑔𝑚 40 h IT 195
𝐴𝑢𝑚 IT 30.6 s 262
EC

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 𝟗𝟗 𝟗𝟗 𝒎
𝑴𝒐 − 𝑻𝒄 generator
Ref. 1 – Chapters 3.4 and 3.5
• 99𝑇𝑐 𝑚 most common radioisotope used in nuclear medicine:
99 99
𝑀𝑜 𝑇𝑐 𝑚 99
𝑇𝑐 + 140 keV 𝛾
𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑓−𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒=66 ℎ 𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑓−𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒=6.02 ℎ

• Also called a Molly or Cow

• Typically used for one week
• 99𝑀𝑜 bound to alumina column
as molybdate ion ( 𝑁𝐻4 2 𝑀𝑜𝑂4− )
• 99𝑇𝑐 𝑚 :

– Chemically different → not bound to

column → eluted from column with
5÷25 ml saline
99
– 75÷85% of available 𝑇𝑐 𝑚 extracted

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 Equation for number of 𝟗𝟗𝑻𝒄𝒎
atoms produced with generator
𝜆1 𝜆2
99 99 𝑚 99
𝑀𝑜 𝑇𝑐 𝑇𝑐
𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑁3
• Number 𝑁1 of 99𝑀𝑜 atoms decreases with time from 𝑁0 due to decay:
𝑁1 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆1 𝑡
• Number 𝑁3 of 99𝑇𝑐 atoms increases with time due to decay of 99𝑇𝑐 𝑚

• Number 𝑁2 of 99𝑇𝑐 𝑚 atoms has two components = one decreases

with time due to 99𝑇𝑐 𝑚 own decay, other increases with time due to
99𝑀𝑜 decay → first order differential equation for 𝑁 :
2
𝑑𝑁2 𝑑𝑁2
= 𝜆1 𝑁1 − 𝜆2 𝑁2 → + 𝜆2 𝑁2 = 𝜆1 𝑁1
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
With boundary condition: 𝑁2 = 0 at 𝑡 = 0

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 Solution of first order
differential equation for 𝑵𝟐
• Solution of first order differential equation for 𝑁2 made of two terms:
𝑁2 = 𝐶𝑒 −𝜆2 𝑡 + 𝐷𝑒 −𝜆1 𝑡
1. Homogeneous: 𝑁2 = 𝐶𝑒 −𝜆2 𝑡
2. Particular: 𝑁2 = 𝐷𝑒 −𝜆1 𝑡
𝜆1 𝑁0
• From boundary condition → 𝐶 = −
𝜆2 −𝜆1
𝜆1 𝑁0
• Solving particular solution for 𝐷 → 𝐷 =
𝜆2 −𝜆1
• Final solution of first order differential equation for 𝑁2 :
𝜆1 𝑁0 −𝜆 𝑡 𝜆1 𝑁0 −𝜆 𝑡
𝑁2 = − 𝑒 2 + 𝑒 1
𝜆2 − 𝜆1 𝜆2 − 𝜆1
𝜆1 𝑁0
𝑁2 = 𝑒 −𝜆1𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝜆2𝑡
𝜆2 − 𝜆1
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 Radioactivity 𝑸 of 𝟗𝟗𝑻𝒄𝒎
produced with the generator
99
• Radioactivity 𝑄 of 𝑇𝑐 𝑚 produced with the generator given by:
𝑄 = 𝜆2 𝑁2
• Using solution for 𝑁2 the radioactivity 𝑄 is finally given by:
𝜆1 𝑁0 −𝜆1 𝑡 −𝜆2 𝑡
𝜆1 𝜆2 𝑁0 −𝜆 𝑡
𝑄 = 𝜆2 𝑒 −𝑒 = 𝑒 1 − 𝑒 −𝜆2 𝑡
𝜆2 − 𝜆1 𝜆2 − 𝜆1
𝑁0 = number of 99𝑀𝑜 at 𝑡 = 0
99𝑀𝑜 ln 2 ln 2
𝜆1 = decay constant = 1 = = 0.0105 h−1
𝜏1/2 66

99𝑇𝑐 𝑚 ln 2 ln 2
𝜆2 = decay constant = 2 = = 0.116 h−1
𝜏1/2 6

• Radioactivity proportional to difference of two exponentials =

one governing increase in 99𝑇𝑐 𝑚 due to 99𝑀𝑜 decay and other
decrease in 99𝑇𝑐 𝑚 due to its decay
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 Naturally-occurring
radionuclides
• Very long-lived elements
• Mainly very heavy elements
Nuclide Abundance (%) Half-life (yrs)
40𝐾 0.01 1.26 × 109
87𝑅𝑏 27.8 4.88 × 1010
232𝑇ℎ 100 1.40 × 1010
235𝑈 0.7 7.04 × 108
238𝑈 99.3 4.46 × 109

• → Not useful for imaging

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 Choice of radionuclides
for imaging
Ref. 2 – Chapter 3.4.4

• Desirable physical characteristics of radionuclides

for nuclear medicine imaging:
1. Physical half-life:
a. Long enough to allow:
1) Preparation of radiopharmaceuticals
2) Completion of imaging procedures
b. Short enough to ensure dose to patient and staff is minimised
2. Decay via isomeric transition = produces 𝛾 rays with:
a. High photon yield → good counting statistics
b. Suitable 𝐸𝛾
3. Absence of particulate emission (𝛼 or 𝛽 particles) →
no unnecessary dose to patients
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 Emitted photon energy
• Emitted photon energy critical and chosen as
“compromise” for various reasons:
1. High enough 𝐸𝛾 so that:
a. Photon is able to efficiently escape the body
b. Photopeak is easily separated from scattered radiation
2. Low enough 𝐸𝛾 so that:
a. Detection efficiency is still good
b. Do not penetrate thin collimator septa → thickness of
collimator septa not too big
c. Photons are not too difficult to shield and to handle

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 Commonly used radionuclides
for imaging
Nuclide Decay Product 𝑬 (keV) Half-life Imaging system Comment
mode
11𝐶 𝛽+ 𝛾 511 20 min PET
13𝑁 𝛽+ 𝛾 511 10 min PET
15𝑂 𝛽+ 𝛾 511 2 min PET
18𝐹 𝛽+ 𝛾 511 110 min PET ~80% of all PET
imaging (FDG)
67𝐺𝑎 EC 𝛾 93, 185, 300 3.3 days g-camera, SPECT
82𝑅𝑏 𝛽+ 𝛾 511 1.25 min PET
99𝑇𝑐 𝑚 IT 𝛾 140 6.0 h g-camera, SPECT > 80% of all nuclear
medicine imaging
111𝐼𝑛 EC 𝛾 172, 247 2.8 days g-camera, SPECT Used for longer
term studies
123𝐼 EC 𝛾 159 13 h g-camera, SPECT
201𝑇𝑙 EC X-ray 68÷80 3.0 days g-camera, SPECT

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 Radiopharmaceuticals
Ref. 2 – Chapter 5.4.5

• Radiopharmaceutical =
radioactive compound
(biomolecule or drug) of suitable
quality to be safely administered to
Courtesy Piero Posocco (Imperial College)

humans for diagnosis, therapy or research

• Radiopharmaceutical composition:
1. Usually radionuclide + pharmaceutical compound
2. Some exceptions:
a. No associated pharmaceutical compound, for ex. 133𝑋𝑒 gas
b. Pharmaceutical component = counter ion, for ex. 𝑁𝑎𝐼
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 Radiopharmaceutical
chemistry and biology
Ref. 2 – Chapters 5.4.5, 5.4.6 5.4.7 and 5.4.8

• Radiolabelling = “attach” the radionuclide to the

pharmacological compound
• Distribution of radiopharmaceutical within living system
depends on various factors including:
1. 3D structure and size of the molecule
2. Blood flow
• Quality control:
1. Biological purity: toxicity, sterility and apyrogenicity
2. Radiopharmaceutical purity: radionuclide, radiochemical and
chemical purity
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 Choice of radiopharmaceuticals
for imaging
• Characteristics of radiopharmaceuticals for nuclear
medicine imaging:
1. Accumulation / rate of uptake or clearance of radiopharmaceutical
should be related to a physiologic, biochemical or molecular
process, target or function
2. No pharmacological or toxicological effects on system / organ
under study → concentration usually subpharmacological
(micromolar to nanomolar)
3. High uptake in target tissue compared with non-target tissue =
specificity → lower required dose + increase image contrast
4. Half-life appropriate for the duration of the study
5. Easily synthesised or labelled
6. Sufficiently long shelf life before and after radiolabelling
7. Be of required pharmaceutical quality
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 Some common
radiopharmaceuticals
Compound Nuclide Measurement Example of clinical use

Ammonia 13𝑁 Myocardial perfusion Coronary artery disease

Fluorodeoxyglucose 18𝐹 Glucose metabolism Cancer, neurological disorders
(FDG) and myocardial diseases
Gallium citrate 67𝐺𝑎 Sequestered in tumours Tumour localization
99𝑇𝑐 𝑚 -methylene 99𝑇𝑐 𝑚
Bone metabolism Metastatic spread of cancer
diphosphonate (MDP)
Sestamibi, Tetrofosmin 99𝑇𝑐 𝑚 Myocardial perfusion Coronary artery disease
99𝑇𝑐 𝑚
MAG3, DTPA Renal function Kidney disease
99𝑇𝑐 𝑚
HMPAO, EDC Cerebral blood flow Neurologic disorders
Labelled white blood 111𝐼𝑛 Sites of infection Detecting inflammation
cells
Sodium Iodide 131𝐼 Thyroid function Thyroid disease

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