Physics Answers

Essential Maths Skills
for AS/A-level
Physics
Answers
Ian Lovat
1 Units, standard form and orders of
magnitude
Powers of 10
Guided questions (p.9)
1 Step 1: 0.00001 = 1
= 1
100000 105
Step 2: 0.00001 = 1 × 10 –5

2 Step 1: there are seven zeros after the 1.
Step 2: 10 000 000 = 1 × 107
3 Step 1: there are eight zeros after the 1.
Step 2: 100 000 000 km = 1 × 108 km
4 a Step 1: 4 + 5 = 9
Step 2: 1.0 × 109
b Step 1: 12 + 9 = 21
Step 2: 1.0 × 1021
c Step 1: 9 + –5 = 4
Step 2: 1.0 × 104
d Step 1: 1.5 × 2.0 = 3.0
Step 2: 3 + –6 = –3
Step 3: 1.5 × 103 × 2.0 × 10 –6 = 3.0 × 10 –3
e Step 1: 9 – 6 = 3
Step 2: 1.0 × 103
Practice questions (p.10)

5 Step 1: 0.000000001 as a fraction is
1
= 1
100000000 10 9
Step 2: 0.000000001 = 10 –9
6 Step 1: one hundred million million km is 100 000 000 000 000 km, which has
14 zeros after the 1.
Step 2: 1 00 000 000 000 000 km = 1014 km
7 Step 1: the generally accepted definition of a billion is 1000 million, which is
1 000 000 000. This has nine zeros after the 1.
Step 2: 1 billion = 109
Essential Maths Skills for AS/A-level Physics 2

8 Step 1: divide 1.8 by 1.0, to give 1.8.
Step 2: adding the indices in the numerator gives –8 + 1 = –7.
Subtracting the index in the denominator gives –7 – (–6) = –1.
Step 3: putting the two steps together gives 1.8 × 10 –1.
Prefixes
1 a Step 1: 1000 m = 103 m
Step 2: from Table 1.3, the prefix is k, so 1000 m = 1 km
b Step 1: 0.0000001 m = 0.1 × 10 –6 m
Step 2: from Table 1.3, the prefix µ or n is possible, so
0.0000001 m = 0.1 µm or 100 nm
c Step 1: 1 500 000 000 Hz = 1.5 × 109
Step 2: from Table 1.3, the prefix is G, so
1 500 000 000 Hz = 1.5 GHz

2 a From Table 1.3, the prefix M means 106 so 4.5 × 106 m.
b From Table 1.3, the prefix k means 103 so 200 × 103 N or 2.00 × 105 N.
c From Table 1.3, the prefix n means 10 –9 so 800 × 10 –9 m or 8.00 × 10 –7 m.
d From Table 1.3, the prefix M means 106 so 30 × 106 Hz or 3.0 × 107 Hz.
Converting units
1 a Step 1: base unit, m
Step 2: 30 × 10 –2 m or 3.0 × 10 –1 m
b Step 1: base unit, m
Step 2: 0.1 × 10 –3 m or 1.0 × 10 –4 m
c Step 1: base unit, kg
Step 2: 1 × 10 –3 kg in a g
Step 3: 100 × 10 –3 kg or 1.00 × 10 –1 kg
2 Adding the indices gives 103 × 103 × 103 = 109 mm3.

3 Step 1: base unit is m, so diameter = 10 cm = 10 × 10 –2 m, height = 20 cm = 20 × 10 –2 m
d
Step 2: radius r = = 5 × 10 –2 m, so the cross-sectional area is:
2
A = πr2 = π × (5 × 10 –2)2
Step 3: volume V = π × (5.0 × 10−2 )2 × 20 × 10−2
therefore V = 1.57 × 10−3 m 3

4 a Step 1: the base unit is m so no conversion is needed.
Step 2: 4.0 × 5.0 = 20 m2
b Step 1: 6.7 cm = 6.7 × 10 –2 m and 8.2 cm = 8.2 × 10 –2 m
Step 2: area = 6.7 × 8.2 × 10 –2 × 10 –2 = 54.94 × 10 –4 = 5.5 × 10 –3 m2
c Step 1: 4.5 mm = 4.5 × 10 –3 m and 1.2 cm = 1.2 × 10 –2 m
Step 2: area = 4.5 × 1.2 × 10 –3 × 10 –2 = 5.4 × 10 –5 m2
5 Step 1: converting to base unit, 2.5 cm = 2.5 × 10 –2 m
Step 2: area = π × r 2 = π × (2.5 × 10−2 )2 = 19.63 × 10−4 = 2.0 × 10−3 m 2
6 Step 1: converting to base unit, 0.49 mm = 0.49 × 10 –3 m
d (0.49 × 10 −3 ) 2
2
Step 2: using r = d2 , area = π × 4

= π× 4
= 0.189 × 10−6 = 1.9 × 10−7 m 2
7 Step 1: converting to base unit, length = 2.5 cm = 2.5 × 10 –2 m and diameter = 0.35 mm
= 0.35 × 10 –3 m
(0.35 × 10 −3 ) 2
Step 2: using r = d2 , cross-sectional area = π × d
2
= π× m2
4 4
Step 3: volume = cross-sectional area × length
(0.35 × 10−3 )2
volume = π × d × l = π ×
2
× 2.5 × 10−2
4 4
= 0.241 × 10−8 = 2.4 × 10−9 m 3
8 Step 1: all quantities are already in base unit m so there is no need to convert.
Step 2: substituting the values in the formula gives:
−9
resistance = 1.71 × 10 −×7 5.0 = 0.045 Ω or 4.5 × 10−2 Ω
1.9 × 10
Symbols
1 Step 1: LHS units = (m s–1)2 = m2 s–2
Step 2: units for u2 = (m s–1)2 = m2 s–2
Step 3: units for 2as = m s–2 × m = m2 s–2
Step 4: therefore all the units on each side are the same and the equation could be
correct.

2 Step 1: ΔV = 100 V
Step 2: Δx = 0.10 cm = 1.0 × 10 –3 m
∆∆VVV == 100100
Step 3: thereforeEEE=== ∆
−1
= 100
==1.0
= 1.0 105×Vm
×1.0 ×10−5
1015
Vm −1
Vm
∆∆∆xxx 1.01.0
×
–3 –3
1.0××10
10 10
–3

3 Step 1: Δv = (13 – 10) m s–1
Step 2: Δt = 10 s
∆v 13 − 10
Step 3: therefore a = = = 3
= 0.3 m s−2
∆t 10 10
4 Step 1: write as an equation.
V ∝ T ⇒ V = KT ⇒ K = V
T

Step 2: substitute the given values.
K = V = 2.0 = 6.8 × 10−3 m 3 K −1

T 293

Step 3: substitute the value for K in the equation for V.
V = (6.8 × 10−3 ) T m3
Standard form and significant figures

1 Step 1: area of sensor = 5.76 × 4.29 = 24.7104 mm2
Step 2: area of sensor = 2.47 × 101 mm2
2 Step 1: number of seconds in a day = number of seconds in a minute × number of
minutes in an hour × number of hours in a day
= 60 × 60 × 24
= 86 400 s
Step 2: number of seconds in a year = 86 400 × 365
= 31 536 000 s
Step 3: the number of days in a year is given to three significant figures so your
answer should be given to three significant figures. (You can assume 24 hours,
60 minutes and 60 seconds are given to many significant figures because they are
defined as having integer values.)
Number of seconds in a year = 3.15 × 107 s

3 The trailing zero at the end is significant and should be included.
120 pm = 1.20 × 10−10 m

4 Step 1: convert to base unit, m.
384 400 km = 384 400 000 m
Step 2: write the answer to three significant figures.
384 400 000 m = 3.84 × 108 m
5 a The leading zeros do not count as significant.
0.000783 = 7.83 × 10−4
b The trailing zero at the end is significant and should be included.
1470 = 1.470 × 103
c The leading zeros do not count as significant.
0.000000056 = 5.6 × 10−8
6 Step 1: substitute the given values in the formula ‘distance = speed × time’.
Distance to Proxima Centauri = 3.00 × 108 × 4.24 × 3.15 × 107
= 40.068 × 1015 m
Step 2: as the minimum number of significant figures in the original data is three,
give the answer to three significant figures.
Distance to Proxima Centauri = 4.01 × 1016 m (3 s.f.)
Calculations using standard form

1 Step 1: convert 2.5 mm to base units to give 2.5 × 10 –3 m
V
Step 2: E = = 27
= 10.8 × 103 = 10 800
d 2.5 × 10
–3
Step 3: 10 800 in standard form is 1.0800 × 104.

A rough estimate of the answer gives 30
−3
= 10 × 103 = 1 × 104 , so the answer
3 × 10
looks correct.
Step 4: to two significant figures, the answer is 1.1 × 104.
Step 5: adding units gives 1.1 × 104 V m–1.
2 Step 1: convert 5.0 cm to base units to give 5.0 × 10 –2 m.
Replace the prefix in the value of the flux density to give 3.4 × 10 –3 T.
Step 2: F = 3.4 × 10−3 × 4.5 × 5.0 × 10−2
= 3.4 × 4.5 × 5.0 × 10−3 × 10−2 = 76.5 × 10−5
Step 3: in standard form this is 7.65 × 10 –4. (A rough estimate of the answer gives
3 × 5 × 5× 10 –5 = 75 × 10 –5, so the answer looks correct.)
Step 4: to two significant figures the answer is 7.7 × 10 –4.
Step 5: adding units gives 7.7 × 10 –4 N
3 Step 1: 36.5 km = 36.5 × 103 m

45 min = 45 × 60 s = 2700 s
∆s 36.5 × 10 3 36.5 × 10 3
Step 2: v = = = = 13.5185
∆t 2700 2.7 × 10 3
Step 3: in standard form the answer is 1.35185 × 101 (a rough estimate of the answer
gives 40 ÷ 3 = 13, so the answer looks correct).
Step 4: to three significant figures the answer is 13.5.
Step 5: adding units gives V = 13.5 m s–1.
As you get more confident in using your calculator, you can do the whole calculation
at once by entering the following:
36.5 ‘×10x’ 3 ÷ (45 × 60) =
The brackets here are very important because if you omit them, the calculator
3
will carry out the sum 36.5 × 10 ×× 60,
60 which is not the same. It gives an answer of
45
48 667 m s–1, which is wrong!
Practice questions (p. 24)

4 a 5.25, which is 5.3 to two significant figures.
b 20.93 × 103, which is 2.1 × 104 in standard form to two significant figures.
c 2.966667 × 104, which is 3.0 × 104 in standard form to two significant figures.
d 89.6 × 10 –19, which is 9.0 × 10 –18 in standard form to two significant figures.
e 0.0157967, which is 1.6 × 10 –2 in standard form to two significant figures.
9.0 ×× 2.56 10−−38
1099 ×× 10 38
f
9.0 2.56 10
×× −
= 23.04 × 10−−19
19
= 2.304 × 10 –18, which is 2.3 × 10 –18 in standard
1.0
1.0 10−10
10
10
form to two significant figures.

5 Step 1: the values are already given in base units so there is no need to convert.
136 × 8.31 × 294
Step 2: substitute the figures into the formula: p = = 110 756.
3.0
Step 3: in standard form this is 1.10756 × 105.
Step 4: the smallest number of significant figures given in the question is two, for
volume of 3.0 m3. Therefore give the answer to two significant figures: 1.1 × 105.
Step 5: adding the correct units gives p = 1.1 × 105 Pa.
6 Step 1: 2.4 mm = 2.4 × 10 –3 m
Step 2: calculate the cross-sectional area of the wire by substituting the given values
into A = π r 2.
−3
r = 2.4 × 10 = 1.2 × 10−3 m
2
−3 2 −6
A = π × (1.2 × 10 ) = 4.52389 × 10
Remember to write down or store in your calculator more significant figures than you
require for your answer.
FF
Step 3: substitute the values into σσ == A
A
7.84
tensile stress, σ = = 1.73302 × 106
4.52389 × 10−6

Step 4: this is already in standard form, and a rough estimate suggests the answer is
correct.
Step 5: since the diameter is given to two significant figures, give the answer to two
significant figures: σ = 1.7 × 106.
Step 6: add the correct units, σ = 1.7 × 106 Pa.
Orders of magnitude
1 Mass of a car is of order 103 kg.
2 Step 1: in 1000 kg (1 m3) there are
1000
−3
≈ 56 × 103 moles ≈ 100 000 moles.
18 × 10
The number of molecules in a mole is 6.02 × 1023 ≈ 10 × 1023.
1 m3 of water contains approximately 100 000 × 10 × 1023 = 1029 molecules.
The volume occupied by 1 molecule =
1
= 10−29 m3.
10 29
Step 2: assume that each molecule occupies a cube into which it just fits. One side
would be 3 10−29 ≈ 10−10 m and this is the approximate diameter of a water molecule,
which is not significantly different to the diameter of an oxygen atom.
Order of magnitude diameter of an atom is 10 –10 m (this is same as the estimate of the
diameter of an atom made by Rutherford).

3 Green light is in the middle of the spectrum and has a wavelength of about 500 nm so
an order of magnitude value would be 10 –6 m (although either 10 –6 m or 10 –7 m would
be acceptable).
4 Step 1: break down the order of magnitude estimate into stages.
30 mph ≈ 10 m s–1
The mass of a car ≈ 1000 kg
Step 2: put together the order of magnitude estimates.
1 2 1
kinetic energy = 2 mv = 2 × 1000 × 10 ≈ 10 J
2 5

2 Fractions, ratios and percentages
Fractions
1 a Step 1: 15 is the smallest number that both 5 and 15 divide into.
3× 3
Step 2:
3
= 5× 3
= 9
15
5
(9 + 11)
Step 3: 9
+ 11
= = 20
15 15 15 15
Step 4: 20
= 4
3
15
b Step 1: 72 is the lowest common denominator.

3× 9 5×8
Step 2: 3
= 8× 9
=
27
and 5
= 9 ×8
= 40
8 72 9 72
(27 + 40)
Step 3: 27
72
+ 40
72
= 72
= 67
72
c Step 1: the common denominator is v2c2.

1 1 × c2 c2
Step 2: = =
v2 v2 × c2 v 2c2
1 × v2 v2
c 2 =
1
=
c2 × v2 v 2c2
c2 v2 (c2 + v 2 )
Step 3: + =
v 2c2 v c
2 2
v 2c2
3 2 6
2 a Steps 1–3: ×
5 3
=
15
Notice that, since 3 divides into both 6 and 15, we can simplify the fraction by
dividing both top and bottom by 3.
6 2
Simplify: 15
=
5
b Step 1: dividing by 3 is the same as multiplying by 4

.
4 3
6 4
7 × 3
Steps 2–3: 6 × 4 = 24
7 3 21
Simplify: 24 = 8
21 7
c Step 1: dividing by 2Tπe is the same as multiplying by T .

2 πe
mv 2 × T
r2 2 πe

2 2
Steps 2–3: mv2 × T = mv 2T
r 2 πe 2 πr e

3 a Steps 1–3: 43 × 83 = 9
32
b Steps 1–3: 1r × GMm

r
= GMm = GMm
r×r r2
F ÷ e = F × l = Fl
c Steps 1–3: A l A e Ae
5 3 35 18 53
d Steps 1–3: + = + =
6 7 42 42 42
1 + 1 = R2 + R1 = ( R1 + R2 )
e Steps 1–3: R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R2
( 83 )
2
4 Steps 1–3: r 2 = = 3 × 3 = 9 mm
8 8 16
V0 I0 V0 I 0 V0 I 0
5 Steps 1–3: × = =
2 2 2× 2 2
Ratios
speed of light in air × 8
1 Ratio
Ratio =
=
speed of light in glass
= 3.0 108 = 3
2.0 × 10 2
The ratio is 3 : 2 or 1.5, which is called the refractive index of glass, air
µ glass .
2 Step 1: 1.0 mm = 1.0 × 10 –3 m
1.0 × 10 −3
Step 2: ratio =
extension
original length
= 1.5
= 0.666 … × 10−3 = 6.7 × 10−4
6.7 × 10 –4 is a quantity called the tensile strain.

3 Ratio = 22 500
900
= 25. Therefore the ratio Ns : Np = 25 : 1.
2.3 × 108 = 23
4 Ratio = 2.0 × 108 20
or 1.15. Therefore the ratio is. 23 : 20.
Percentages
1 Efficiency = useful energy output

× 100% = 150
× 100% = 75%
total energy output 200
2 Step 1: final voltage – initial voltage = 1.26 – 1.23 = 0.03
Step 2: % change = × 100% = × 100% = 2.4%

change in voltage
original voltage
0.03
1.23

3 Step 1: 5% =
5
100
= 0.05
Step 2: original value = final value ÷ (1 + fractional change)

actual value = 1.05
0.83
= 0.79A

(6378.1 − 6356.8)
4 % change = × 100% = × 100% = 0.34%
change in radius
polar radius 6356.8
(2.35 − 2.30)
5 % change = × 100% = × 100% = 2.2%
difference in readings
reading on second meter 2.30
6 original speed = final value

= 1500
= 1293ms−1
1 + fractional change 1.16
7 new length = 2.5 + ( 100 2.5) = 2.51 m

0.3
×
8 Step 1: energy input = 2.0 × 3.0 × 1010 J = 6.0 × 1010 J.

2.1 × 1010
Step 2: % efficiency = × 100% = 35%
6.0 × 1010

3 Averages and probability
Averages
1 a Step 1: 200 + 175 + 215 + 190 + 210 = 990
Step 2: 990
= 198 counts per 5 minutes
5
b Step 1: 5 × 60 = 300 seconds
Step 2: 198
= 0.660 counts s −1 (Bq)
300
Practice question (p.36)

2 Step 1: 0.46 + 0.44 + 0.45 + 0.46 + 0.45 + 0.44 + 0.47 + 0.46 + 0.45 + 0.47= 4.55
Step 2: average time of fall =
4.55
10
= 0.455 s
Probability
1 Step 1: there are eight possibilities for the dice to show any number.
Step 2: there are two possibilities of the dice showing a 2.
Step 3: the probability of the dice showing a 2 is 2
= 1
4
= 0.25
8
2 Step 1: there are ten balls in total.
Step 2: the total number of blue balls is 5.
Step 3: the probability of picking a blue ball is 5
= 0.5
10

3 Step 1: there are six possibilities for the dice to show any number.
Step 2: there are three possibilities for the dice to show an even number (2, 4, 6).
Step 3: probability of an even number is 3
= 1
6 2
4 a Step 1: there are 52 cards in total.
Step 2: there are four aces.
Step 3: the probability of drawing an ace is 4
52
= 1
13
= 0.0769 .
b Step 1: after drawing five cards, there are 47 left.
Step 2: there are still four aces.
Step 3: the probability of drawing an ace is now 4
= 0.0851.
47

4 Algebra
Re-arranging equations
Ek 1 / 2 mv
2
2 Ek
1 Step 1: = ⇒ m
= v2
1 / 2m 1 / 2m
2E
Step 2: v = m
k
3V
2 Step 1: divide both sides by 43 π to give r = .
3
4π
V
Step 2: r = 3 34π

3 a Step 1: r 4πε 0V = Q
Q
Step 2: r =
4πε 0V
E
b Step 1: m
= c2
E
Step 2: c = m
c Step 1: EAe = Fl
Fl
Step 2: e =
EA
P
d Step 1: R
= I2
P
Step 2: I = R

T1 − T2 T2 T2
e ■■ First = 1− therefore ε = 1 −
T1 T1 T1
T2
■■ Subtract 1 from both sides ε − 1 = −
T1
T2
■■ Multiply both sides by –1 to give 1 − ε =
T1
■■ Multiply both sides by T1 to give T1 (1 − ε ) = T2
T2
■■ Divide both sides by 1 – ε to give T1 =
(1 − ε )
f ■■ Multiply both sides by 2 to give 2s = (u + v )t

■■ Multiply out the brackets to give 2s = ut + vt
■■ Subtract ut from both sides to give 2s − ut = vt
2 s − ut
■■ Divide both sides by t to give t
=v

g l
■■ Square both sides to give T 2 = 4π 2 g
■■ Multiply both sides by g to give gT 2 = 4π 2 l

4π 2 l
■■ Divide both sides by T 2 to give g =
T2
Q
h ■■ Multiply both sides by r2 to give r 2 E =
4πε 0
Q
■■ Divide both sides by E to give r 2 =
4πε 0 E
■■ Square root both sides to give r = Q

4πε E
0
i ■ Multiply both sides by 2C to give Q = 2 EC
2
■■ Square root both sides to give Q = 2 EC
v2 to give γ 1 − v2
2
j ■■ Multiply both sides by 1− =1
c2 c
1 − v2 = γ1
2
■■ Divide both sides by γ to give c
since  γ1  =

2
v2 1
■■ Square both sides to give 1 − =
1
c 2
γ 2 γ2
v2
■■ Subtract 1 from both sides to give − = −1
1
c 2
γ 2
2
v
■■ Multiply both sides by –1 to give 2
= 1− 1
2
c γ
■■ Multiply both sides by c2 to give v 2 = c 2 1 − ( 1

γ2 )
■■ Take the square root of both sides to give v = (
c2 1 − 1
γ2 )
C1 × C 2
4 See the text for details of a similar re-arrangement to give CT = .
C1 + C 2
100 × 10 −6 × 150 × 10 −6 1.5 × 10 −8

Substitute values to get CT = −6 −6
= = 6.0 × 10−5 F = 60 µF
100 × 10 + 150 × 10 250 × 10 −6
100 × 10 −6 × 150 × 10 −6 1.5 × 10 −8 −5

CT = −6 −6
= = 6.0 × 10 F = 60 µF
100 × 10 + 150 × 10 250 × 10 −6
Evaluating equations
1 a 4 + 3 × 5 = 4 + 15 = 19
b (3 + 4) × 5 = 7 × 5 = 35
c 25 +4 15 = 40
4
= 10
d Step 1: 26 – 32 = 26 – 9 = 17

Step 2: 6 × 15 = 90
Step 3: 90 + 17 = 107

2 Step 1: 82 − 4 × 3 × 2 = 64 − 24 = 40 = 6.325
Step 2: –8 + 6.325 = –1.675
Step 3: 2 × 3 = 6
−1.675
Step 4: = −0.279
6

3 a 7 − 45 = 7 − 5 = 2
9
54
b 325 + = 325 + 9 = 334
6
c 32 + 16 + 11 = 9 + 27 = 36 = 6
5000
d = 33.3
150
4 + 16 + 768 4 + 784 4 + 28 32
e = = = =2
16 16 16 16
g = 4 × π ×2 2.5 = 98.696 = 9.82 m s–2

2
4
3.17 10.049
2(6.6 × 10−34 × 8.0 × 1014 − 3.4 × 10−19 ) 2(52.8 × 10−20 − 3.4 × 10−19 )
5 v= =
9.1 × 10 −31 9.1 × 10 −31
= 2 × 18.8 × 10−20 = 37.6 × 10−20 =

4.132 × 1011
9.1 × 10−31 9.1 × 10−31
= 6.4 × 105 m s–1
Quadratic equations
Guided question (p.47)
1 Step 1:
1
at 2 + ut − s = 0
2
Step 2: 0.4 × t 2 + 8.0 × t − 210 = 0

−8.0 ± 8.0 2 − 4 × (0.4 × −210) −8.0 ± 20 12 −28
Step 3: tt = = = = 15 s or = − 35 s
2 × 0.4 0.8 0.8 0.8
The negative value can be ignored, so t = 15 s.

−8 ± 82 − (4 × 30 × −6)
2 a x = = −8 ± 64 + 720 = −8 ± 28
2 × 30 60 60
3 1
= − 5 or 3
−5 ± 52 − (4 × 2 × −63)
b x = = −5 ± 25 + 504 = −5 ± 23
2×2 4 4
= –7 or 4.5
−16 ± 162 − (4 × 4.9 × −32)
c x = = −16 ± 256 + 627.2 = −16 ± 29.7
2 × 4.9 9.8 9.8
= –4.7 or 1.4
3 Step 1: use s = ut + 1 at 2 and re-arrange to give 1

at 2 + ut − s = 0.
2 2
Step 2: substitute the given values. 1

(9.8)t 2 + 5.0 × t − 200 = 0
2
−b ± b 2 − 4 ac
Step 3: solve using the equation x = .
2a
−5.0 ± 52 − (4 × 4.9 × −200) −5 ± 62.8 −67.8
t= = = = − 6.9 s or = 57.8 = 5.9 s
2 × 4.9 9.8 9.8 9.8

The negative value of time is ignored, so t = 5.9 s.

5 Graphs
Straight lines
( )
1 a Step 1: ∆ y = 88 − 20 s 2 , ∆ x = 0.9 − 0.2 kg ( )
88 − 20
Step 2: the gradient is =
68
= 97s 2 kg −1
0.9 − 0.2 0.7
4π 2 4π 2 4π 2
b gradient = k
⇒k = gradient
= 97
= 0.41Nm −1

2 a A suitable graph is shown in Figure A.1
0.50
Stress / GPa
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025 0.0030 0.0035 0.0040 0.0045
Strain
Figure A.1
0.47 × 10 9
b Gradient is = 1.18 × 1011 Pa . Note that the y‑axis is in GPa so you need
0.0040
to multiply the y-values by 109.
3 a T = 2π l
g
l 4π 2
Squaring both sides, T 2 = 4π 2 g ⇒ T2 = g ×l
Therefore plot T 2 against l to obtain a straight-line graph.

2
b The gradient of the graph is 4π 2
g which means that g = gradient
4π

Shapes of graphs for different functions
1 a Step 1: the graph is of the form y = kx2.
Step 2: the graph will be the shape of Figure 5.6 with s on the y-axis and v on the
x-axis.
b A suitable sketch graph is shown in Figure A.2.

Velocity, v / ms–1
Displacement, s/m
Figure A.2

2 This is a graph of the form y = kx 2 and the shape will be similar to Figure 5.6.
3 This is a graph of the form y = kx and will be a straight line through the origin.
k
4 This is a graph of the form y = and will have a shape similar to Figure 5.7.
x2
k
5 This is a graph of the form y = x
and will have a shape similar to Figure 5.5.
Rates of change
1 a average velocity =
4.5
6.0
= 0.75ms−1
b Step 1: a suitable tangent might pass through points (3, 0) and (12, 13.5).
Step 2: instantaneous velocity = gradient of the tangent =
13.5
(12 − 3)
= 1.5m s −1

2 Step 1: a suitable tangent might go through points (5, 0) and (14, 22.5).
∆y
Step 2: instantaneous velocity = gradient of the tangent = 22.5 22.5
∆ x = (14 − 5) = 9
= 2.5m s −1

3 a The first point where the displacement is zero is t = 2.5 s.
The tangent to the curve at this point might pass through the points (0.01, 0.15)
and (0.49, −0.15).
( −0.15 − 0.15)
The gradient of the tangent is = −0.63m s−1
0.48
b Step 1: the tangent might pass through points (0.5, –0.15) and (1.0, +0.15).
Step 2: instantaneous velocity = gradient of the tangent
(0.15 − ( −0.15))

= = 0.6 m s −1
(1 − 0.5)
∆y
c A tangent drawn at t = 1.0 s is horizontal. ∆x
= 0 because Δy is zero, therefore the
instantaneous velocity is zero.
Area under a graph

1 Energy stored = area under the graph =
1
2
× Q ×V = 1
2
× 0.03 × 10 = 0.15J .
2 Step 1: the work done represented by one large square is 2.0 × 106 × 1.0 = 2.0 × 106 J.
Step 2: the number of squares under the graph is about 22.
Step 3: work done = 22 × 2.0 × 106 = 4.4 × 107 J.
(Accurate value is 4.3 × 107 J.)

3 Step 1: the area of one large square is 0.2 mA × 10 s = 2.0 mC.
Step 3: the charge stored is 20 × 2.0 mC = 40 mC.
4 Step 1: the area of one large square is 0.5 cm3 s–1 × 5 s = 2.5 cm3.
Step 3: the volume drained out of the burette is 32 × 2.5 cm3 ≈ 80 cm3.

6 Geometry and trigonometry
Degrees and radians

1 a θ = s =
100 = 0.4 rad
r 250
b angle in degrees = 0.4 × 360° = 22.9 °

2π
20° × 2π = 0.35 rad
2 θ =
360°

3 a 0.35 rad
b 0.87 rad
c π
2
d 3.5 rad
e 2π
4 a 28.6 °
b 180 °
c 69 °
d 235 °
e 270 °
5 a angle in radians = arc =

0.05 = 0.056 rad
radius 0.9
b angle in degrees = 3.2 °
Small angles
1 cos 40 = 0.77
2 cos 140 = –0.77
6.0
3 cos θ = = 0.83
7.2
4 Step 1: sin–1 (0.866) = 60 °
Step 2: the second possibility is 180 ° – 60 ° = 120 ° so the angle could be 60 ° or 120 °.
5 Step 1: h = 7.2 × sin θ

Step 2: sin 25 ° = 0.423
Step 3: h = 3.04 cm
6 sin
θ = 0.125

= h
opposite
7 a i Step 1: convert h to metres and use the formula sinθ =
hypotenuse 1.0
sin θ = 0.050 = 0.050
1.0

Step 2: find sin −1 (0.050). θ = sin −1 (0.050) = 2.9°
ii This is a small angle so θ ≈ sin θ = 0.05 rad.
b Use the formula cos θ =

adjacent
hypotenuse
A
cos θ = 1.0
therefore A = cos (2.9) = 0.999 m

8 sinθ = = 0.25 therefore θ = sin −1 (0.25) = 14.5°
opposite 200
=
hypotenuse 800
9 a Use tanθ = so θ = tan −1  8.0  = 21.8°

opposite
adjacent  20 
F2
b sin θ = R
therefore R = 8.0
sin(21.8)
= 21.5N
10 This is similar to Figure 6.7, where A = 100 m, θ = 12° and the height, h, is the
opposite side.
h
Therefore tan (12) = ⇒ h = 100 × tan (12) = 21.3 m .
100
Pythagoras
1 a A = B2 + C 2 =
2
10 + 10
2
= 200 = 14.1 m
( )
b θ = tan −1 10 = 45 °
10
c Angle = 180° − (90° + 45 °) = 45°
Since in this case B = C, the angles must be 45 ° without further calculation.

2 a A = 20 cm (the triangle is a ‘345’ triangle) and
( )
θ = sin −1 C = sin −1 12 = 37 °
A 20 ( )
b B = A2 − C 2 = 902 − 152 = 89 cm
c C = A2 − B 2 = 952 − 752 = 58 cm

C
d tan 22° = 150
therefore C = 150 × tan 22° = 61 m
A= B 2 + C 2 = 1502 + 60.62 = 162 m

B
or cos 22° = A
=
150
A
so A = 150
cos 22°
= 162 m
e You can use the Pythagoras formula for cosine but this is a ‘345’ triangle, so C = 27 m.
f A = B2 + C 2 = 62 + 22 = 6.3 m
6 ()
θ = tan −1 2 = 18.4 °
angle between A and C is (90 ° – 18.4 °) = 71.6 °
3 a tan8° =
height of cliff
250m
therefore height of cliff = 250 × tan8° = 35 m
b distance from girl to top of cliff = 2

250 + 352 = 252 m
s
c Use the formula t = = 0.74 s
252
=
v 340
4 Substituting for Ek and Ep into ET = Ep + Ek gives
ET = 1 mω 2 A2 sin 2 ω t + 1 mω 2 A2 cos 2 ω t = 1 mω 2 A2 (sin 2 ω t + cos 2 ω t )

2 2 2
Since sin 2 ω t + cos 2 ω t = 1, ET =

1
2
mω 2 A2.
hI v
5 Since the triangles are similar, hO
=
u and therefore
hI = hO × v
= 2.0 × 1.0 × 10 −3
= 2.0 × 10−4 m
u 10
Resolving vectors
( )
1 N = 500 × sin 50 ° = 383N
2 a 6 N = T × sin 25° ⇒ T = 6 =14.2 N

sin 25°
b Fx = 14 × cos 25 ° = 13 N
c T = 6
sin θ
, so as sin θ gets smaller, T increases. If, for example, the angle is just 1 °,
T is about 340 N, which will probably snap the string.

3 a v x = v cos θ = 8.0 × cos 40 ° = 6.1 m s−1
−1
b v y = v sin θ = 8.0 × sin 40 ° = 5.1 m s
4 Since the forces are at right angles, use Pythagoras, A = B

2
+ C
2
.
Therefore resultant = 2
12 + 15
2
= 19 N

5 Horizontal component of the force = Fx = F cos θ = 600 × cos70 ° = 205 N
6 Step 1: calculate the horizontal component of the velocity, v x = v cos θ = 90 × cos30° = 78 m s−1
v = v cos θ = 90 × cos30° = 78 m s−1
x
Step 2: re-arrange the formula for velocity to give s = v × t = 78 × 9.2 = 720 m.
Areas and volumes of simple shapes

1 Step 1: 2.4 mm = 2.4 × 10 –3 m
d 2.4 × 10 −3
Step 2: r = =
2
= 1.2 × 10−3 m
2
Step 3: A = πr 2 = π × (1.2 × 10−3 )2 = 4.5 × 10−6 m 2

2 Step 1: 2.5 mm = 2.5 × 10 –3 m
d 2.5 × 10 −3
Step 2: r = 2
= 2
= 1.25 × 10−3 m
Step 3: V = 4
3
πr 3 = 4
3
× π × (1.25 × 10−3 )3 = 8.2 × 10−9 m 3
3 A = 1 ( a + b) h = 1 (5.0 + 8.0) × 7.0 = 45.5 cm 2

2 2
d 3.5 × 10 −3
4 Step 1: r = 2
= 2
= 1.75 × 10−3 m
Step 2: V = πr 2 h = π × (1.75 × 10−3 )2 × 2.5 = 2.4 × 10−5 m 3

5 Displacement is the area under a velocity–time graph.
In this case it is a trapezium.
(8.0 + 14)
s= × 15 = 165 m
2
6 Step 1: 0.5 mm = 0.5 × 10 –3 m
d 0.5 × 10 −3
Step 2: r = 2
=
2
= 2.5 × 10−4 m

Step 3: A = πr 2 = π × (2.5 × 10−4 )2 = 2.0 × 10−7 m 2
ρl 1.7 × 10 −8 × 0.5
Step 4: R = A = = 0.043 Ω
2.0 × 10 −7
7 Step 1: radius = 6371 × 103 m = 6.371 × 106 m
Step 2: V = 4 πr 3 = 4
× π × (6.371 × 106 )3 = 1.1 × 1021 m 3
3 3
8 A= 1
2
h×b = 1
2
× 0.4 × 0.5 = 0.1 m 2

9 a Surface area: there are two sides of each combination of dimensions.
2 × 5.0 cm × 3.0 cm = 30 cm2
2 × 4.0 cm × 3.0 cm = 24 cm2
2 × 5.0 cm × 4.0 cm = 40 cm2
total area = 30 + 24 + 40 = 94 cm2
b Volume = 5.0 × 4.0 × 3.0 = 60 cm3 = 6.0 × 10 –5 m3

7 Exponential changes
Radioactive decay
1 a Step 1: 29 × 365 × 24 × 3600 = 9.1 × 108 s
Step 2: λ =
0.693
8
= 7.6 × 10−10 s −1
9.1 × 10
b Step 1: 5 years = 1.6 × 108 s
−10
−7.6 × 10 × 1.6 × 108
Step 2: A = 1.9 × 10 × e =
1.7 × 105
Bq
5
2 a Step 1: 8 days = 691 200 s

Step 2: λ = 0.693
= 1.0 × 10−6 s−1
691200
Step 3: A = 1.0 × 10 –6 s–1 × 2.3 × 1018 = 2.3 × 1012 Bq

b Step 1: 24 days = three half-lives
2.3 × 1018
Step 2: after three half-lives, N = 2 × 2 × 2
= 2.9 × 1017 unstable nuclei.
3 Step 1: 0.8 × 1020 = 2.4 × 1020 × e − λ × 50
Step 2:
0.8 × 1020 = 1 = e − λ × 50
■■
2.4 × 1020 3
λ × 50
■■ 3 = e
■■ ln 3 = λ × 50
ln 3
■■ =λ
50
■■ λ = 0.022 s–1
Step 3: t =
1
2
ln 2
0.022
= 32 s

4 a Use A = A0e − λt and substitute values, remembering to convert 50 min to s.
ln 2.4 = 3 × 10−4 s −1
λ =
(50 × 60)
50 min = 50 × 60 s = 3000 s
Substituting A = 2.5 × 105, A0 = 6 × 105 and t = 3000 gives
2.5 × 105 = 6 × 105 × e − λ × 3000

2.5 × 105 = e −3000 λ
6 × 105

6
= e3000 λ
2.5
 6
ln = 3000λ
 2.5 

ln (6 / 25)
λ = = 2.9 × 10−4 ≈ 3 × 10−4 s −1
3000
b Use A = A0e − λt = 6 × 105 × e −3× 10

−4
× 2 × 3600
= 7 × 104 Bq
5 a λ = lnt 2 = 0.693
= 3.8 × 10−12 s −1
1
2
5730 × 365 × 24 × 3600
b Use A = A0e − λt with A = 0.184, A0 = 0.192 and λ found above:

−12
t
0.184 = 0.192 × e −3.8 ×10
0.184 = e−3.8×10 −12
t
0.192
0.192 = e3.8×10 −12

t
0.184
 
ln  0.192  = 3.8 × 10−12 t
 0.184 
ln (0.192 / 0.184 )
t= = 1.1 × 1010 s
3.8 × 10−12
Therefore age = 1.1 × 1010 s ≈ 355 years
Capacitor discharge
1 a Step 1: C = 4700 × 10 –6 F and R = 100 × 103 Ω
Step 2: time constant = 100 × 103 × 4700 × 10 –6 = 470 s
−t
b Substituting in V = V0e RC
− t
5 = 10 × e 470
t
5 = 1 = e − 470
10 2
t
2 = e 470
ln 2 = t
470
t ⇒ t = 326 s
ln 2 =
470

2 a Step 1: convert both C and R to base units.
C = 500 × 10 –6 F, R = 10 × 103 Ω
Step 2: time constant = RC = 5000 × 10 –3 = 5 s
b Step 1: C = 50 × 10 –3 F, R = 500 Ω
Step 2: time constant = RC = 25 000 × 10 –3 = 25 s
c time constant = RC = 200 s
−t
3 a Use V = V0e RC
9.0 = 15 × e RC
−10
−10 10
Therefore
9.0
15
=
3
5
= e RC and 5
= e RC
3
−10
9.0 = 15 × e RC
9 = e −RC
10
15
10
15 = e RC
9
 
ln  15  = 10
 9 RC

10
RC = = 19.6s
ln (15 /9)
b time constant = RC, therefore
120 × 103 × C = 19.6 ⇒ C = 19.6 = 1.6 × 10−4 F = 160µ F

120 × 10 3
−t
4 Substitute the given values in I = I 0e RC
−t −20
I = I 0e RC = 10 × 10−3 × e 100 × 10 × 150 × 10 = 2.6 mA
3 −6

8 Logarithms
Logarithmic scales
1 a Step 1: log(120) = 2.079
log(5) = 0.699
Step 2: x = 2.079 + 0.699 = 2.778
Step 3: 102.778 = 599.79 = 600 to three significant figures
Using a calculator in the normal way, 120 × 5 = 600.
b Step 1: log(3600) = 3.5563
log(24) = 1.3802
Step 2: x = 3.5563 + 1.3802 = 4.9365
Step 3: 104.9365 = 86 397 = 86 400 to three significant figures
Using a calculator in the normal way, 3600 × 24 = 86 400.
Remember any differences in the answers are because of rounding errors in
writing down the values of the logs. The more significant figures you use for the
logs, the closer the answers will be.
c Step 1: log(3.2 × 107) = 7.5051
log(365) = 2.5623
Step 2: x = 7.5051 – 2.5623 = 4.9428
Step 3: 104.9428 = 87 659.7 = 87 660 to four significant figures
3.2 × 10 7
In the normal way, = 87 670, which is the same to three significant
365
figures.
2 a The values on the y-axis increase in powers of 10 for equal increments on the
y-axis rather than linearly and this shows the graph is logarithmic.
b Step 1:
1
=
1
= 1.0 × 10 –10 Hz –1
f 1.0 × 1010
Step 2: log(1.0 × 10 –10 ) = –10

1
Step 3: the value of log λ that corresponds to log   = –10 is –1.6.
f
Step 4: 10 –1.6 gives λ = 0.025 m.

3 a –1.0
b 24.5
c 2.92
4 a Step 1: log(4.5 × 103) = 3.65321
log(6.02 × 1023) = 23.77960
Step 2: answer = 10(3.65321 + 23.77960) = 2.71 × 1027
b Step 1: log(76) = 1.88081
log(1.6 × 10 –19) = –18.79588
Step 2: answer = 10(1.88081 + –18.79588) = 1.2 × 10 –17
c Step 1: log(9.0 × 109) = 9.95424
log(1.6 × 10 –19) = –18.79588
log(1.0 × 10 –9) = –9
Step 2: answer = 10(9.95424 + (–18.79588) – (–9) = 1.44
Using logarithms
1 a Step 1: taking logs, log T = log c + nlogk
−0.4 − 0.3 −0.7
Step 2: gradient = n = 1.4
=
1.4
= −0.5
b Step 1: intercept on the y-axis is 0.3.
Step 2: c = 100.3 = 2.0
c The relationship is T = 2.0 × k −0.5 = 2.0
k
In fact it is known that c = 2π m , where m is the mass hanging on the spring. In

this case, m = 0.1 kg, therefore c = 2 × π 0.1 = 2.0
.
Practice question (p.97)

2 a The table of values for log m and log T is shown in Table A.1.
Table A.1
m / kg T / s log(m / kg) log(T / s)
0.1 0.63 –1.00 –0.20
0.3 1.09 –0.52 0.04
0.5 1.40 –0.30 0.15
0.7 1.66 –0.15 0.22
0.9 1.88 –0.05 0.27
1.1 2.08 0.04 0.32
1.3 2.27 0.11 0.36
1.5 2.43 0.18 0.39

b Plotting log(m / kg) against log(T / s) will give a graph similar to the one in Figure A.3.
0.50
log (periodic time, T / s)
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0
–1.20 –1.00 –0.80 –0.60 –0.40 –0.20 0.20 0.40
–0.10
–0.20
–0.30
log (mass, m / kg)
Figure A.3
c i n is given by the gradient of the graph, which is −0.2 − 0.3

= 0.5
−1.0
ii The intercept on the y-axis is log c.
log c = 0.3 therefore c = 10 = 2.0
0.3

d The expression for T is therefore T = 2.0 × m0.5 = 2.0 m
Logarithms to different bases

1 ln (2.0) = 0.693
2 x = 1.8
3 ex = 33
4 ex = 0.14
5 e − λt = e( −0.132 × 8.0) = 0.348
Steps 1–3: therefore N = 6.0 × 1024 × 0.348 = 2.1 × 1024 atoms.
− t
6 Step 1: Q = Q0e RC
Therefore, taking logs, ln Q = ln Q0 − 1

t
RC
Step 2: re-arrange as ln Q = − 1 t + ln Q0
RC
1
Step 3: comparing with y = mx + c, the gradient of the graph is −
RC , which means
that the line will have a negative gradient.
The intercept on the y-axis is ln Q0

7 a 2.0 × 105
b 1.0
c 1.68 × 107
d 1.38
e 0.693

8 t 1 = 70.0s
2
9 a Remember that ln V = ln V0 – 1
×t
RC
The intercept on the y-axis is ln V0 = 1.1. Therefore V0 = e1.1 = 3.0 V.
−0.6 − 1.1 −1.7

b The gradient = −
1
RC
=
20
=
20
= −0.085
1 = 11.8 s
RC =
0.085
c If R = 100 kΩ then C = 11.8

= 118 × 10−6 F = 118 µF
100 × 10 3

9 Uncertainty
Calculating uncertainty
1 a Step 1: 0.56 + 0.56 + 0.54 + 0.56 + 0.56 + 0.56 + 0.58 + 0.53 + 0.53 + 0.55 5.53 = 0.553
=
10 10
Step 2: keeping your answer to one more significant figure than the times given,
average = 0.553 s
b Step 1: range = 0.58 – 0.53 = 0.050 s
Step 2: spread = ∆t ± 0.050
= 0.025s
2
c fractional uncertainty = ∆t = 0.025 = 0.045 = 4.5%
t 0.553
d Step 1: Δs is 0.5 cm and s is 150 cm.
∆s
Step 2: fractional uncertainty in the distance fallen = s
=
0.5
150
= 3.3 × 10−3 = 0.33%
2s 2 × 1.5
e Steps 1 and 2: a = = = 9.81 m s −2
t2 0.553
2
∆a ∆s ∆t
f Steps 1 and 2: a
=
s
+2× t
= 3.3 × 10−3 + 2 × 0.045 = 0.0933 ≈ 9%
Step 3: the actual uncertainty in a is ∆a = a × 0.0933 = 0.9 m s −2

g Steps 1 and 2: the value of the acceleration of the falling ball is 9.81 + 0.9 m s–2.
2 Step 1: CT = 4700 µF + 2200 µF = 6900 µF
Step 2: ΔCT = 230 + 110 = 340 µF
Step 3: CT = 6900 ± 340 µF

0.58 + 0.62 + 0.57 + 0.57 + 0.57 + 0.59 + 0.58 + 0.59 + 0.60 + 0.61 5.88
3 a Step 1: average = 10
=
10
Step 2: average = 0.588 s

b range of times = 0.62 – 0.57 = 0.05 s
spread, Δt = + 0.025 s
∆t
c fractional uncertainty in time = t
=
0.025
= 0.043 (4.3%)
0.588
d fractional uncertainty in distance = ∆ss =

1
= 0.005 (0.5%)
200
e speed = s = 200 = 340 m s −1

t 0.588
∆v = ∆s + ∆t = 0.005 + 0.043 = 0.05
v s t (5%)
∆v = v × 0.05 = 340 × 0.05 = 7 m s −1
speed = 340 + 20 m s–1

V 4.30
4 R = I = 0.50 = 8.6 Ω
∆V = 0.050 = 0.012 (1.2%)

V 4.30
∆I 0.050
= = 0.10 (10%)
I 0.50
∆R ∆V ∆I
Therefore = +
I
= 0.012 + 0.10 = 0.112 , which means that ∆R = 8.6 × 0.112
R V
= 0.96 Ω
R = 8.6 + 0.96 Ω
5 emf, ε = 1.46 + (0.5 × 0.120) = 1.52V
∆ ( Ir ) ∆I ∆r
fractional uncertainty in Ir = = +
r
=
0.050 0.0010
+ = 0.10 + 0.0083 = 0.108
Ir I 0.50 0.120
Therefore Δ(Ir) = (0.5 × 0.120) × 0.108 = 0.0065
∆ε = ∆V + ∆( Ir ) = 0.005 + 0.0065 = 0.012
The emf is thus 1.52 + 0.01 V.

Exam-style questions
1 a 7.5 billion km = 7.5 × 1012 m (1 mark)
b time = distance = 7.5 × 10 8 = 2.5 × 104 s

12
(1 mark)
Speed 3.0 × 10
2.5 × 104 = 6.9 h
h (max 2 s.f.) (1 mark)
3600
c time = data = 2.5 × 10 = 2.3 × 103 s

6
(1 mark)
data rate 1.1 × 103
2.3 × 103 = 38 min (max 2 s.f.) (1 mark)

60
d 8 hours is 480 min, therefore 480

38
= 12.6 ≈ 1 × 101 to 1 s.f. (1 mark)
e The space probe also has to transmit command data so cannot spend all
the time transmitting pictures. (1 mark)
Data compression would allow the pictures to be transmitted in less time.(1 mark)
2 a speed = distance = 20 = 1.8 × 108 m ss–1−1 (1 mark)

time 0.11 × 10−6
b ratio = 3.0 × 108 = 1.7 or 1.7 : 1 as a ratio
8
(1 mark)
1.8 × 10
c The refractive index of glass, airµglass, is 1.7. (1 mark)
d = 1.7 therefore sin r = sin 30

sin 30
sin r (1 mark)
1.7
−1  sin 30 
r = sin   = 17° (1 mark)
 1.7 
3 a d = 0.24 mm = 0.24 × 10−3 m
−3
∴ r = 0.24 × 10 = 1.2 × 10−4 m (1 mark)
2
A = π × (1.2 × 10−4 )2 = 4.5 × 10−8 m 2 (2 s.f. only) (1 mark)
0.21 × 10−3 = 1.05 × 10−4
b new radius = 2 m
−4 2 −8
new cross-sectional area = π × (1.05 × 10 ) = 3.5 × 10 m (1 mark)
2
−8 −8
percentage change = (3.5 × 10 − 4.5 × 10 ) × 100% = −1.0 × 10 × 100% = −22%
−8

4.5 × 10−8 4.5 × 10−8
−8 −8
(3.5 × 10 − 4.5 × 10 ) −8
−1.0 × 10 × 100% = −22% (1 mark)
−8
× 100% =
4.5 × 10 4.5 × 10−8
c original volume = new volume
Therefore 4.5 × 10−8 × 2.0 = 3.5 × 10−8 × l where l is the length
of the stretched wire.
−8
l = 4.5 × 10 ×−82.0 = 2.6 m (1 mark)
3.5 × 10

So the extension e = 2.6 − 2.0 = 0.60 m (1 mark)
d strain = 0.60 = 0.30
2.0
percentage strain = 0.30 × 100% = 30% (1 mark)
distance around orbit 2πr
4 a v = = (1 mark)
time for orbit T
( )
2 2 2
m 2
4π mr 4π mr
therefore F = × 2πr = = (1 mark)
r T T r
2
T
2
b F = GMm = 4π mr
2
(1 mark)
r2 T2 2 2
T 4π
Dividing both sides by GMmr and multiplying by T2 gives r3
=
GM (1 mark)
2 2
T
c From part b, , where the right-hand side is a constant
4π
=
r 3 GM
2
T
(with M = the mass of Earth). So is the same for any mass
r3 2
T
orbiting Earth, and must equal the value of for the Moon, which is
r3
T 2 = (28 × 24 × 3600)
2
(1 mark)
r3 (3.8 × 108 )3
= 1.1 × 10−13 s 2 m −3 (1 mark)
T
2
(1 × 24 × 3600) 2
d For the satellite = 3
= 1.1 × 10−13 s 2 m −3
r 3
(r )
2
(1 × 24 × 3600)
therefore r 3 = −13
= 7.0 × 10 22 m 3 (1 mark)
1.1 × 10
therefore r = 3
7.0 × 1022 = 4.1 × 107 m (max 2 s.f.) (1 mark)
5 a Use s = ut + 1 at 2
2
u is upwards, which we will take as negative: u = –5 m s–1.
a is downwards so is positive and has the same magnitude as g.
s is the final displacement of the stone from the thrower: 100 m.
therefore 100 = −5 × t + 1
× 9.8 × t 2 (1 mark)
2
Putting the equation in a form to solve using the quadratic solution:
4.9t 2 − 5t − 100 = 0 (1 mark)
−( −5) ± ( −5)2 − (4 × 4.9 × −100)
t = − b ± b − 4 ac ⇒ t =
2

2a 2 × 4.9
t = 5 ± 25 + 1960 = 5 ± 44.6 (1 mark)

9.8 9.8
In this case, the negative solution has no meaning.
therefore t = 49.6
= 5.1s (1 mark)
9.8
b The stone is in the air for 5.1 seconds.
In that time it travels 5.1 × 2.0 m = 10.2 m ≈ 10 m. (1 mark)
6 a ∆EP = mg ( l + x ) = mgl + mgx (1 mark)
therefore ∆EP = (60 × 9.8 × 20) + (60 × 9.8) x = (1.2 × 10 ) + (5.9 × 10 ) x J 4 2
× 20) + (60 × 9.8) = (1.2 × 104 ) + (5.9 × 102 ) x J

(60 × 9.8 (1 mark)

b ∆W = 1
k x2 = 1
× 120 x 2 (1 mark)
2 2
therefore ∆W = 60 x 2 J (1 mark)

c since ∆EP = ∆W then (1.2 × 104 ) + (5.9 × 102 ) x = 60 x 2 (1 mark)
re-arranging, 60 x 2 − 5.9 × 102 x − 1.2 × 104 = 0 (1 mark)
d This is a quadratic equation and has to be solved using the quadratic equation
formula:
− b ± b2 − (4 ac )
x=
2a
where a = 60, b = –5.9 × 102 and c = –1.2 × 104.
therefore
−(−5.9 × 10 ) ± (−5.9 × 10 ) − 4 × 60 × (−1.2 × 104 )
2 2 2
x= (1 mark)
2 × 60
x = 5.9 × 10 ± 3.5 × 10 + 2.9 × 10 = 5.9 × 10 ± 1.8 × 10

2 5 6 2 3
(1 mark)
120 120
The negative solution is meaningless in this case, therefore
x = 5.9 × 10 + 1.8 × 10 = 2.4 × 10 = 20 m
2 3 3
(1 mark)
120 120
Thus the minimum height from which he must jump is 20 + 20 = 40 m
(plus his height). (1 mark)
7 a pV = constant can be re-arranged to give p = constant × 1
. (1 mark)
V
1
b i Plotting p on the y-axis and V on the x-axis should give a straight line.(1 mark)
ii The gradient is the constant in the equation. (1 mark)
1
c i Values of V need to be calculated as in the table.
Table A.2
1

Volume / cm3 / (cm3)–1 Pressure / kPa
V
41 0.024 100
35 0.029 120
30 0.033 140
26 0.038 160
24 0.042 180
21 0.048 200
19 0.053 220
18 0.056 240
16 0.063 260
15 0.067 280 (1 mark)

A graph like the one in Figure A.4 is plotted. (2 marks)
350
Pressure / kPa
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0.000 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050 0.060 0.070 0.080
1
( V ) / (cm3)–1
Figure A.4
∆p 250 × 10 3
ii The gradient is = = 4.2 × 106 Pa cm.3 (1 mark)
∆ 1/ V 0.059
This is the value of the constant in the equation. (1 mark)

8 a Since the emf is the rate of change of flux linkage, the maximum emf
occurs when the rate of change of flux linkage is greatest. (1 mark)
This is when the gradient of the graph is steepest, which is as it crosses
the x‑axis. (1 mark)
1
Flux linkage / Wb turns
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
–0.2
–0.4
–0.6
–0.8
–0.1
Time / s
Figure A.5 The emf is the gradient of the graph
b The maximum gradient of the graph is

∆( N φ ) 1.0 − ( −1.0)
ε =− = (1 mark)
∆t 0.019 − 0.011
therefore ε = 2.0
= 250 V (note the unit) (2 marks)
8.0 × 10 −3
9 a The work done extending the rubber band by 20 cm is the area between
the curve and the extension axis (as 20 cm = 0.2 m).
This should be shaded. (1 mark)
b One large square is 5 × 0.02 = 0.1 J (1 mark)
There are about 21 large squares between the curve and the axis. (1 mark)
The work done is therefore 21 × 0.1 = 2 J (1 mark)

1
10 a γ = (1 mark)
1 − (2.98 × 10 ) / (3.00 × 108 )2
8 2
therefore γ = 8.7 (1 mark)

distance = 60 × 103 = 2.0 × 10−4 s = 200 µs
b time = (1 mark)
speed 2.98 × 108
c t = γ t0 = 8.7 × 2.0 × 10−6 s (1 mark)
therefore t = 17 × 10−6 s = 17 µs (1 mark)
200 µs
d ≈ 12 half-lives (1 mark)
17 µs
1 1
e proportion left = 12 = = 2.4 × 10−4 = 0.024% (1 mark)
2 4096
11 a Your sketch should be similar to Figure A.6.
0.25
Displacement / m
0.20
Maximum velocity Maximum velocity
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
–0.05 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
–0.10
–0.15
–0.20
–0.25
Time /s
Figure A.6
You should notice that if ω is 4π then there will be two complete

oscillations in a second since ω = 2πf. (1 mark)
The amplitude should be the same for both oscillations and be +0.2 m. (1 mark)
b See Figure A.6 for the labels. (2 marks)
c Remember to make sure your calculator is in radians mode.
( )
2
a = −A ω2 cos ωt therefore a = −0.2 × 4 π cos(4 π × 0.3) (1 mark)
a = −26 m s −2 (1 mark)
d Maximum acceleration is when cos (ωt) = ±1
amax = Aω 2 = 0.2 × (4π )2 = 32 m s −2 (1 mark)
12 Make sure your calculator is in degrees mode for this question.
1 1
a slit width = = = 1.25 × 10−6 m (1 mark)
number of lines per metre 800 × 103
d sin θ 1.25 × 10−6 × sin(23.6)

b λ = n = 1 (1 mark)
λ = 1.25 × 10−6 × 0.400 = 5.00 × 10−7 m = 500 nm (1 mark)

c For the second-order image, 2λ = d sin θ, so
 −7

θ = sin −1  2λ  = sin −1  2 × 5.00 × 10
 
 d   1.25 × 10 −6  (1 mark)
therefore θ = sin−1 (0.8) = 53.1 ° (1 mark)

d There will be no third-order image seen. (1 mark)
 −7 
Because, if n = 3, θ = sin −1  3λ  = sin −1  3 × 5.00 × 10
 d  1.25 × 10 −6 
= sin −1 1.2 ( )
which does not exist. (1 mark)
13 a The magnitude of the resultant is found using Pythagoras
R= 2002 + 302 (1 mark)
−1
therefore R = 202 m s (1 mark)
b The angle between north and the resultant, θ = tan −1 ( )
30
200
(1 mark)
therefore θ = 8.5 ° (1 mark)
c The plane must fly in a direction west of north. (1 mark)
 
angle, θ = tan −1  30  = 6.8° (1 mark)
 250 
magnitude, R = 2502 + 302 = 252 m s −1 (1 mark)

14 a The vertical component of the tension, T, has magnitude W.
W = mg = 1.0 × 10−6 × 9.8 = 9.8 × 10−6 N (1 mark)
W 9.8 × 10 −6
W = T cos θ therefore T = cos θ
=
cos 15
= 1.0 × 10−5 N (1 mark)
b F is the horizontal component of T. (1 mark)

F = T sin θ = 1.0 × 10−5 × sin15 = 2.6 × 10−6 N (1 mark)
kQ1Q2
⇒k = F×r
2
c F = (1 mark)
r 2 Q1Q2
2.6 × 10−6 × (0.09)2

therefore kk == = 9.4 × 109 m F−1 (1 mark)
(1.5 × 10−9 )2
15 a The diameter of the steel rope is (16 ÷ 2) mm = 8 × 10−3 m, so the

cross-sectional area is
A = π × (8.0 × 10−3 )2 = 2.0 × 10−4 m 2 (1 mark)
The weight of 8.0 × 103 kg is 8.0 × 103 × 9.8 = 7.8 × 104 N (1 mark)
F 7.8 × 10 4
The tensile stress is therefore σ = = = 3.9 × 108 Pa (1 mark)
A 2.0 × 10 −4
σ 3.9 × 108
b strain = = = 2.0 × 10−3 (1 mark)
E 2.0 × 1011
e
strain, ε = , therefore e = ε × l = 2.0 × 10−3 × 30 = 0.06 m (1 mark)
l
c breaking stress,
σ = F ⇒ Fmax = σ × A = 7.4 × 108 × 2.0 × 10−4 = 1.5 × 105 N (1 mark)
A
F 1.5 × 105
mass, m = g
= = 1.5 × 104 kg (1 mark)
9.8
Therefore maximum load must be <1.5 × 104 kg (less than 15 tonnes). (1 mark)

16 a R = V = 5.0 = 27.8 Ω = 28 Ω (1 mark)
I 0.18
 0.32 × 10−3 
2
−8
b A = πr 2
= π ×   = 8.0 × 10 m
2
(1 mark)
2
ρl RA
c R = A ⇒ ρ = l (1 mark)
−8
ρ = 28 × 8.0 × 10 = 1.1 × 10−6 Ω m (1 mark)
2.0
d As the volumes are the same, 8.0 × 10−8 × 2.0 = A2 × 2.1.
8.0 × 10 −8 × 2.0
therefore A2 = = 7.6 × 10−8 m 2 (1 mark)
2.1
ρ l2 1.1 × 10 −6 × 2.1
new resistance, R2 = A2
= = 30 Ω (1 mark)
7.6 × 10 −8
17 a The linear speed, v, of an object rotating with a frequency, f, and a radius, r, is
given by v = 2πrf and the angular velocity is ω = 2πf .
Combining the two equations gives v = rω. (1 mark)
v
therefore ω = r
= 13.4
(1 mark)
0.33
ω = 40.6 rad s−1 (1 mark)

b v = rω = 0.325 × 40.6 = 13.2 m s−1 (about 29.5 mph) (1 mark)
13.2 − 13.4 × 100%
c percentage difference = (1 mark)
13.2
−0.2 × 100% = −1.5%
= (1 mark)
13.2
1.3 × 10 7
18 a diameter of the Moon = = 3.7 × 106 m (1 mark)
3.5
b Using similar triangles, if the ratio of the distance of the coin to its
diameter is 110 : 1 then it is the same ratio of the distance to the
Moon to its diameter. (1 mark)
Therefore the distance to the Moon is about 110 Moon diameters
= 3.7 × 106 × 110 = 4.1 × 108 m (1 mark)
1.4 × 10 9
c The Sun has a diameter of 1.4 × 109 m. This is = 380 times the
3.7 × 10 6
diameter of the Moon. (1 mark)
Therefore the Sun is about 380 times further away than the Moon.
distance = 380 × 4.1 × 108 = 1.6 × 1011 m (1 mark)
19 a the decay constant, λ =

ln 2
t1 (1 mark)
2
therefore λ =
ln 2
= 7.6 × 10−10 s−1 (1 mark)
28.8 × 365 × 24 × 3600
b initial activity, A0 = λ N 0 (1 mark)

N 0 = 5.0 × NA = 0.0556 × 6.02 × 1023 = 3.3 × 1022 atoms (1 mark)
90
therefore A0 = λ N 0 = 7.6 × 10−10 × 3.3 × 1022 = 2.5 × 1013 Bq (1 mark)
c A = A0e − λt
t = 50 × 365 × 24 × 3600 = 1.6 × 109 s (1 mark)

therefore the activity after 50 years, A = 2.5 × 1013 × e −7.6 ×10
−10
× 1.6 × 109
therefore A = 7.4 × 1012 Bq (1 mark)

ln 2 = ln 2 = 1.0 × 10−6 s−1
20 a λ = (1 mark)
t1 8.02 × 24 × 3600
2
b A = λ N therefore N = λA (1 mark)

N = 4.5 × 10 = 4.5 × 1015 atoms
9
(1 mark)
−6
1.0 × 10
c A = A0e − λt therefore A = 4.5 × 109 × e −1.0 ×10 (1 mark)
−6
× 10 × 24 × 3600
A = 1.9 × 109 Bq (1 mark)

d As well as the nuclear decay of iodine, the body also excretes iodine and
so not all the original iodine will remain in the body after 10 days. (1 mark)
21 a To calculate the current, the total resistance is required.
1 = 1 + 1 = 2.3 × 10−3 Ω −1
(1 mark)
RT 680 1200
therefore RT = 1
−3
= 430 Ω (1 mark)
2.3 × 10
V
therefore I = = 5.0
= 0.012 A = 12 mA (1 mark)
R 430
b The time constant, RC, is 4700 × 10−6 × 430 = 2.0 s (1 mark)
− t
c The potential difference after 1.5 s is given by V = V0e RC (1 mark)
− 1.5
therefore V = 5.0 × e 2.0 = 2.4 V (1 mark)
22 a Q = CV = 1.0 × 10−6 × 10 = 1.0 × 10−5 C = 10 µC (1 mark)
b Capacitors in parallel add, therefore CT = 1.0 µF + 10 µF = 11 µF (1 mark)
Q 10 × 10−6
c V = = = 0.91 V ≈ 0.9 V (1 mark)
C 11 × 10−6
d 1.0 µF capacitor: Q = CV = 1.0 × 10−6 × 0.91 = 9.1 × 10−7 C (1 mark)
−6 −6
10 µF capacitor: Q = CV = 10 × 10 × 0.91 = 9.1 × 10 C (1 mark)
e ∆W = 1 QV = 1 × 1.0 × 10−5 × 10 = 5.0 × 10−5 J (1 mark)
2 2
1 1
f i ∆W = 2 CV 2 = 2 × 1.0 × 10−6 × (0.9) 2 = 4.1 × 10−7 J (1 mark)
ii ∆W = 1 CV 2 = 1 × 10 × 10−6 × (0.9) 2 = 4.1 × 10−6 J (1 mark)

2 2
(You might have expected the two values calculated in part f to add up to the
value calculated in part e, but work is done in moving the charge from one
capacitor to another and so energy is dissipated as heat to the surroundings.)
23 a Taking logs: log p + γ log V = log(constant) (1 mark)
Therefore, re-arranging, log p = −γ log V + log(constant) and so a
graph of log p against log V will give a straight line of gradient –γ and
intercept log(constant). (1 mark)

b The completed table of results will be:
Table A.3
p / kPa V / m3 log (V / m3) log (p / Pa)
100 0.20 –0.699 5.00
109 0.19 –0.721 5.04
119 0.18 –0.745 5.08
131 0.17 –0.770 5.12
145 0.16 –0.796 5.16
162 0.15 –0.824 5.21
181 0.14 –0.854 5.26
205 0.13 –0.886 5.31
235 0.12 –0.921 5.37 (2 marks)
A suitable graph is shown in Figure A.7.

5.50
log (p/ Pa)

5.30
5.10
4.90
4.70
4.50
4.30
4.10
3.90
3.70
3.50
–1.000 –0.800 –0.600 –0.400 –0.200 0.000 0.200
(2 marks)
log (V/ m3)
Figure A.7
c The gradient of the graph is −γ = 3.83 − 5.38 (2 marks)

= −1.7
0.92
Therefore γ = 1.7.
d The intercept is 3.82 which is log(constant) (1 mark)
therefore the constant is 103.82 = 6.6 × 103. (1 mark)
24 a ln A = − λ t + ln A0, so for a graph of ln A against t, the gradient is –λ
and the intercept is ln A0. Note that it is best to use natural logs on this
occasion because the natural log of e-λt is –λt. (1 mark)
b A suitable table will be:
Table A.4
Time / s Activity / Bq ln(A / Bq)
0 160 5.08
20 131 4.88
40 108 4.68
60 88 4.48
80 72 4.28
100 59 4.08
120 49 3.89
140 40 3.69
160 33 3.50
180 27 3.30
200 22 3.09 (1 mark)

The graph is shown in Figure A.8.
6.00
ln (A/Bq)
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
0 50 100 150 200 250
Time / s
Figure A.8 (2 marks)
c The gradient of the graph is −λ = 3.1 − 5.1 (1 mark)
= −0.010 s−1
200
therefore t = = 69 s (1 mark)
ln 2
1
2
0.010
25 a The mean of the periodic time is

5.7 + 5.5 + 5.3 + 5.5 + 5.6 + 5.7 + 5.4 + 5.6 + 5.3 + 5.4 = 55 = 5.5s
(1 mark)
10 10
b The range of values is (5.7 – 5.3) s = 0.4 s. (1 mark)
Therefore the spread is +0.2 s and this is the uncertainty. (1 mark)
∆T
c The percentage uncertainty is × 100% = 0.2
× 100% = 3.6% (1 mark)
T 5.5
d The percentage uncertainty in the length, l, is
∆l × 100% = 0.01 × 100% = 0.1%
(1 mark)
l 7.5
4π 2 l 4π 2 × 7.5 = 9.8 N kg −1
g = 2 = (1 mark)
T 5.52
percentage uncertainty =
∆l + 2 ∆T = 0.1% + 2 × 3.6% = 7.3%
l T
7.3% of 9.8 is 0.7
Therefore the value of g is found to be 9.8 + 0.7 N kg−1. (1 mark)

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Essential Maths Skills

Step 2: 0.00001 = 1 × 10 –5

Practice questions (p.10)

Essential Maths Skills for AS/A-level Physics 2

Practice questions (p.13)

Essential Maths Skills for AS/A-level Physics 3

Practice questions (p.15)

Step 2: using r = d2 , area = π × 4

Essential Maths Skills for AS/A-level Physics 4

Practice questions (p.17)

K = V = 2.0 = 6.8 × 10−3 m 3 K −1

Standard form and significant figures

Practice questions (p.21)

Essential Maths Skills for AS/A-level Physics 5

Calculations using standard form

Step 3: 10 800 in standard form is 1.0800 × 104.

Essential Maths Skills for AS/A-level Physics 6

Practice questions (p. 24)

form to two significant figures.

Essential Maths Skills for AS/A-level Physics 7

Practice questions (p.26)

Essential Maths Skills for AS/A-level Physics 8

b Step 1: 72 is the lowest common denominator.

c Step 1: the common denominator is v2c2.

b Step 1: dividing by 3 is the same as multiplying by 4

c Step 1: dividing by 2Tπe is the same as multiplying by T .

Essential Maths Skills for AS/A-level Physics 9

b Steps 1–3: 1r × GMm

6.7 × 10 –4 is a quantity called the tensile strain.

Practice questions (p.32)

1 Efficiency = useful energy output

2 Step 1: final voltage – initial voltage = 1.26 – 1.23 = 0.03

Step 2: % change = × 100% = × 100% = 2.4%

Essential Maths Skills for AS/A-level Physics 10

Step 2: original value = final value ÷ (1 + fractional change)

Practice questions (p.34)

6 original speed = final value

7 new length = 2.5 + ( 100 2.5) = 2.51 m

8 Step 1: energy input = 2.0 × 3.0 × 1010 J = 6.0 × 1010 J.

Essential Maths Skills for AS/A-level Physics 11

Practice question (p.36)

Practice questions (p.38)

Essential Maths Skills for AS/A-level Physics 12

Practice questions (p.41)

f ■■ Multiply both sides by 2 to give 2s = (u + v )t

Essential Maths Skills for AS/A-level Physics 13

■■ Multiply both sides by g to give gT 2 = 4π 2 l

■■ Square root both sides to give r = Q

■■ Square root both sides to give Q = 2 EC

since  γ1  =

■■ Multiply both sides by c2 to give v 2 = c 2 1 − ( 1

100 × 10 −6 × 150 × 10 −6 1.5 × 10 −8

100 × 10 −6 × 150 × 10 −6 1.5 × 10 −8 −5

d Step 1: 26 – 32 = 26 – 9 = 17

Essential Maths Skills for AS/A-level Physics 14

Practice questions (p.44)

g = 4 × π ×2 2.5 = 98.696 = 9.82 m s–2

= 2 × 18.8 × 10−20 = 37.6 × 10−20 =

Step 2: 0.4 × t 2 + 8.0 × t − 210 = 0

The negative value can be ignored, so t = 15 s.