Correlational Research Definition: A correlational research design is a type of non-experimental

research. It measures a relationship between two variables without the researcher controlling either of
them. Types: Positive correlation Both variables change in the same direction As height increases,
weight also increases Negative correlation The variables change in opposite directions As coffee
consumption increases, tiredness decreases Zero correlation There is no relationship between the
variables Coffee consumption is not correlated with height Reasons Why Researchers Choose
Correlational Study:  Researchers do not believe that the statistical relationship is a causal one. 
Researchers would choose to use a correlational study rather than an experiment is that the statistical
relationship of interest is thought to be causal, but the researcher cannot manipulate the independent
variable because it is impossible, impractical, or unethical. Data Collection: 1. Survey A simple way to
research the relationship between variables is through surveys and questionnaires. You can conduct
surveys online, by mail, by phone, or in person. You ask respondents questions related to the variables
you are interested in, and then statistically analyze the responses. 2. Naturalistic Observation This is a
type of field research, where you gather data about a behavior or phenomenon in its natural
environment without intervening. This method often involves recording, counting, describing and
categorizing actions and events. 3. Secondary Data Instead of collecting original data, you can also use
data that has already been collected for a different purpose, such as official records, polls, or previous
studies. Advantages: Neither variable goes through a manipulative process. Researchers can determine
the direction and strength of each relationship. The results of a correlational research study are easy to
classify. -A correlational research study uses what is called the “correlation coefficient” to measure the
strength of the relationship between the variables. It can range from 1.00 to - 1.00. These figures create
three potential definition outcomes for the work being performed. -Pearson r correlation is the most
widely used correlation statistic to measure the degree of the relationship between linearly related
variables. Disadvantages: Correlational research only uncovers relationships. It won’t determine what
variables have the most influence. Outcomes can be adversely impacted by the quality of the work.
Examples: o You want to know if wealthy people are less likely to be patient. From your experience, you
believe that wealthy people are impatient. However, you want to establish a statistical pattern that
proves or disproves your belief. In this case, you can carry out correlational research to identify a trend
that links both variables. o You want to know if there's a correlation between how much people earn
and the number of children that they have. You do not believe that people with more spending power
have more children than people with less spending power.

Phenomenological Approach

The purpose of Phenomenological approach is probably to illuminate the specific to identify

phenomena through how they are perceived by the actors in a situation. It is also known as the
Philosophical study of observed unusual people or events as they appear without any further
study or explanation. (Qualitative research that focuses on the study of an individuals lived
experiences within the world).

The goal of phenomenology is to develop an understanding of a phenomenon through the

specific human experience of the phenomenon, in order to better understand that experience of
being in that 'life-world'. Through the process of Phenomenological Approach researcher may construct
the universal meaning of the event, situation or experience and arrive at a more profound understanding
of the phenomena.

The Pros of Phenomenological Research

1. Unique Perspectives.
2. Understanding
3. Rich Data

The Cons of Phenomenological Research

1. Subjectivity
2. Bias
3. Pure Bracketing
4. Presentation
5. Typical

“Quasi-Experimental Design Report”

The prefix quasi means “resembling.” Thus quasi-experimental research is research that resembles
experimental research but is not true experimental research. Although , a quasi-experimental design aims
to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between an independent and dependent variable. the
independent variable is manipulated, participants are not randomly assigned to conditions or orders of
conditions Instead, subjects are assigned to groups based on non-random criteria.

Quasi-experimental design is a useful tool in situations where true experiments cannot be used for ethical
or practical reasons.

Example of a true experiment vs a quasi-experiment

Let’s say you are interested in the impact of a new psychological therapy on patients with depression.

Example: True experimental design. To run a true experiment, you randomly assign half the patients in
a mental health clinic to receive the new treatment. The other half – the control group – receives the
standard course of treatment for depression. Every few months, patients fill out a sheet describing their
symptoms to see if the new treatment produces significantly better (or worse) effects than the standard
one. However, for ethical reasons, the directors of the mental health clinic may not give you permission to
randomly assign their patients to treatments. In this case, you cannot run a true experiment. Instead, you
can use a quasi-experimental design.

Example: Quasi-experimental design. You discover that a few of the psychotherapists in the clinic have
decided to try out the new therapy, while others who treat similar patients have chosen to stick with the
normal protocol. You can use these pre-existing groups to study the symptom progression of the patients
treated with the new therapy versus those receiving the standard course of treatment. Although the groups
were not randomly assigned, if you properly account for any systematic differences between them, you
can be reasonably confident any differences must arise from the treatment and not other confounding
variables.

Types of quasi-experimental designs

Many types of quasi-experimental designs exist. Here we explain three of the most common types:
nonequivalent groups design, regression discontinuity, and natural experiments.

Nonequivalent groups design

This is the most common type of quasi-experimental design. In nonequivalent group design, the
researcher chooses existing groups that appear similar, but where only one of the groups experiences the
treatment.

In a true experiment with random assignment, the control and treatment groups are considered equivalent
in every way other than the treatment. But in a quasi-experiment where the groups are not random, they
may differ in other ways – they are nonequivalent groups. When using this kind of design, researchers try
to account for any confounding variables by controlling for them in their analysis or by choosing groups
that are as similar as possible.

Example: Nonequivalent groups design.

You hypothesize that a new after-school program will lead to higher grades. You choose two similar
groups of children who attend different schools, one of which implements the new program while the
other does not. By comparing the children who attend the program with those who do not, you can find
out whether it has an impact on grades.

Regression discontinuity

a regression discontinuity design (RDD) is a quasi-experimental pretest-posttest design that supposedly

elicits the causal effects of interventions by assigning a cutoff or threshold above or below which an
intervention is assigned. By comparing observations lying closely on either side of the threshold, it is
possible to estimate the average treatment effect in environments in which randomization is unfeasible.
Many potential treatments that researchers wish to study are designed around an essentially arbitrary
cutoff, where those above the threshold receive the treatment and those below it do not. Near this
threshold, the differences between the two groups are often so minimal as to be nearly nonexistent.
Therefore, researchers can use individuals just below the threshold as a control group and those just above
as a treatment group.

Example: Regression discontinuity.

Some high schools in the United States are set aside for high-achieving students, who must exceed a
certain score on a test to be allowed to attend. Those who pass this test most likely differ systematically
from those who do not. However, since the exact cutoff score is arbitrary, the students near the threshold
– those who just barely pass the exam and those who fail by a very small margin – tend to be very similar,
with the small differences in their scores mostly due to random chance. You can therefore conclude that
any outcome differences must come from the school they attended. To test the impact of attending a
selective school, you can study the long-term outcomes of these two groups of students (those who barely
passed and those who barely failed).

Natural experiments

In both laboratory and field experiments, researchers normally control which group the subjects are
assigned to. In a natural experiment, an external event or situation (“nature”) results in the random or
random-like assignment of subjects to the treatment group. Even though some use random assignments,
natural experiments are not considered to be true experiments because they are observational in nature.
Although the researchers have no control over the independent variable, they can exploit this event after
the fact to study the effect of the treatment.

Example: Natural experiment.

The Oregon Health Study is one of the most famous natural experiments. In 2008, the state of Oregon
decided to expand enrollment in Medicaid, America’s low-income public health insurance program, to
more low-income adults. However, as they could not afford to cover everyone who they deemed eligible
for the program, they instead allocated spots in the program based on a random lottery. Researchers were
able to study the impact of the program by using the enrolled individuals as a randomly assigned
treatment group, and the others who were eligible but did not succeed in the lottery as a control group.

When to use quasi-experimental design?

Although true experiments have higher internal validity, you might choose to use a quasi-experimental
design for ethical or practical reasons.

Ethical

Sometimes it would be unethical to provide or withhold a treatment on a random basis, so a true

experiment is not feasible. In this case, a quasi-experiment can allow you to study the same causal
relationship without the ethical issues. The Oregon Health Study is a good example. It would be unethical
to randomly provide some people with health insurance but purposely prevent others from receiving it
solely for the purposes of research. However, since the Oregon government faced financial constraints
and decided to provide health insurance via lottery, studying this event after the fact is a much more
ethical approach to studying the same problem.

Practical

True experimental design may be infeasible to implement or simply too expensive, particularly for
researchers without access to large funding streams. At other times, too much work is involved in
recruiting and properly designing an experimental intervention for an adequate number of subjects to
justify a true experiment. In either case, quasi-experimental designs allow you to study the question by
taking advantage of data that has previously been paid for or collected by others (often the government).

Advantages and disadvantages

Quasi-experimental designs have various pros and cons compared to other types of studies.

 Higher external validity than most true experiments, because they often involve real-world
interventions instead of artificial laboratory settings.
 Higher internal validity than other non-experimental types of research, because they allow you to
better control for confounding variables than other types of studies do.
 Lower internal validity than true experiments – without randomization, it can be difficult to verify
that all confounding variables have been accounted for.
 The use of retrospective data that has already been collected for other purposes can be inaccurate,
incomplete or difficult to access.

Mixed Methods Research, Defined

 A mixed methods research design is a procedure for
collecting, analyzing, and “mixing” both quantitative
and qualitative research and methods in a single study
to understand a research problem.
 To utilize this design effectively, you must understand
both quantitative and qualitative research.

Mixed Methods Research, Defined.  A mixed methods research design is a procedure for.
collecting, analyzing, and “mixing” both quantitative and qualitative research and methods in a
single study to understand a research problem.

Advantages and disadvantages of using mixed methods

Mixing data sets can give a better understanding of the problem and yield more complete
evidence – the investigator gains both depth and breadth.
Amalgamating statistics with thematic approaches can help avoid over-reliance on the former
and can also capture "soft-core views and experiences" (Jogulu and Pansiri, 2011) and the
subjective factors necessary to elucidate complex social situations.

It can also strengthen findings – a process known as triangulation.

On a more philosophical level, mixed methods research combines paradigms, allowing

investigation from both the inductive and deductive perspectives, and consequently enabling
researchers to combine theory generation and hypothesis testing within a single study (Jogulu
and Pansiri, 2011).

Having to use mixed methods also helps researchers to develop their skills, which is particularly
important for those at an early stage of their career.

Mixed methods are not without their drawbacks, however. An obvious one being the resources
and skills required – one researcher may not be skilled in both qualitative and quantitative
methods and may have to call on the expertise of someone else, or another team, which will
increase the cost.

While mixed methods are used widely throughout the social and behavioural sciences, there
are a number of particular areas where the approach has become popular.

Multidisciplinary research, including research which focuses on a substantive field, such as

childhood or disability.
Research on complex social issues, particularly populations which would be difficult to reach
with a questionnaire, but where it is still necessary to employ quantitative methods to
demonstrate scale and thereby achieve change (Brannan, 2005).
Complex and pluralistic contexts, for example, studies involving schools, cross-national studies,
and studies where it might be important to bring in a different perspective to counterbalance,
say, a rather individualistic bias from informants.
Practical and policy-related academic research. (Both sorts of research are needed for the
reasons given above.)
  Empirical research concerned with forecasting future events or behavior; the assessment of
variables at one point of time so as to predict phenomenon assessed at a later point of time

 Predictive research is chiefly concerned with forecasting (predicting) outcomes, consequences,

costs, or effects. This type of research tries to extrapolate from the analysis of existing
phenomena, policies, or other entities in order to predict something that has not been tried,
tested, or proposed before.

 Regression

 Linear Regression

 Logistic Regression

 Business

 Marketing

 Clinical Setting

Government Agencies

 Diagnostic Research is an other term for Predictive Research

 Prediction does not care about the relationships between independent and dependent
variables. It’s only concern is, given a set of inputs with specific values, predicting the outcome
with the highest accuracy possible

SURVEY RESEARCH - It is defined as the process of conducting research using surveys that researchers
send to survey respondents - It is a quantitative method for collecting information from a pool of
respondents by asking multiple survey questions. SURVEY RESEARCH METHODS There are three main
survey research methods, divided based on the medium of conducting survey research: • Online/ Email:
Online survey research is one of the most popular survey research methods today. The cost involved in
online survey research is extremely minimal, and the responses gathered are highly accurate. • Phone:
Survey research conducted over the telephone (CATI) can be useful in collecting data from a more
extensive section of the target population. There are chances that the money invested in phone surveys
will be higher than other mediums, and the time required will be higher. • Face-to-face: Researchers
conduct face-to-face in-depth interviews in situations where there is a complicated problem to solve.
The response rate for this method is the highest, but it can be costly. BENEFIITS OF SURVEY RESEARCH •
Minimum investment: Mobile surveys and online surveys have minimal finance invested per
respondent. Even with the gifts and other incentives provided to the people who participate in the
study, online surveys are extremely economical compared to the paper-based surveys. • Versatile
sources for response collection: You can conduct surveys via various mediums like online and mobile
surveys. You can further classify them into qualitative mediums like focus groups, interviews, and
quantitative mediums like customer-centric surveys. Due to the offline survey response collection
option, researchers can conduct surveys in remote areas with limited internet connectivity. This can
make data collection and analysis more convenient and extensive. • Reliable for respondents: Surveys
are extremely secure as the respondent details and responses are kept safeguarded. This anonymity
makes respondents answer the survey questions candidly and with absolute honesty. An organization
seeking to receive explicit responses for its survey research must mention that it will be confidential.
TYPES OF SURVEY QUESTIONS • Multiple choice questions Multiple choice questions are the most
popular survey question type. They allow your respondents to select one or more options from a list of
answers that you define. They’re intuitive, easy to use in different ways, help produce easy-to-analyze
data, and provide mutually exclusive choices. Because the answer options are fixed, your respondents
have an easier survey-taking experience. Perhaps, most important, you’ll get structured survey
responses that produce clean data for analysis. • Rating scales In rating scale questions (sometimes
referred to as ordinal questions), the question displays a scale of answer options from any range (0 to
100, 1 to 10, etc.). The respondent selects the number that most accurately represents their response. •
Likert scales Likert scale question are the “do you agree or disagree” questions you often see in surveys,
and are used to gauge respondents’ opinions and feelings. Likert scale questions give respondents a
range of options—for example, starting at “not at all likely” scaling all the way up to “extremely likely”.
That’s why they work well to understand specific feedback.

Descriptive research: Descriptive research is defined as a research method that describes the
characteristics of the population or phenomenon studied. This methodology focuses more on the
“what” of the research subject than the “why” of the research subject.

The descriptive research method primarily focuses on describing the nature of a demographic segment,
without focusing on “why” a particular phenomenon occurs. In other words, it “describes” the subject of
the research, without covering “why” it happens.

For example, an apparel brand that wants to understand the fashion purchasing trends among New York
buyers will conduct a demographic survey of this region, gather population data and then conduct
descriptive research on this demographic segment. The study will then uncover details on “what is the
purchasing pattern of New York buyers,” but not cover any investigative information about “why” the
patterns exits. Because for the apparel brand trying to break into this market, understanding the nature
of their market is the study’s objective.

Characteristics of descriptive research

The term descriptive research then refers to research questions, design of the study, and data analysis
conducted on that topic.

Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:

1. Quantitative research: Descriptive research is a quantitative research method that attempts to

collect quantifiable information for statistical analysis of the population sample. It is a popular
market research tool that allows us to collect and describe the demographic segment’s nature.

2. Uncontrolled variables: In descriptive research, none of the variables are influenced in any way.
This uses observational methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the variables or
their behavior is not in the hands of the researcher.

3. Cross-sectional studies: Descriptive research is generally a cross-sectional study where different

sections belonging to the same group are studied.
 4. The basis for further research: Researchers further research the data collected and analyzed
from descriptive research using different research techniques. The data can also help point
towards the types of research methods used for the subsequent research.

Descriptive research methods

There are three distinctive methods to conduct descriptive research. They are:

 Observational method

The observational method is the most effective method to conduct this research, and researchers make
use of both quantitative and qualitative observations.

A quantitative observation is the objective collection of data, which is primarily focused on numbers and
values. It suggests “associated with, of or depicted in terms of a quantity.” Results of quantitative
observation are derived using statistical and numerical analysis methods. It implies observation of any
entity associated with a numeric value such as age, shape, weight, volume, scale, etc. For example, the
researcher can track if current customers will refer the brand using a simple Net Promoter Score
question.

Whereas qualitative observation doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but instead just monitoring
characteristics. In this case, the researcher observes the respondents from a distance. Since the
respondents are in a comfortable environment, the characteristics observed are natural and effective. In
a descriptive research design, the researcher can choose to be either a complete observer, an observer
as a participant, a participant as an observer, or a full participant. For example, in a supermarket, a
researcher can from afar monitor and track the customers’ selection and purchasing trends. This offers a
more in-depth insight into the purchasing experience of the customer.

 Case study method

Case studies involve in-depth research and study of individuals or groups. Case studies lead to a
hypothesis and widen a further scope of studying a phenomenon.

 Survey research

In survey research, respondents answer through surveys or questionnaires or polls. They are a popular
market research tool to collect feedback from respondents. A study to gather useful data should have
the right survey questions. It should be a balanced mix of open-ended questions and close ended
questions. The survey method can be conducted online or offline, making it the go-to option for
descriptive research where the sample size is enormous.

DEFINITION:

Archival research is research involving primary sources held in an archives, a Special

Collections library, or other repository. Archival sources can be manuscripts, documents, records
(including electronic records), objects, sound and audiovisual materials, or other materials.
Archival research is a method of collecting data from sources that already exist. Common
examples of archival research sources are census records or survey data that was collected in the
past. This method differs from empirical research in which a hypothesis and areas of interest are
determined before data collection occurs. An example of archival research would be a
psychologist looking at mental institution records from the 1900s to determine the prevalence of
depressive symptoms in patients at the time.

An archives is "an organization that collects the records of individuals, families, or other
organizations."

A repository is "a place where things can be stored and maintained, [including] any type of
organization that holds documents, including business, institutional, and government archives,
manuscript collections, libraries, museums, and historical societies, and in any form, including
manuscripts, photographs, moving image and sound materials, and their electronic equivalents."

CONDUCTING ARCHIVAL RESEARCH

Archival research is generally more complex and time-consuming than secondary research,

presenting challenges in identifying, locating and interpreting relevant documents. Although
archives share similar features and characteristics they can also vary in significant ways. While
publicly funded archives may have mandates that require them to be as accessible as possible,
other kinds, such as corporate, religious, or private archives, will have varying degrees of access
and discoverability. Some materials may be restricted in other ways, such as on those
containing sensitive or classified information, unpublished works, or imposed by agreements
with the donor of materials. Furthermore, archival records are often unique, and the researcher
must be prepared to travel to reach them. Even when materials are available in digital formats
there may be restrictions on them that prohibit them from being accessed off-site.

1. Talk with your advisor and/or other relevant faculty members, instructors, TAs, to
brainstorm topic ideas and potential sources/source types.
2. Get familiar with relevant secondary sources on or related to your topic. For information
about searching for secondary sources, see the general History research guide. A
secondary source's footnotes/endnotes will direct you to primary sources, archival and
otherwise.
 3. Visit an archivist or archives, and consider these:
 Specifics regarding their holdings
 Registration information (what do you need to do/bring if you visit the repository,
whether you need to set up an electronic account, etc.)
 Reproduction availability, fees, and related information
 Open times / pull times (some repositories pull boxes at set times, so you may
have to wait for requested materials)
 Proxy researcher information

TYPES OF ARCHIVES

The Society of American Archivists identifies the following types:

 College and university archives are archives that preserve materials relating to a

specific academic institution. Such archives may also contain a "special collections"
division (see definition below). College and university archives exist first to serve their
parent institutions and alumni, and then to serve the public.

Examples: Stanford University Archives, Mount Holyoke College Archives.

 Corporate archives are archival departments within a company or corporation that

manage and preserve the records of that business. These repositories exist to serve the
needs of company staff members and to advance business goals. Corporate archives
allow varying degrees of public access to their materials depending on the company's
policies and archival staff availability.

Examples: see SAA's Directory of Corporate Archives in the United States and Canada.

 Government archives are repositories that collect materials relating to local, state, or

national government entities.

Examples: The National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), the Franklin D.

Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum, the New York State Archives, City of Boston
Archives.
  Historical societies are organizations that seek to preserve and promote interest in the
history of a region, a historical period, nongovernment organizations, or a subject. The
collections of historical societies typically focus on a state or a community, and may be in
charge of maintaining some governmental records as well.

Examples: The Wisconsin Historical Society, the National Railway Historical Society, the San

Fernando Valley Historical Society.

 Museums and archives share the goal of preserving items of historical significance, but
museums tend to have a greater emphasis on exhibiting those items, and maintaining
diverse collections of artifacts or artwork rather than books and papers. Any of the types
of repositories mentioned in this list may incorporate a museum, or museums may be
stand-alone institutions. Likewise, stand-alone museums may contain libraries and/or
archives.

Examples: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum.

 Religious archives are archives relating to the traditions or institutions of a major faith,

denominations within a faith, or individual places of worship. The materials stored in
these repositories may be available to the public, or may exist solely to serve members of
the faith or the institution by which they were created.

Examples: United Methodist Church Archives, American Jewish Archives.

 Special collections are institutions containing materials from individuals, families, and

organizations deemed to have significant historical value. Topics collected in special
collections vary widely, and include medicine, law, literature, fine art, and technology.
Often a special collections repository will be a department within a library, holding the
library's rarest or most valuable original manuscripts, books, and/or collections of local
history for neighboring communities.

Examples: Special Collections Research Center at the University of Chicago, American

Philosophical Society Library.

PROS:
  Highly reliable due to archives being a primary source of data
 Has vast selection of knowledge

CONS:

 Time consuming
 Archives may be hard to find and not in the language you understand
 Consumes so much money and effort

Some archives may be hard to borrow due to its value and

Twin studies are studies conducted on identical or fraternal twins. They aim to reveal the importance of
environmental and genetic influences for traits, phenotypes, and disorders. Twin research is considered
a key tool in behavioral genetics and in content fields, from biology to psychology.

Twins are a valuable source for observation because they allow the study of environmental influence
and varying genetic makeup: "identical" or monozygotic (MZ) twins share essentially 100% of their
genes, which means that most differences between the twins (such as height, susceptibility to boredom,
intelligence, depression, etc.) are due to experiences that one twin has but not the other twin.
"Fraternal" or dizygotic (DZ) twins share only about 50% of their genes, the same as any other sibling.

Costamero, Crissa M.
BS PSYCH 3A

Cross-sectional study
Cross-Sectional Studies
 Observes different groups (a “cross-section”) in the population
 Observational studies that analyse data from a population at a single point in time. They are often
used to measure the prevalence of health outcomes, understand determinants of health, and
describe features of a population
 In cross-sectional research, you observe variables without influencing them.
 Also known as cross-sectional analysis, transverse study, or prevalence study.
Types of cross-sectional study
 Descriptive
A cross-sectional survey may be purely descriptive and used to assess the burden of a particular
disease in a defined population. For example a random sample of schools across Tacloban may be
used to assess the prevalence of COVID-19 among 12-60 year olds.
 Analytical
Analytical cross-sectional surveys may also be used to investigate the association between a
putative risk factor and a health outcome. However this type of study is limited in its ability to
draw valid conclusions as to the association between a risk factor and health outcome. In a cross-
 sectional survey the risk factors and outcome are measured simultaneously, and therefore it may
be difficult to determine whether the exposure proceeded or followed the disease.
Advantages
 Because you only collect data at a single point in time, cross-sectional studies are relatively cheap
and less time-consuming than other types of research.
 Cross-sectional studies allow you to collect data from a large pool of subjects and compare
differences between groups.
 Multiple outcomes and exposures can be studied
 Prevalence for all factors can be measured.
 We can describe disease frequency and health needs of a large population; thus, it is useful for
health planning
 Cross-sectional studies capture a specific moment in time. National censuses, for instance,
provide a snapshot of conditions in that country at that time.
Disadvantages
 Cannot be used to analyze behavior over a period to time
 Does not help determine cause and effect
 Susceptible to bias due to low response and misclassification due to recall bias
 American Psychological Association

o When is it mostly used?

o What is it mostly concerned with?

 A method of citing references

o Parenthetical citations in text

o References page

 Title Page: Running Head, page number, Identifying information

 Subsequent Pages: Running Head, page number, headings/seriation

Short Quotations

 If you are directly quoting from a work, you will need to include the author, year of publication,
and the page number for the reference (preceded by "p."). Introduce the quotation with a signal
phrase that includes the author's last name followed by the date of publication in parentheses.

 According to Jones (1998), "Students often had difficulty using APA style, especially
when it was their first time" (p. 199).

 Jones (1998) found "students often had difficulty using APA style" (p. 199); what
implications does this have for teachers?
  If the author is not named in a signal phrase, place the author's last name, the year of
publication, and the page number in parentheses after the quotation.

 She stated, "Students often had difficulty using APA style" (Jones, 1998, p. 199), but she
did not offer an explanation as to why.

Long Quotations

 Place direct quotations that are 40 words, or longer, in a free-standing block of typewritten
lines, and omit quotation marks. Start the quotation on a new line, indented 1/2 inch from the
left margin, i.e., in the same place you would begin a new paragraph. Type the entire quotation
on the new margin, and indent the first line of any subsequent paragraph within the quotation
1/2 inch from the new margin. Maintain double-spacing throughout. The parenthetical citation
should come after the closing punctuation mark.

 Jones's (1998) study found the following:

    Students often had difficulty using APA style,
    especially when it was their first time citing sources.
    This difficulty could be attributed to the fact that many
    students failed to  purchase a style manual or to ask   
    their teacher for help. (p. 199)

Summary or Paraphrase

 If you are paraphrasing an idea from another work, you only have to make reference to the
author and year of publication in your in-text reference, but APA guidelines encourage you to
also provide the page number (although it is not required.)

 Reference in text (when the text as a whole needs to be cited)

 Last name (year of publication)

 Rowling (2005) argues for the development of new curricula.

 Reference in text (when only part of the text, such as an idea or a quote from a specific
page, needs to be cited)

 Last name (year of publication, page number)

 lRowling (2005, p.189)

 No reference in text

 (Last name of author, copyright year).

 The development of new curricula has been argued before (Rowling,

2005).

 When a work has two authors, always cite both authors.

 Reference in text
  Last names of authors separated by “and” (year of publication)

 Rowling and Cramer (2005) argue for the development of new curricula.

 No reference in text

 (Last names of authors separated by an ampersand, copyright year).

 The development of new curricula has been argued before (Rowling &
Cramer, 2005).

 When a work has three or more authors, always cite all the authors the first time the
text is used. Thereafter, use the first author’s last name followed by et al.

 Omit year upon third time citing source.

 Reference in text

 Last names of authors separated with and before final name, (year of
publication)

 Rowling, Dowling, Benis, George, and Cramer (2005) argue for the
development of new curricula.

 Rowling et al. (2005) argue . . .

 Rowling et al. argue . . .

 No reference in text

 (Last names of authors separated with an ampersand before final name,

copyright year)

 The development of new curricula has been argued before (Rowling,

Dowling, Benis, George, & Cramer, 2005).

 The development of new curricula has been argued before (Rowling et

al., 2005).

 The development of new curricula has been argued before (Rowling et

al.).

 When a work is signed “Anonymous,” cite the word “Anonymous.”

 (Anonymous, year)

 Statistics show a higher incidence of criminal activity during the summer

months (Anonymous, 2007, pp. 89-96).

 Italicize the title of a book or periodical.

 (Title of Book, or Title of Periodical, year, page number)

  Statistics show a higher incidence of criminal activity during summer
months (New Yorker, 2007, p. 97).

 In most other cases, use double quote marks around the title, publication year, page
number

 (“Article title or Chapter title,” year, page number)

 Statistics show a higher incidence of criminal activity during summer

months (“Study Results,” 2007, p. 77).

 Corporations, associations, government agencies, research groups, etc. are usually listed
each time they are used in text, unless an abbreviation makes the group easily
recognizable.

 Reference in the text

 First time mentioned: Full name (year).

 The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) reports…(2002).

 Subsequent mentions: abbreviation (year).

 The NIMH reports…(2002).

 Not referenced in text

 First time mentioned (full name, year)

 (National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 2002).

 Subsequent mentions (abbreviation, year)

 (NIMH, 2002).

 If the name is not easily recognizable by an abbreviation, such

as the University of Iowa, the group must be spelled out each
time it is mentioned.

o When using classical works such as the Greeks, Romans, or the Bible, a reference entry
is not required. You must only identify the version and lines used.

o 1 Cor. 13:1 (Revised Standard Edition)

o When using very old works where the date is not applicable, list the year of the
translation you used.

o Reference in text

Aristotle argues . . . (trans. 1922).

o Not referenced in text

o The ethos, pathos, and logos . . . (Aristotle, trans. 1922).

 o If a text does not have a date, cite the author’s name followed by “n.d.”

o Reference in text (n.d.)

Julius Caesar argued . . . (n.d.).

o Not referenced in text

o The Trojan horse . . . (Caesar, n.d.).

o Used to indicate where information presented in the essay can be retrieved.

o Only include texts cited in the essay.

o Listed alphabetically by author or title.

o Reference list begins a new page, with “References” centered at top of page.

o The first line of an entry is at the left margin, and subsequent lines are indented one-half
inch (hanging indent).

o Double-space all reference entries.

o Use last names, first initials with all authors’ names in reverse order, regardless of quantity

o Last name, first initial.

Griggs, B.W., Holland, R.H., & Mills, S.R.

o Capitalize the first word in the title and subtitle, and any proper nouns (cities, countries,
peoples’ names) for book, article, and chapter titles

o Capitalize the first word, all nouns, verbs, adverbs, and adjectives for names of journals

o Use no special treatment for titles of shorter works (poems, short stories, essays, short articles)

o Italicize titles of longer works (books, periodicals/journals)

o Don’t drop any words, such as A, An, or The, from the titles of periodicals (newspapers,
magazines, journals)

o Give the city for US publishers and add the state abbreviations for all US cities except Baltimore,
Boston, Chicago, Los Angeles, New York, Philadelphia, and San Francisco.

o City, State: Name of press

o Anderson, IN: Warner Press.

o Use a shortened version of the publisher’s name except for an association (AMA),
corporation, or university press; drop Co., Inc., Publishers, but retain Books or Press.

o City, State: Name of press

o Anderson, IN: Warner Press.

 o Three main parts: Author, title, and publication information

o Book with one author

o Last name, first initial. (year). Title. City of Publication: Press.

o Broadway, B. (2002). Pink houses and family taverns. Bloomington, IN: Indiana
University Press.

o Two to seven authors

o Last name, first initial., Last Name, first initial., & Last Name, first initial. (year).
Title. City of publication: Press.

o Broadway, B., Carrol, L., Smith, T. (2007). How the lady sings. New York:
Harper.

o Eight or more authors

o Last name, first initial., Last name, first initial., Last name, first
initial., Last name, first initial., Last name, first initial., Last
name, first initial., . . . Last name, first initial. (year). Title. City of
publication: Press.

o Arrange references by the same author chronologically, with the earlier date of publication
listed first

o Van Delay, A. (1994). Venetian blinds: Contemporary study of compulsive lying. New
York: Pendant Publishing (not “Publishers”).

o Van Delay, A. (1997). Seinfeld: The show about nothing. New York: Penguin Books.

o No Author

o Title (year). City of publication: press.

o Creation of the media: Political origins of the media. (1922). Los

Angeles: Houghton-Mifflin.

o The Chicago manual of style (15th ed.). (2003). Chicago: University of

Chicago Press.

o Four major parts: author, date, article title, and publication information (periodical title, volume
number, and page number)

o Last name, first initial. (year). Title of article. Title of publication, volume, pages.

o Tyson, P. A., & Gordon, M. G. (1998). The Psychology of women. Journal of the
American Psychoanalytic Association, 46, 361-364.

o Bernstein, B. J. Atomic diplomacy: Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Diplomatic History,

28(3), 126-129.
 o Five major parts: author, date of publication, title of article, title of newspaper or
magazine, page numbers.

o Last name, first initial. (year, month day of publication). Title of article. Title of
newspaper or magazine, page numbers.

o For magazines, the volume number is italicized, with the issue number in
parentheses after, and inserted after the magazine title; formatted:
Volume(Issue).

o Kramer, C. F. (2003, June 22). A health threat baffling for its lack of a
pattern. The New York Times, p. A14.

o Chamberlin, J., Novotney, A., Packard, E., & Price, M. (2008, May).
Enhancing worker well-being: Occupational health psychologists
convene to share their research on work, stress, and health. Monitor on
Psychology. 39(5), 26-29.

o Crane, N. F. (2003, September). Anarchy at sea. Atlantic Monthly, 50-80.

o Don’t abbreviate the names of months, ever.

o Article accessed through a library subscription service

o Seven major parts: author’s name, year of publication, title of article and publication, volume,
page numbers, and where retrieved.

o Last name, first initial. (year). Title of article. Title of publication, volume, page numbers.
Date retrieved from where.

o Jackson, G. (2004). Multiple historic meanings of the Spanish

civil war. Science and Society, 68(3), 272-276. Retrieved from
the Lexis Nexis Academic database.

o Don’t abbreviate the names of months, ever.

o Six major parts: author’s name, date of publication, title of article and publication, and
web address.

o Last name, first initial. (year, month day of publication). Title of article. Title of
publication. Retrieved date, from web address.

o Foreman, R., Bennett, E., & Collins, T. (1999, February 16). In forecasting
their emotions, most people flunk out. The New York Times. Retrieved
from http://www.nytimes.com.

o Don’t abbreviate the names of months, ever.

Daep, Crislyn A.
BS Psychology 3A
 Comparative Research Design

Comparative Design
- analyzes and compares two or more things with a view to discovering something about
one or all of the things being compared. This technique often utilizes multiple disciplines
in one study
- does not tend to investigate "grand theories," such as Marxism. It instead occupies itself
with middle-range theories that do not purport to describe our social system in its
entirety, but a subset of it.
A good example of this is the common research program that looks for differences between two
or more social systems, then looks at these differences in relation to some other variable
coexisting in those societies to see if it is related.

Characteristics of Comparative Design

Comparative in Quantitative

- Quantitative, or experimental, research is characterized by the manipulation of an

independent variable to measure and explain its influence on a dependent variable.
Because comparative research studies analyze two different groups -- which may have
very different social contexts -- it is difficult to establish the parameters of research.

Comparative in Qualitative

- Qualitative, or nonexperimental, is characterized by observation and recording outcomes

without manipulation. In comparative research, data are collected primarily by
observation, and the goal is to determine similarities and differences that are related to
the particular situation or environment of the two groups. These similarities and
differences are identified through qualitative observation methods.

When to Use it
These studies analyze the similarities and differences between these two groups in an attempt to
better understand both groups. Comparisons lead to new insights and better understanding of all
participants involved.
When Not to Use it

 Do not use comparative research design with little funding, limited access to necessary
technology and few team members. Because of the larger scale of these studies, they
should be conducted only if adequate population samples are available.
 If the necessary organizational and technological resources are not available, a
comparative study should not be used.
 Do not use a comparative design if data are not able to be measured accurately and
analyzed with fidelity and validity.

Two key factors of CRD: Space and Time

Spatially, cross-national comparisons are by far the most common, although comparisons within
countries, contrasting different areas, cultures or governments also subsist and are very
constructive, especially in a country like New Zealand, where policy often changes depending on
which race it pertains to.

Refences:

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (n.d.) Comparative research. Retrieved from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_research

Richardson, H. (2018, JUN 28 ). Characteristics of a comparative research design. Classroom.

Retrieved from https://classroom.synonym.com/research-study-design-types-7822756.html
Experimental research design determines cause-and-effect relationships between variables. It is also
defined as observations under controlled conditions. The researcher must be an active agent rather
that a passive observer. Experimental designs are concerned with examination of the effect of an
independent variable on dependent variable, where the independent variable is manipulated through
treatment or interventions. This design involves 2 groups called control and experimental groups.
They are compared to each other. For example: Does an increase in temperature affect students’ test
scores? The independent variable here is the temperature And the dependent variable is the test
scores For the experimental group, the researcher will manipulate the independent variable by
increasing the temperature of the test room On the control group the temperature of the test room
remains constant. Meaning, the researchers will not manipulate the independent variable. After
conducting the experiment, the data collected from each group may now be compared and the
researcher can determine if temperature can really influence the test scores of students Advantages of
Experimental Research 1. It gives researchers a high level of control - When people conduct
experimental research, they can manipulate the variables so they can create a setting that lets them
observe the study they want. 2. It allows researchers to utilize many variations - This lets the
researchers manipulate variables and use as many (or as few) variations as they want- to create an
environment where they can test their hypotheses — without destroying the validity of the research
design. 3. It can lead to excellent results. - The very nature of experimental research allows
researchers to easily understand the relationships between the variables, the subjects, and the
environment and identify the causes and effects in whatever phenomena they’re studying.
Disadvantages of Experimental Research 1. It can lead to artificial situations. - there are cases when
researchers over-manipulate their variables and end up creating an artificial environment that’s
different from the real world. The researchers can also alter the study to fit whatever outcome they
want (intentionally or unintentionally) and compromise the results of the research. 2. It can take a lot
of time and money. - can be costly and time-consuming, especially if the researchers have to conduct
numerous studies to test each variable. Conclusion Experimental research became an important part
of the world because it helped to lead numerous discoveries that made people’s lives better, longer,
and more comfortable. However, it has its own disadvantages and it’s up to the researchers to find
balance between the benefits and drawbacks it presents.