EDUCATIONAL

RESEARCH (837)
Autumn Assignment

Ismail Tariq
CC502935
ASSIGNMENT No.2
Q.1 Define statement of problem. What is its significance? Explain?
Ans:
Process improvement projects are used by many businesses and organizations to make
improvements in the way they operate. Several things are important to a successful process
improvement project, but every project begins with identifying the problem that needs to be
resolved. Understanding what a problem statement is and how to write one can help you
become more successful when working on process improvement projects. In this article, we
discuss what a problem statement is and the key elements of a problem statement with an
example.
A problem statement is a concise description of the problem or issues a project seeks to
address. The problem statement identifies the current state, the desired future state, and any
gaps between the two. A problem statement is an important communication tool that can help
ensure everyone working on a project knows what the problem they need to address is and
why the project is important
A problem statement is important to a process improvement project because it helps clearly
identify the goals of the project and outline the scope of a project. It also helps guide the
activities and decisions of the people who are working on the project. The problem statement
can help a business or organization gain support and buy-in for a process improvement
project.
There are four key elements you should include when writing a problem statement:
1) Ideal situation
2) Reality
3) Consequences
4) Proposal
1. Ideal situation:
would be if there wasn't a problem you needed to address. This section identifies the goals
and scope of the project are. This section should clear understanding that the ideal
environment will be once the issue has been resolved
2. Reality:
The next section of your problem statement should describe what the current reality is for
your company or organization Plus section will identify what the problem is, state why it is a
problem and identify who the problem is impacting. It will also describe when and where the
problem was identified.
3. Consequences:

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The next section of your problem statement should identify what the consequences of the
problem are. This section describes the effects of the problem by describing how the people
affected by the problem are being impacted and quantifying how much the problem is
impacting them. Common consequences can include the loss of time, money, resources,
competitive advantage, productivity and more.
4. Proposal:
The proposal section of a problem statement may contain several possible solutions to the
problem, but it is important to remember that it does not need to identify a specific solution.
The purpose of the proposal section should be to guide the project team on how they can
research, investigate, and resolve the problem.
A good problem statement can be created by identifying and answering several questions
related to the problem. The process used to write a problem statement should involve
answering questions using a method commonly known as 5W2H. This process involves
identifying what the problem is, why it is a problem, when and where the problem was
identified, who the problem impacts, how they are impacted by the problem and how much of
an impact the problem has.
we can use the following process to craft a problem statement that addresses the following:
 Identify the problem.
 Begin your statement with your ideal situation.
 Describe current gaps.
 State the consequences of the problem.
 Propose addressing the problem.
1. Identify the problem:
Before you can begin writing your problem statement, you first need to identify what the
problem is.
2. Begin your statement with your ideal situation:
Next, you can gin writing your problem statement by describing what the ideal environment
would look like your problem didn't exist. This section should try to describe your company
hopes to accomplish because of the process improvement project.
3. Describe current gaps:
Next, write the reality section of your problem statement. Your goal in this section should be
to clearly identify what the current environment looks like. In this section you should identify
what the problem is, what is causing the problem and You should also describe when, where
and how to derive able to identify the Problem.
4. State the consequences of the problem:
Next, write the consequences section of your problem statement. This section is used to
quantify and support that what the problem is. You can use this section to identify specific
numbers such as the amount of time or revenue being lost, or the number of resources being
wasted. It is important to include concrete numbers that support your claims.

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5. Propose addressing the problem:
Finally, end your statement with a proposal section. In this section, you should try to identify
how your company will make progress toward reaching your goals and accomplishing your
ideal environment. While you may choose to identify several possible solutions in this
section, it is more important to focus on identifying how your company will find those
solutions than it is to identify the specific solution that will be used.
Example:
Here is an example of a problem statement for a sales call center:
Ideal situation:
Ideally, our sales associates would be able to maximize their production by being able to
make more contacts with leads each day.
Reality:
Currently, our sales associates are unable to maximize the number of leads they are
contacting each day because they are spending too much time finding qualified leads to call
and inserting lead information into the system before making calls. This is a problem because
the time our sales associates are spending finding leads and entering lead information into our
system could be used to contact more qualified leads and generate more sales. We identified
this problem in our sales call center while surveying to gather feedback from our sales
associates about what limits their ability to maximize their sales numbers.
Consequences:
Our sales associates currently spend about two hours per day finding qualified leads and
another two hours per day entering lead information into our system before they begin
making calls. This means our sales associates are only spending half of their workday making
calls to qualified leads. Because our sales associates are not able to use their entire shift to
contact leads, their overall sales numbers are being impacted. Our company estimates that our
sales associates would be able to make at least double the number of sales if they were able to
spend their entire shift contacting qualified leads.
Proposal:
Our company seeks to resolve this issue by creating a process improvement team to identify
several potential solutions for how we can reduce the time our sales associates speed not
contacting qualified leads.
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Q.2 What are the basic considerations that one should keep in mind, while
preparing the research proposal?
Ans:
Writing a good proposal will help you manage your time so that you can complete the quarter
with three papers that w can your objectives. The specific format and content of these

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elements may vary, they may not always appear as separate sections or in the order listed
here.
 Background of the study
 Problem Statement
 Objectives of the study
 Significance of the study
 Limitation of the study
 Definition of terms
 Literature Review
 Methodology
Background of the study:
The main idea of the background of study is to establish the area of research in which your
work belongs, and to provide a context for the research problem. It also provides information
to the research topic.
In an introduction, the writer should create: Reader interest in the topic, Lay the broad
foundation for the problem that leads to the study.
Statement of the problem:
When you start a research, you have a question that you wish to seek answer for. The
question leads to a problem that needs to be solved by the research. Begin the research with a
description of the problem or a thesis statement.
Objectives of the study:
States what your research hopes to accomplish.
Significance of the study:
Why your research is important and what contributions will it give to the field. It is also
advised to state how your findings can make a difference and why is it important that the
research be carried out.
Limitation of the study:
It is not possible to include all aspects of a particular problem. State what is not included.
Specify the boundaries of you research. A too wide area of investigation is impractical and
will lead to problems.
Definition of terms:
Terms or concepts that you use should be defined and explained unless they are familiar or
obvious. You should refer to authoritative sources for definitions.
Literature Review:
This section need not be lengthy, but it should reflect your understanding of relevant bodies
of literature. List all pertinent papers or reports that you have consulted in preparing the
proposal; include conversations with faculty, peers, or other experts. A well-written review
provides a sense of critical isssues which form the background for your own work this

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quarter? By doing this it slows that you are aware of the literature study that is required in
your research area. Your review a substantial amount of reading materials before writing
proposal. It shows that you have sufficient theoretical knowledge in your chosen research
area.
By reviewing related literature at this stage, it will make you:
 Aware of other similar that has been done.
 Expose methodologies that has been adopted and which you may use or adapt.
 Provide sources of information that you do not have yet.
By reviewing related literature at this stage, it will inform you:
 If a chosen area has already been researched extensively
 Approaches that you do follow of before cause
Methodology:
As details on how you plan to early the project How will you accomplish your objective(s)?
What theories or concepts will guide the study? How do they or might they suggest the
specific hypotheses or research questions? Where might you run into obstacles? Explain the
specifics of what you want present in your project (statistical data, comparisons of historical
and recent data, the evolution of a paradigm, etc.). One way to do this is by developing a
rough outline of the major topics and sub-topics that you will investigate. Your timeline and a
very rough scope (past current - future) has been pre-determined. If outside organizations
involved, explain how you are going to get hold of the data. Indicate why the methodology is
used. If existing methodology is not to be used, explain why you need to use an adapted
methodology.
Final note:
A final note about good proposals:
Quality writing is critical. The proposal should be clear, concise, and free of jargon. There
should be no spelling or grammatical errors, and the proposal should be easy to read. Start
early and share ideas with peers! Incorporate feedback; gain ideas from reading other student
work.
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Q.3 Differentiate between direct and indirect source of information

available in the form of educational literature.
Ans:
In broad terms, direct sources are those that provide first-hand information about events. A
radio interview with a politician in which we hear what the politician has to say about the
economy is first-hand. An extensive speech delivered in Parliament by the same politician is
also first-hand. A book that analyses this politician's particular views about the economy is,
by contrast, second-hand. In scientific disciplines, experiments are the most common direct
source.

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In other disciplines, surveys and interviews, or research into written and oral records of
events provide direct access to information. All these sources are direct and within the
appropriate context, recognised as containing original evidence and ideas. They are a
significant source of the material we need to form our arguments and explanations.
It used to be thought that these direct or 'primary' sources were somehow more 'factual or
descriptive, and that interpretation was added to them by investigators when they wrote about
their research, thereby creating a 'secondary' or indirect source (see below). However, direct
sources do contain values and elements of interpretation. The importance of the distinction
between direct and indirect sources, then, is not that one is 'fact' and the other interpretation
but, rather, one of context.
For example, the comments made by an advertising agency director about nationalistic
television commercials must be understood in relation to the person who made these
comments, why, when, how, and in what situation the comments were made, and so on. If we
do an experiment by measuring the biological reactions of people watching nationalist
advertising under controlled conditions, then we, in effect, become be authors of that data
(via questions to understand the meaning of the data we gather by doing so, we will recognise
that the contexts in which this direct 'evidence' of nationalist advertising is gathered is
different to that in which we use a part of our argument.
In every case, Sometimes, understanding this whom; for what purpose, based on that
knowledge in mutton to which issues. Equally, the context can be understood by thinking
about our own engagement with the source. For example, scientists must check. when
performing experiments, that they have established the experimental procedure properly, that
there are no errors in their procedures, that they are reliable observers of the events, and so
on.
In each discipline, in each field of endeavour, there are basic rules that we must follow, and
assumptions that we must make, when seeking to credit, man think about the contest gather
information from direct sources, there are also basic understandings about how to consider
the context of the information. They are too numerous and complex to discuss here in detail,
but two examples can be drawn from history and chemistry. In history, a standard approach is
to think about the way in which a person's social position (class, race, gender, and so on) can
influence and be seen in what they have said or written. In chemistry, experimental design is
always used to control and maintain quality of experimental work: the information gained
through an experiment is always assessed in the context of the way the experiment was
performed.
In general terms, we must learn the rules that are part of our context and consciously apply
them so that we can use direct sources effectively.
Indirect sources:
As noted above, a direct source differs from an indirect source. Indirect sources involve the
reports and analysis of direct information by other people. Reports, articles, and books by
scholars are the main category of secondary sources that we tend to use, especially when we
are beginning to develop our knowledge about an issue. Once again, the key to using such
information is always to think about the context in which it was produced. In other words,
information from indirect sources is only as good as our understanding of that source itself.

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For example, because of changes over the past two decades, an academic commentary such
as the one by James on advertising in the 1970s may not be precisely relevant to
contemporary concerns. There is no general rule to apply to such analysis of sources, except
that we must always think about the context (who obtained the information when, where and
how the information was arrived at) as well as the text (what the information is).
For example, imagine you are watching a television program on advertising. The host makes
some comments on nationalistic commercials, saying that they always produce an emotional
reaction and that's why they are effective. Is this source useful for an academy investigation?
If you answered to then you would, in some circumstances, be correct. But the important
question to ask is Why?
Let us contrast this hypothetical television portrait a more usual source: academic writing.
The trustworthiness of academic writing is based on the idea that the person doing the writhe
an expert in that area, through their close sue of the topic, their skills as a researcher,
threatful, long-term analysis, in which articles and books are published only after the scrutiny
Anther qualified academics to determine if they are 'right' or not. In other words, the clasts
are trustworthy because an institutionalised method makes them trustworthy. It is a social
convention that academic work is regarded as being moor (if often more remote) than
"popular work: it is also a worthwhile social convention because there are good reasons to
accept this distinction in soundness.
The usefulness of the television Begins dependhove4Wat exactly we are trying to find. It
might be quite relevant to argue that the popular perception of nationalist advertising is very
important in the effectiveness of such commercials. So, even if we distrust many of the
claims that are advanced in the popular media and trust those from more scholarly work
instead. we can still use as evidence the fact that people do make and listen to the first sort of
claim. In other words, while we may not trust the television program as an indirect
commentary on advertising, we could certainly use it as a direct source of popular views on
advertising.
Sometimes we will want to make claims in our reasoning that convey information in the
claims themselves. And sometimes we will want to make claims about the fact that a certain
type of claim, or group of claims, has been made by others. Developing the latter type of
writing is essential in good critical work and thus, requires you to develop skills in knowing
about sources of knowledge. Write a short analysis of the different direct and indirect sources
that you use most frequently in your current reasoning. What questions do you need to ask
about them? What rules and assumptions, stemming from the discipline or profession in
which you are working or studying, underlie the identification of these sources?
Five possible outcomes:
Finding information effectively is, in large measure, a matter of understanding how that
information or knowledge is to be used in your own arguments and explanations. Often, we
simply want some basic descriptive information to serve as claims in our reasoning without
wanting to provide extensive supporting arguments. For instance, we read, in relation to our
nationalistic advertisement’s investigation, that Crocodile Dundee was one of the most
popular films ever screened in Australia. We can simply state this piece of information, either

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quoting exactly from the original or re-expressing the information in our own words, giving
an appropriate reference to it.12 We are simply taking a single claim from our 'source!
We can also take an entire argument or explanation from our source'. We could quote such
reasoning exactly, but usually, for stylistic reasons, we express it in our own words. For
example, James's article (mentioned above) argues that nationalistic advertisements
encourage consumers to purchase a corporation's products because, by being 'Australian'
(even when the companies are often owned by foreign interests), the products are assumed to
be better than others. We are effect, getting claims and links (reasoning) from the source' and
you see the trace of linking because"?). Once again, we provide a reference to acknowledge
our debt to the original author.
Yet very often what we want to take from these sources is not that specific and cannot simply
be 'found'. Instead, we can summarise the basic argument or explanation in a source that we
have read (always in our own words). Deducing a long text to short series of premises and
compassion, which we can their use in our own argument (again, with an appropriate
reference).
For example, Anderson's Vanagined Communities is a long and detailed work on nationalism
that, in part, concludes that technologies that allow humans to overcome geographical
distance (for example, railways) have played a significant role in the creation of modern
nations we could include such a summary (which, of course, can be expressed in the
analytical format in our notes) within our own reasoning.
We are, thus, taking from the source not a specific thing, but our understanding Fourth, we
can take from sources a type of information that is far more indefinable than the information
gained in any of the last three cases. This category can be summed up as 'positions and
values'. It is usually hidden within the source and can be recovered using your judgment
(based on what you read or hear) of the underlying position that the author of the source
holds.
This underlying position can be inferred from that person's own arguments or explanations,
or the way in which the arguments or explanations have been received by others. We read, for
example, in Graeme Turner's Making It National that Australian businesses exploit national
patriotism and sentiment to further their own profit-making goals. Whether we agree or
disagree with this conclusion, whether we can refute it or not, we can nevertheless try to
understand why he might have made such a conclusion. We can ask, what is the political and
intellectual position that is implied by such claims? From the overall thrust of Turner's
analysis, we judge that he is opposed to unfettered capitalism, seeking instead a greater
degree of regulation in the national interest.
In making this judgment, we can understand the assumptions that underlie the information in
Turner's book, and the context in which it was written and presented to us. Without such
analysis, you will always tend to respond to reasoning from your own point of view, without
understanding why others might disagree with you. Whether or not you wish to change their
minds or accept their right to be different is immaterial: neither goal can be achieved if you
do not know.
Finally, there are occasions on which we take nothing away from what we are reading or
observing except more questions! This outcome may be frustrating at times, but if we are

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seeking to be smart thinkers, we must be prepared to delve deeply into an issue and not rush
too quickly to a satisfying answer. Remember analysis continues through every stage of
research, but smart thinkers are aware of this and draw encouragement from the way in which
a book that tells you nothing' might prompt the question "Why does it not tell me anything?
And, further, you can ask if the problem is with the book, with you, or perhaps with your
original set.
Using a long piece of written work that you are reading now, practise getting each of the five
possible outcomes just discussed. Make sure that, 111 each case, you express your answers in
the analytical structure format (except. of course, for the last category for which you will
simply huge list of further we have seen in previous chapters how the context in which we
create our texts of reasoning are crucial in making successful judgments about the
effectiveness of our arguments and explanations. we have concentrated on learning about the
process of searching for knowledge in a way that allows us to take the information from one
context (someone else's text) and put it into another context (our text).
The context influences our interpretation and understanding of information, do if we do not
understand and recognise these contexts, our analysis will not be sound. Knowledge, then,
needs to be wider stood generically, not as specific 'facts' or issues, but as a series of classes
and types that relate to our research project. The sources from which come gain, must be
analysed for the way they create and constrain that knowledge, rather than books or articles
or experiments. Finally, what we take away from these sources can be organised as elements
of reasoning: as claims, arguments, or tons.
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Q.4 Discuss the significance of observation as a researcher tool.

Ans:
Observation, as the name implies, is a way of collecting data through observing. Observation
data collection method is classified as a participatory study because the researcher must
immerse herself in the setting where her respondents are, while taking notes and/or recording.
Observation as a data collection method can be structured or unstructured. In structured or
systematic observation, data collection is conducted using specific variables and according to
a pre-defined schedule. Unstructured observation, on the other hand, is conducted in an open
and free manner in a sense that there would be no pre-determined variables or objectives.
Advantages of observation data collection method include direct access to research
phenomena, high levels of flexibility in terms of application and generating a permanent
record of phenomena to be referred to later. At the same time, observation method is
disadvantaged with longer time requirements, high levels of observer bias, and impact of
observer on primary data, in a way that presence of observer may influence the behaviour of
sample group elements.
It is important to note that observation data collection method may be associated with certain
ethical issues. Fully informed consent of research participant(s) is one of the basic ethical
considerations to be adhered to by researchers. At the same time, the behaviour of sample
group members may change with negative implications on the level of research validity if
they are notified about the presence of the observer.

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This delicate matter needs to be addressed by consulting with dissertation supervisor and
commencing observation primary data collection process only after ethical aspects of the
issue have been approved by the supervisor User research consists of two core activities:
observing and interviewing. Since we're most interested in people's behaviour, observing is
the most important of these activities because it provides the most accurate information about
people, their tasks, and their needs.
While interviewing is also very important, the information people provide during interviews
isn't always accurate or reliable. Often, research participants don't know why they do things.
what they really need, what they might do in the future, or how a design could be improved.
You really understand what people do, you cannot just ask them, you must observe them.
But exactly is observation, and what does it entail? Though we all know why the word
servitors means and everyone knows how to look and listen there is noose to it than just
pointing your ayes in a particular direction, listening, and taking notes. By doing a little
research, I found many books and articles about interviewing, but surprisingly few about how
to observe research participants. So, in this column, I'll first explore what observation is and
the different types of observation methods, then focus on one particularly, yet underused UX
research method: naturalistic observation.

Methods:
Usability Testing:
Usability testing involves both observing and listening to participants as they attempt to
complete tasks with interface. Participants may think aloud, and you can ask questions to
better understand what they are thinking and doing, but the primary value is in observing
their actions.
Contextual Inquiry:
Contextual inquiry means observing people in natural environment, as they demonstrate their
typical tasks. Research participants lead their own session, explaining what they are doing,
but the primary value is in observing the details of the ways they normally perform their
tasks.
Naturalistic Observation:
The goal is to observe participants' natural behaviour, without interrupting them or affecting
their behavior. In naturalistic observation, the researcher attempts to observe one or more
people unobtrusively. without interacting with them. The goal is to observe participants'
natural behaviour, without interrupting them or affecting their behaviour.
Shadowing:
In shadowing, the researcher follows participants around as they perform their daily
activities. The researcher may simply observe, without interacting with the participant, or a
session may be more interactive, with participants talking about what they are doing and the
researcher asking questions, like a contextual inquiry. The goal and primary value of this
technique is to observe people's natural activities.
Covert Observation:

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Covert observation is like naturalistic observation, but the researcher observes people without
their knowing that they are being observed. Of course, you can ethically observe people
covertly only in public places, where there is no expectation of privacy. For example, you
might observe what people do in an airport. The advantage of covert observation is that it
eliminates any effects your presence might have on a participant's behaviour.
Participant Observation:
Participant observation is a traditional ethnographic method in which the researcher joins a
group and participates in their activities. The researcher observes and interacts with group
members while performing the same activities. For example, a researcher might become a
call- center operator for a few days, with the goal of better understanding such operators'
work and experiences.

Aspects of observation:
Several aspects of observation differ in these various methods of research:
Location of the observation:
In most of these research methods, the researcher visits participants in their natural
environment to observe their natural behaviour. The exception is usability testing, which can
take place at a participant's location but often brings participants to a specific testing location
such as a lab. Because, in usability testing, all participants perform the same tasks that all
researcher has defined conducting testing in their natural environment isn't as Amount of
Interaction with the Participant. researchers avoid interacting with participants, so they don't
influence then Behaviour. .Although the presence of a researcher may initially affect
participants' behaviour, the researcher attempts to be unobtrusive, so most participants tend to
become more comfortable over time
The advantage of not interacting with participants at all is that you can observe their natural
behaviour. The disadvantage is that you don't get to hear their descriptions of what they are
doing, and you can't ask questions. It is difficult to understand what participants are doing
because you must rely on assumptions—at least until you can ask them questions later. With
techniques that involve much more interaction between the researcher and participant such as
contextual inquiry-it is often much easier to understand what you're observing. The
participants tell you what they're doing, and you can ask them questions in the moment.
The disadvantage, however, is that this interaction can make the situation somewhat artificial.
What you see won't necessarily be what participants would do when a researcher wasn't
present.
Proximity to the Participant:
Seeing the details of tasks—such as what participants do with a user interface-requires that
you sit very close to them. In such proximity, it's almost impossible not to have some type of
interaction with participants. So, sitting silently and pretending to be unobtrusive would be
ridiculous in such a situation. That's probably why contextual inquiry is the most frequently
used research technique on technology projects. Seeing detailed tasks requires proximity, so
not interacting with participants at that distance would be unrealistic.

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However, when your goal is to observe tasks that don't require seeing close-up details or
you're observing the overall daily activities of a single person or group, you can sit farther
away and simply observe participants without interrupting them. At a greater distance, there
is no social expectation that you maintain a conversation. So, you can introduce yourself,
then try to be unobtrusive. After some initial awkwardness, participants are likely to relax,
and you can observe their natural behaviour.
Participants' Knowledge of Being Observed:
In covert observation, participants do not know they're being observed. This eliminates any
negative effects of your presence altering participants' behaviour. Again, to be ethical, you
can do this only in a public place where there is no expectation of privacy. In all the other
methods, participants consent to being part of a study, and this can affect their behaviour.
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Q.5 critically examine the criteria for judging a research report.

Ans:
When considering a research idea, we are bound to rely on previous findings on the topic.
Work done in the field-instructs the foundation for our research and determines its yours and
value. Inaccurate finding may lead to imprecise applications and end in further fallacies in
your own new scientific knowledge that you construct. To set a solid basis fore search on any
topic and to prevent multiplication of misinformation, it is crucial to critically evaluate
plausible.
So, what's the criteria to determine whether a result can be true as it is taught in the first
classes in psychology, errors may enter from any phase of the research process. Therefore, it
all boils down to how the research has been conducted and the results presented. Meltzoff
(2007) emphasize the key issues that can produce flawed results and interpretations and
should therefore be carefully considered when reading articles.
Here is a reminder on what to bear in mind when reading a research article:
Research question:
The research must be clear in informing the reader opts aims. Terms should be clearly
defined, even more so if they're new or used in specific non-spread ways. You as a reader
should pay particular attention should to errors in logic, especially those regarding causation,
relationship, or association.
Sample:
To provide trustworthy conclusions, a sample needs to be representative and adequate.
Representativeness depends on the method of selection as well as the assignment. For
example, random assignment has its advantages in front of systematic assignment in
establishing group equivalence. The sample can be biased when researchers used volunteers
or selective attrition the adequate sample size can be determined by employing power
analysis.
Control of confounding variables:

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Extraneous variation can influence research findings, therefore methods to control relevant
confounding variables should be applied.
Research designs:
The research design should be suitable to answer the research question. Readers should
distinguish true experimental designs with random assignment from pre-experimental
research designs.
Criteria and criteria measures:
The criteria measures must demonstrate reliability and validity for both, the independent and
dependent variable.
Data analysis:
Appropriate statistical tests should be applied for the type of data obtained, and assumptions
for their use met. Post hoc tests should be applied when multiple comparisons are performed.
Tables and figures should be clearly labelled. Ideally, effect sizes should be included
throughout giving a clear indication of the variables' impact.
Discussion and conclusions:
Does the study allow generalization? Also, limitations of the study should be mentioned. The
discussion and conclusions should be consistent with the study's results. It's a common
mistake to emphasize results that are in accordance with the researcher's expectations while
not focusing on the phases that are not. Do the authors of the article you hold in hang do the
same?
Ethics:
Last but not least, era the ethical standards met? For more information, Ethical Principles of
Psychologists and Code of Conduct (2010). If research questions Hypotheses are not
provided or stated clearly, Gist suggests the investigation was not well-timed. This raises
suspicions about the scientific merit of the experiment. The purpose should be stated in an
objective manner. Be suspicious if it appears the author had already decided what the results
would be at the beginning of the investigation. This assumption by the investigator could so
influence or bias the conduct of the research that the true Macie of the experiment may not be
identified.
Since the article started which stated question or hypothesis, an answer needs to be provided.
The Results section reports the answer in terms of statistical logic, while the Discussion and
the summarized conclusions that explain what that answer means about the research sample,
to a larger population, and to the practice of healthcare.
An experimental or prospective investigation is one where the investigator manipulates a
factor or factors (independent variable) and observes the effect on another factor or factors
(dependent variable) over time. This design is the ideal research design. For example, the
investigator tests the effect of an antiplaque/antigingivitic mouthwash (independent variable)
on plaque deposits and gingivitis (dependent variables). Sometimes, due to ethical or other
reasons, the investigator is unable to manipulate the variables. Under these circumstances, a
retrospective investigation is conducted in which data are collected on a phenomenon that has

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already occurred. For example, a researcher identifies groups who differ on a condition such
as oral cancer, one group with it and one without, and works backwards to identify the
causative factors for the condition, such as a history of tobacco and alcohol use.
The gold standard for testing new therapeutic agents is the randomized clinical trial (RCT).
This is an experimental design used to test the hypothesis that a particular agent or procedure
favourably alters the natural history of a disease. Two designs are commonly used in clinical
trials, the parallel design, and the crossover design. With the parallel design (the most
common of the two), an experimental group with the new treatment and a control group with
the standard or placebo treatment (inactive substance) are used with pre-treatment and post-
treatment measurements of health.
With the crossover design, the initial experimental group switches to the control group and
the control group to the experimental group halfway through the experiment. This occurs
after a washout period, where each subject's physiological condition can return to baseline.
An advantage of this latter design is that no patient is denied the experimental treatment.
Nother advantage is that each subject serve as his/her own control: fewer subjects are needed
for such designs. The crossover design can only be used with respect to diseases or conditions
that recur when treatment or medication are withheld, such as gingivitis.
There are two potential designs for studying phenomena that occur over extended periods of
time, for example, growth of the mandible or the course of periodontitis. In a cross-sectional
design (Figure), a sample(s) of a population (cross section) is assessed at one time, with
longitudinal design (Figure 3b), the same sample of individuals is assessed at several
different time points. When cross-sectional design is often more expedient, the longitudinal
design usually provides better information, since the actual amount of growth in everyone can
be assessed. Lacking a true time element, cross-sectional designs are considered unsuitable
for making conclusions about cause and effect (causation).

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