Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics

Chapter No. 2
The First Law of Thermodynamics
A gateway towards best solutions for Numerical Problems
Made and solved by Moosa Naseer (Chemical Engineering, UET Lahore)
For all dear Classfellows………
2.1. Problem 1
A non-conducting container filled with 25 kg of water at 293.15 K (20°C) is fitted with a stirrer, which is
made to turn by gravity acting on a weight of mass 35 kg. The weight falls slowly through a distance of 5 m
in driving the stirrer. Assuming that all work done on the weight is transferred to the water and that the
local acceleration of gravity is 9.8 m/s2, determine:
(a) The amount of work done on the water.
(b) The internal-energy change of the water.
(c) The final temperature of the water, for which Cp = 4.18 kJ/ kg-C.
(d) The amount of heat that must be removed from the water to return it to its initial temperature.
(e) The total energy change of the universe because of: (1) the process of lowering the weight,
(f) The process of cooling the water back to its initial temperature, and (3) both processes together.

Solution

The system is defined as the water contained in the container.

(a) The work done on the system is the work done by the stirrer on the water. Assuming there are no
dissipative forces, the work done will be equal to the change of potential energy of the weight.

𝑚𝑚
𝑊𝑊𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚∆𝑧𝑧 = (35 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘) �9.8 � (5 𝑚𝑚) = 1715 𝐽𝐽
𝑠𝑠 2

(b) Considering the container is nonconducting, the heat losses are negligible; the first law of
thermodynamics applied to the closed system gives:

∆𝑈𝑈 = 𝑊𝑊 + 𝑄𝑄 (𝑄𝑄 = 0)
∆𝑈𝑈 = 𝑊𝑊 → ∆𝑈𝑈 = 1715 𝐽𝐽

(c) The volume of water does not change significantly during the process, therefore is reasonable to
assume a constant volume process and the following definition of heat capacity can be applied.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 = 𝑛𝑛
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 𝑇𝑇2 𝑈𝑈2
𝑛𝑛 � 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑇𝑇1 𝑈𝑈1

𝑛𝑛𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 (𝑇𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑇1 ) = ∆𝑈𝑈

∆𝑈𝑈 1.715 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑇𝑇2 = + 𝑇𝑇1 → 𝑇𝑇2 = + 20°𝐶𝐶 → 20,016 °𝐶𝐶
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑣𝑣 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
25𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 4,18
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝐶𝐶°
(d) Because the system returns to its initial state, the change of internal energy is 0; the first law
neglecting the change of potential and kinetic energy reduces to:

∆𝑈𝑈 = 𝑄𝑄 + 𝑊𝑊 → ∆𝑈𝑈 = 0
0 + 𝑊𝑊 = 0 → 𝑄𝑄 = −𝑊𝑊 = −1715𝐽𝐽

(e) The energy of the universe remains unchanged regardless of the process on the system. For all
three cases, the change of internal energy is 0.

2.2. Problem 2
Rework Prob. 2.1 for an insulated container that changes in temperature along with the water
and has a heat capacity equivalent to 5 kg of water. Work the problem with:
(a) The water and container as the system; (b) The water alone as the system.

Solution
(a) The work done on both systems remains the same: W = 1715J,
(b) If the water and container is taken as the system, then ∆𝑈𝑈 = 𝑊𝑊 → ∆𝑈𝑈 = 1715𝐽𝐽
However if only the water is taken as the system, then there will be lost heat due to the
temperature change of the container, ∆𝑈𝑈𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 = 𝑊𝑊 − 𝑄𝑄

It is reasonable to assume that the volume of the container will not change significantly and the
heat can be modeled as:

𝑇𝑇2
𝑄𝑄 = ∆𝑈𝑈𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝑛𝑛 � 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑛𝑛𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 (𝑇𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑇1 )
𝑇𝑇1

The first law of thermodynamics becomes:

∆𝑈𝑈𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 𝑊𝑊 − 𝑛𝑛𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 (𝑇𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑇1 )

(c) Water + container:

𝑇𝑇2 𝑇𝑇2
∆𝑈𝑈𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = ∆𝑈𝑈𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + ∆𝑈𝑈𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 𝑛𝑛𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑛𝑛𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 � 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑇𝑇1 𝑇𝑇1

∆𝑈𝑈𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑛𝑛𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 (𝑇𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑇1 ) + 𝑛𝑛𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 (𝑇𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑇1 )

Solving for T 2

∆𝑈𝑈𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 + �𝑛𝑛𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝑛𝑛𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 � ∙ 𝑇𝑇1

𝑇𝑇2 =
𝑛𝑛𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝑛𝑛𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
1.715𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + �5𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 4.18 + 25 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 4.18 � ∙ 20 °𝐶𝐶
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ °𝐶𝐶 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ °𝐶𝐶
𝑇𝑇2 = = 20,0136 °𝐶𝐶
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
5𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 4.18 + 25 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 4.18
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ °𝐶𝐶 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ °𝐶𝐶

Water:

∆𝑈𝑈𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 = 𝑊𝑊 − 𝑄𝑄 → ∆𝑈𝑈𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 = 𝑊𝑊 − 𝑛𝑛𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 (𝑇𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑇1 )

Assuming the volume of water remains constant

𝑇𝑇2
∆𝑈𝑈𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 = 𝑛𝑛 � 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑛𝑛𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 (𝑇𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑇1 )
𝑇𝑇1

Replacing on the first law

𝑛𝑛𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 (𝑇𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑇1 ) = 𝑊𝑊 − 𝑛𝑛𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 (𝑇𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑇1 )

Solving for 𝑇𝑇2 :

𝑊𝑊 + �𝑛𝑛𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝑛𝑛𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 � ∙ 𝑇𝑇1

𝑇𝑇2 =
𝑛𝑛𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝑛𝑛𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
1.715𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + �5𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 4.18 + 25 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 4.18 � ∙ 20 °𝐶𝐶
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ °𝐶𝐶 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ °𝐶𝐶
𝑇𝑇2 = = 20,0136 °𝐶𝐶
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
5𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 4.18 + 25 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 4.18
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ °𝐶𝐶 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ °𝐶𝐶

The same final temperature is obtained regardless of what is taken as the system. With the final
temperature, the change of internal energy of water may be calculated.

∆𝑈𝑈𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 = 𝑊𝑊 − 𝑛𝑛𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 (𝑇𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑇1 )

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
∆𝑈𝑈𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 = 1.715𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 5𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 4,18 (20,0136 °𝐶𝐶 − 20 °𝐶𝐶)
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 °𝐶𝐶
∆𝑈𝑈𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 = 1,429 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

(d) For both systems, the same amount of heat must be removed to reach its initial temperature.
∆𝑈𝑈 = 𝑄𝑄 + 𝑊𝑊 → ∆𝑈𝑈 = 0
0 + 𝑊𝑊 = 0 → 𝑄𝑄 = −𝑊𝑊 = −1715𝐽𝐽
 (e) The same as problem 2.1, the total internal energy change of the universe is zero for all the
processes.

2.3. Problem 3
An egg, initially at rest, is dropped onto a concrete surface and breaks. With the egg treated as the
system,
(a) What is the sign of W?
(b) What is the sign of ΔE p ?
(c) What is ΔE k ?
(d) What is ΔU'?
(e) What is the sign of Q?
In modeling this process, assume the passage of sufficient time for the broken egg to return to its initial
temperature. What is the origin of the heat transfer of part (e)?

Solution

The first law of thermodynamics may be written as:

∆𝑈𝑈 + ∆𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 + ∆𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 = 𝑊𝑊 + 𝑄𝑄

(a) There is no work done on the system, neither the system does work to its surroundings,
therefore W=0.
(b) The egg falls down from a higher surface, the elevation decreases and the sign of potential
energy is negative (-)
(c) Since the egg is at rest in both its initial and final state, ∆𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 = 0
(d) Assuming the egg does not get scrambled, the internal energy does not change, ΔU = 0
(e) ∆𝑈𝑈 + ∆𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 + ∆𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 = 𝑊𝑊 + 𝑄𝑄
∆𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 = 𝑄𝑄

Since the change of potential energy is negative, the heat must also be negative. A closer look to the process
indicates that the potential energy turns into kinetic while the egg is falling, then just before it strikes the
concrete the kinetic energy appears instantly as internal energy, thus raising its temperature. Heat transfer
to the surroundings lowers the temperature until the egg reaches its initial state.

2.4. Problem 4
An electric motor under steady load draws 9.7 amperes at 110 volts, delivering 0.93 kW of mechanical
energy. What is the rate of heat transfer from the motor, in kW?

Solution
The total electric power supplied by the motor is calculated as:
𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑖𝑖 ∙ 𝐸𝐸 = 9,7 𝐴𝐴 ∙ 110 𝑉𝑉 = 1067 𝑊𝑊
Assuming no dissipative forces from friction or other sources, the power delivered by the motor must be
equal to the work done by the motor and the heat released by the motor.
𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑊𝑊𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑄𝑄𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Solving for Q
𝑄𝑄𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝑊𝑊𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑄𝑄𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 1067 𝑊𝑊 − 930 𝑊𝑊
𝑄𝑄𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 137 𝑊𝑊

2.5. Problem 5
One mole of gas in a closed system undergoes a four-step thermodynamic cycle. Use the data given in the
following table to determine numerical values for the missing quantities, i.e., "fill in the blanks."

Step ΔU/J Q/J W/J

12 -200 ? -6000
23 ? -3800 ?
34 ? -800 300
41 4700 ? ?
12341 ? ? -1400

Solution
Equation 2.3 may be applied assuming there are no significant changes on the kinetic and potential
energy.
∆𝑈𝑈 = 𝑄𝑄 + 𝑊𝑊

In the step 1-2, heat can be calculated directly.

∆𝑈𝑈12 = 𝑄𝑄12 + 𝑊𝑊12

𝑄𝑄12 = −200 − (−6000) → 𝑄𝑄12 = 5800 𝐽𝐽

In step 3-4, internal energy can be calculated directly.

 ∆𝑈𝑈34 = 𝑄𝑄34 + 𝑊𝑊34
∆𝑈𝑈34 = −800 + 300 → ∆𝑈𝑈34 = −500 𝐽𝐽

As in a thermodynamic cycle, the system returns to its initial state, the total change of internal energy is
zero and the total heat can be calculated.

𝑄𝑄12341 = ∆𝑈𝑈12341 − 𝑊𝑊12341

𝑄𝑄12341 = 0 − (−1400) → 𝑄𝑄12341 = 1400 𝐽𝐽

Likewise, the sum of internal energy of all the steps in the process must also be zero.

∆𝑈𝑈12341 = ∆𝑈𝑈12 + ∆𝑈𝑈23 + ∆𝑈𝑈34 + ∆𝑈𝑈41

∆𝑈𝑈23 = −(∆𝑈𝑈12 + ∆𝑈𝑈34 + ∆𝑈𝑈41 ) + ∆𝑈𝑈12341
∆𝑈𝑈23 = −(−200 + −500 + 4700) + 0 → ∆𝑈𝑈23 = −4000𝐽𝐽

Now, work done on step 2-3 can be calculated

∆𝑈𝑈23 = 𝑄𝑄23 + 𝑊𝑊23

𝑊𝑊23 = −4000 − (−3800) → 𝑊𝑊23 = −200 𝐽𝐽

The total work done is equal to the work done on each step

𝑊𝑊12341 = 𝑊𝑊12 + 𝑊𝑊23 + 𝑊𝑊34 + 𝑊𝑊41

𝑊𝑊41 = −(𝑊𝑊12 + 𝑊𝑊23 + 𝑊𝑊34 ) + 𝑊𝑊12341
𝑊𝑊41 = −(−6000 + −200 + 300) + −1400 → 𝑊𝑊41 = 4500𝐽𝐽

Finally, calculate the heat on step 4-1

∆𝑈𝑈41 = 𝑄𝑄41 + 𝑊𝑊41

𝑄𝑄41 = 4700 − (4500) → 𝑄𝑄41 = 200 𝐽𝐽
 Step ΔU/J Q/J W/J
12 -200 5800 -6000
23 -4000 -3800 -200
34 -500 -800 300
41 4700 200 4500
12341 0 1400 -1400

2.6. Problem 6
Comment on the feasibility of cooling your kitchen in the summer by opening the door to the electrically
powered refrigerator.

Consider that the cooling process of a refrigerator is not a ideal process, not all the electrical energy
entering the refrigerator can be turn into work done by the motor. Some heat must be released, this
happens on the motor and the condenser of the refrigerator. The amount of heat released must be greater
the absorbed heat (see Chapter 6), thus the temperature will rise instead of fall. Additionally, the
refrigerator will burn out within days.

2.7. Problem 7
A renowned laboratory reports quadruple-point coordinates of 10.2 Mbar and 297.25 K (24.1°C) for four-
phase equilibrium of allotropic solid forms of the exotic chemical
Β-miasmone. Evaluate the claim.

Solution

The phase rule states that 𝐹𝐹 = 2 − 𝜋𝜋 + 𝑛𝑛, according to the laboratory report a complex yet pure substance
(N=1) is in a four-phase equilibrium (𝜋𝜋 = 4). If this is true, then the degrees of freedom will be 𝐹𝐹 = 2 −
4 + 1 = −1. This result is impossible; the claim is invalid.

2.8. Problem 8
A closed, nonreactive system contains species 1 and 2 in vapor/liquid equilibrium. Species 2 is a very light
gas, essentially insoluble in the liquid phase. The vapor phase contains both species 1 and 2. Some
additional moles of species 2 are added to the system, which is then restored to its initial T and P. As a
result of the process, does the total number of moles of liquid increase, decrease, or remain unchanged?

Solution

The phase rule states 𝐹𝐹 = 2 − 𝜋𝜋 + 𝑁𝑁 = 2 − 2 + 2 = 2. Specification of T and P fixes the intensive state of
the system, so the phase compositions are also fixed. Since the liquid phase is pure species 1, an addition
of species 2 must increase its amount on the vapor phase. However, as phase compositions remain fixed
some liquid moles evaporate to restore the initial vapor phase compositions, thus decreasing the total
number of moles of liquid.

2.9. Problem 9
A system comprised of chloroform, 1,4-dioxane, and ethanol exists as a two-phase vapor/liquid system at
323.15 K (50°C) and 55 kPa. It is found, after the addition of some pure ethanol, that the system can be
returned to two-phase equilibrium at the initial T and P. In what respect has the system changed, and in
what respect has it not changed?

Solution
The phase rule states 𝐹𝐹 = 2 − 𝜋𝜋 + 𝑁𝑁 = 2 − 2 + 3 = 3. Specification of T and P leaves one degree of
freedom, thus the phase compositions may be changed for a given T and P. With the addition of pure
ethanol, the intensive state of the system changes completely as the phase composition and molar amount
of the phases are affected. Only T and P remain the same within the system.

2.10. Problem 10
For the system described in Pb. 2.9:
(a) How many phase-rule variables in addition to T and P must be chosen so as to fix the compositions of
both phases?
(b) If the temperature and pressure are to remain the same, can the overall composition of the system be
changed (by adding or removing material) without affecting the compositions of the liquid and vapor
phases?

Solution

(a) F=3, with fixed T and P, one extra intensive variable must be specified to fix the intensive state of
the system.
(b) If vapor with the same vapor phase composition enters or leaves the system, the two phase
compositions remain unaffected. Likewise if a liquid with the same liquid phase composition.
However, the overall composition will be affected at all cases as it depends on the relative amount
of each phase. Only if an azeotropic composition is achieved, when the two phase composition are
the same, is possible to add or remove material without altering the overall composition of the
system.

2.11. Problem 11
A tank containing 20 kg of water at 293.15 K (20°C) is fitted with a stirrer that delivers work to the water at
the rate of 0.25 kW. How long does it take for the temperature of the water to rise to 303.15 K (30°C) if no
heat is lost from the water? For water, Cp = 4.18 kJ/ kg-°C.

Solution
 ∆𝑈𝑈 ∆𝑈𝑈
= 𝑊𝑊̇ → ∆𝑡𝑡 =
∆𝑡𝑡 𝑊𝑊̇

∆𝑈𝑈 = 𝑚𝑚 ∙ 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 ∙ ∆𝑇𝑇 ← 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
∆𝑈𝑈 = 20 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 4.18 ∙ (30°𝐶𝐶 − 20°𝐶𝐶) → 836 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ °𝐶𝐶
836𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
∆𝑡𝑡 = = 3345𝑠𝑠 → 55,7 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 → 0,928� ℎ𝑟𝑟
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
0,25
𝑠𝑠

2.12. Problem 12
Heat in the amount of 7.5 kJ is added to a closed system while its internal energy decreases by 12 kJ. How
much energy is transferred as work? For a process causing the same change of state but for which the work
is zero, how much heat is transferred?

Solution

For a closed system with negligible kinetic and potential energy changes, the equation 2.3. becomes valid.
∆𝑈𝑈 = 𝑄𝑄 + 𝑊𝑊
(a)
−12 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 7.5𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 𝑊𝑊
𝑊𝑊 = −19.5 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

(b) ∆𝑈𝑈 = 𝑄𝑄 → 𝑄𝑄 = −12𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

2.13. Problem 13
A steel casting weighing 2 kg has an initial temperature of 773.15 K (500°C); 40 kg of water initially at 298.15
K (25°C) is contained in a perfectly insulated steel tank weighing 5 kg. The casting is immersed in the water
and the system is allowed to come to equilibrium. What is its final temperature? Ignore any effect of
expansion or contraction, and assume constant specific heats of 4.18 kJ/kg-K for water and 0.50 kJ/kg-K for
steel.

Solution
No heat and no work enters nor leaves the system thus, there is no change of internal energy

∆𝑈𝑈𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 0
The total change of internal energy is the sum of all internal energy changes within the system. C = casting,
T = steel tank, W = water.
 𝑚𝑚𝑡𝑡 ∙ 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∙ ∆𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡 + 𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 ∙ 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ∙ ∆𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 + 𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 ∙ 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∙ ∆𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 = 0
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝑚𝑚𝑡𝑡 ∙ 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∙ �𝑇𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑇1𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 � + 𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 ∙ 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ∙ (𝑇𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑇1𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 ) + 𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 ∙ 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∙ �𝑇𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑇1 �=0

Solving for T 2

𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝑚𝑚𝑡𝑡 ∙ 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∙ 𝑇𝑇1𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 + 𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 ∙ 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ∙ 𝑇𝑇1𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 + 𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 ∙ 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∙ 𝑇𝑇1
𝑇𝑇2 =
𝑚𝑚𝑡𝑡 ∙ 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 ∙ 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 + 𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 ∙ 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

5 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 0.50 ∙ 298.15𝐾𝐾 + 40 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 4.18 ∙ 298.15𝐾𝐾 + 2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 0,50 ∙ 773.15𝐾𝐾
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝐾𝐾 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝐾𝐾 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝐾𝐾
𝑇𝑇2 =
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
5 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 0.50 + 40 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 4.18 + 2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 0,50
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝐾𝐾 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝐾𝐾 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝐾𝐾

𝑇𝑇2 = 300,93 𝐾𝐾 → 27.78 °𝐶𝐶

2.14. Problem 14
An incompressible fluid (ρ = constant) is contained in an insulated cylinder fitted with a frictionless piston.
Can energy as work be transferred to the fluid? What is the change in internal energy of the fluid when
the pressure is increased from P 1 to P 2 ?

Solution

If the fluid density remains constant through the compression process, then the process is considered a V-
constant process, for which the work is zero. Furthermore if the cylinder is perfectly insulated, no heat is
transferred and ΔU = 0.

2.15. Problem 15
One kg of liquid water at 298.15 K (25°C):
(a) Experiences a temperature increase of 1 K. What is ΔU t , in kJ?
(b) Experiences a change in elevation Δz. The change in potential energy ΔE p is the
same as ΔU' for part (a). What is Δz, in meters?
(c) Is accelerated from rest to final velocity u. The change in kinetic energy ΔE k is the
same as ΔU t for part (a). What is u in m/s?

Compare and discuss the results of the three preceding parts.

Solution
 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
(a) Water at 25°C has a heat capacity of 4.18 ; an increase of 1 K does not change its heat
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘∙𝐾𝐾
capacity significantly, thus the internal energy can be calculated as:
𝑇𝑇2
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
∆𝑈𝑈 = 𝑚𝑚 � 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑚𝑚𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 ∆𝑇𝑇 = (1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘) ∙ �4.18 � ∙ (1𝐾𝐾) = 4.18 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑇𝑇1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝐾𝐾
(b)
∆𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 4180 𝐽𝐽
∆𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚∆𝑧𝑧 → ∆𝑧𝑧 = = = 426.53 𝑚𝑚
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘) ∙ �9.8 𝑚𝑚 �
𝑠𝑠 2
(c)
1 2∆𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 2 ∙ 4180 𝐽𝐽 𝑚𝑚
∆𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 = 𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑢2 → 𝑢𝑢 = � =� = 91.43
2 𝑚𝑚 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑠𝑠

2.16. Problem 16
An electric motor runs "hot” under load, owing to internal irreversibilities. It has been suggested that the
associated energy loss be minimized by thermally insulating the motor casing. Comment critically on this
suggestion.

Solution
The “hotness” of an electric motor is due to mechanical and electrical irreversibilities that increase its
internal energy, which elevates the temperature of the motor. The temperature continues to rise until the
system reaches a thermal equilibrium with the surroundings. Insulating the motor will not decrease its
internal irreversibilities and merely causes an increase of the motor temperature, which may cause internal
damage.

2.17. Problem 17
A hydroturbine operates with a head of 50 m of water. Inlet and outlet conduits are 2 m in diameter.
Estimate the mechanical power developed by the turbine for an outlet velocity of 5 m/s.

Solution

The general mass balance is:

𝑑𝑑𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
+ ∆(𝑚𝑚)𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Assuming a steady state, the mass balance reduces to:
∆(𝑚𝑚)𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 0
Since the turbine has only one input and one output stream:
∆(𝑚𝑚)𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 0 → 𝑚𝑚2 − 𝑚𝑚1 = 0 → 𝑚𝑚1 = 𝑚𝑚2 (Constant mass flowrate)
 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Calculate the mass flowrate (assume a water density of 1000 )
𝑚𝑚3
2
𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷
𝑚𝑚̇2 = 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 → 𝐴𝐴 =
4
2
𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷 𝑚𝑚 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝜋𝜋 ∙ 22 𝑚𝑚2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑚𝑚̇2 = 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = �5 � ∙ �1000 3 � ∙ � � = 15708
4 𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚 4 𝑠𝑠

The general heat balance for an open system (such as a hydroturbine) is:

𝑑𝑑(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 1
+ ∆ �𝐻𝐻 + 𝑢𝑢2 + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔� 𝑚𝑚̇ = 𝑄𝑄̇ + 𝑊𝑊̇
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2

Consider the following reasonable assumptions of the process

• No significant increase in temperature (∆𝐻𝐻 ≅ 0)
• No significant increase in velocity (∆𝑢𝑢 ≅ 0)
• Negligible heat loss to the surroundings. (𝑄𝑄̇ ≅ 0)
𝑑𝑑𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑑𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
• Steady state ( 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 0 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 0)

The heat balance simplifies to:

𝑊𝑊̇ = 𝑚𝑚̇𝑔𝑔∆𝑧𝑧

𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑚𝑚
𝑊𝑊̇ = 15708 ∙ 9.8 2 ∙ 50𝑚𝑚 = 7696 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠

2.18. Problem 18
Liquid water at 453.15 K (180°C) and 1002.7 kPa has an internal energy (on an arbitrary scale) of 762.0
kJ/kg and a specific volume of 1.128 cm3/g.
(a) What is its enthalpy?
(b) The water is brought to the vapor state at 573.15 K (300°C) and 1500 kPa, where its internal energy is
2784.4 kJ/kg and its specific volume is 169.7 cm3 g-'. Calculate ΔU and ΔH for the process.

Solution
(a)
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑚𝑚3 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝐻𝐻1 = 𝑈𝑈1 + 𝑃𝑃1 𝑉𝑉1 → 762 + (1002.7 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘) ∙ �0.001128 � = 763.13
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
(b)
 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
∆𝑈𝑈 = 2784.4 − 762 = 2022.4
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑚𝑚3 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝐻𝐻2 = 𝑈𝑈2 + 𝑃𝑃2 𝑉𝑉2 → 2784.4 + (1500 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘) ∙ �0.1697 � = 3038.95
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
∆𝐻𝐻 = 3038.95 − 763.13 = 2275.82
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

2.19. Problem 19
A solid body at initial temperature T 0 is immersed in a bath of water at initial temperature T w0. Heat is
transferred from the solid to the water at a rate Q = K (T w - T), where K is a constant and T w and T are
instantaneous values of the temperatures of the water and solid. Develop an expression for T as a function
of time t. Check your result for the limiting cases, t = 0 and t = ∞. Ignore effects of expansion or contraction,
and assume constant specific heats for both water and solid.

Solution

Write the general energy balance for the solid immersed in the water bath.
𝑑𝑑(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 1
+ �∆(𝐻𝐻 + 𝑢𝑢2 + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔)𝑚𝑚̇� = 𝑄𝑄̇ + 𝑊𝑊̇
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

Assume the following

• The process occurs within a closed system.
• Negligible potential and kinetic energy.
• No work transferred into the system.
• Symbols with subscripts s refer to the solid as well as symbols with subscripts w refer to the water
bath.
The general energy balance reduces to:
𝑑𝑑(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)𝑠𝑠
= 𝑄𝑄̇
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Since the mass of the solid remains constant
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 = 𝑄𝑄̇ → 𝑄𝑄̇ = 𝑘𝑘(𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 ) → 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 = 𝑘𝑘(𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Applying the chain rule
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑈𝑈𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 ∙ = 𝑘𝑘(𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 ) → 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 = → 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 ∙ = 𝑘𝑘(𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 )
𝑑𝑑𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Now an expression of 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 as a function of 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 is required. To obtain this expression consider that the decrease
of internal energy within the solid equals the increase of internal energy in the water. Mathematically, it is
expressed as
∆𝑈𝑈𝑠𝑠 = −∆𝑈𝑈𝑤𝑤
Assuming constant specific heats for both water and solid
𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 (𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠0 ) = −𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤 (𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 − 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤0 )
Solving for T w
𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 = 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤0 − (𝑇𝑇 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠0 )
𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤 𝑠𝑠
Replace this expression into the reduced energy balance
𝑑𝑑𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 ∙ = 𝑘𝑘(𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 ) → 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 ∙ = 𝑘𝑘(𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤0 − (𝑇𝑇 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠0 ) − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤 𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑑𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 ∙ = 𝑘𝑘(𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤0 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − (𝑇𝑇 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠0 ))
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤 𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑑𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤0 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠0 𝑑𝑑𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤0 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠0
= 𝑘𝑘( − )→ = 𝑘𝑘( − − + )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤 𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤
𝑑𝑑𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 1 1 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠0 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤0
= −𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 � + � + 𝑘𝑘 � + �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤 𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠
1 1 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
Define: 𝛽𝛽 = 𝑘𝑘 �𝑚𝑚 + � , 𝛼𝛼 = 𝑘𝑘 �𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠0𝐶𝐶 + 𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤0𝐶𝐶 �, where both α and β are constants.
𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤 𝑤𝑤 𝑤𝑤 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠

𝑑𝑑𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠
= 𝛼𝛼 − 𝛽𝛽𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Integration from 0 to t and from T s0 to T s yields
𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠
� = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠0 𝛼𝛼 − 𝛽𝛽𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 0

𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠
1
− ln(𝛼𝛼 − 𝛽𝛽𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 )� = 𝑡𝑡|𝑡𝑡0
𝛽𝛽 𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠0

1 𝛼𝛼 − 𝛽𝛽𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 𝛼𝛼 − 𝛽𝛽𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠
− ln � � = 𝑡𝑡 → = exp(−𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽)
𝛽𝛽 𝛼𝛼 − 𝛽𝛽𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠0 𝛼𝛼 − 𝛽𝛽𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠0
Solving for T s
𝛼𝛼 𝛼𝛼
𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 = (𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠0 − ) exp(−𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽) +
𝛽𝛽 𝛽𝛽
For t = 0
𝛼𝛼 𝛼𝛼 𝛼𝛼 𝛼𝛼
𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 = (𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠0 − ) exp(0) + → 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 = (𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠0 − ) + → 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 = 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠0
𝛽𝛽 𝛽𝛽 𝛽𝛽 𝛽𝛽
For t = ∞
𝛼𝛼
𝛼𝛼 𝛼𝛼 (𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠0 − ) 𝛼𝛼
𝛽𝛽
𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 = lim (𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠0 − ) exp(−𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽) + → 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 = lim +
𝑡𝑡→∞ 𝛽𝛽 𝛽𝛽 𝑡𝑡→∞ exp(𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽) 𝛽𝛽
 𝛼𝛼 𝛼𝛼
𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 = 0 + → 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 =
𝛽𝛽 𝛽𝛽
Another way to find the result at t = ∞ is to think that when enough time passes, a thermal equilibrium is
achieved and the temperature of the solid equals the temperature of the water bath.
𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 = 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤0 − (𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠0 ) → 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 = 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤0 − (𝑇𝑇 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠0 )
𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤 𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤 𝑠𝑠
Solving for T s
𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤0 𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤 + 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠0 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 =
𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤 + 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠
However
𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠0 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤0 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠0 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 + 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤0 𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤
𝛼𝛼 𝑘𝑘 �𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤 + 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 � 𝛼𝛼 � 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤 � 𝛼𝛼 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠0 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 + 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤0 𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤
= → = → =
𝛽𝛽 𝑘𝑘 � 1 + 1 � 𝛽𝛽 𝑚𝑚 𝐶𝐶 + 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠
� 𝑤𝑤 𝑤𝑤 � 𝛽𝛽 𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤 + 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚𝑤𝑤 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤
Therefore,
𝛼𝛼
𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 =
𝛽𝛽

2.20. Problem 20!!!

A list of common unit operations follows:
(a) Single-pipe heat exchanger; (b) Double-pipe heat exchanger; (c) Pump;
(d) Gas compressor: (e) Gas turbine; (f) Throttle valve: (g) Nozzle.
Develop a simplified form of the general steady-state energy balance appropriate for each operation.
State carefully, and justify, any assumptions you make.

2.21. Problem 21
The Reynolds number Re is a dimensionless group which characterizes the intensity of a flow. For large
𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢
Re, a flow is turbulent; for small Re, it is laminar. For pipe flow, = , where D is pipe diameter and μ is
𝜇𝜇
dynamic viscosity.

(a) If D and ρ are fixed, what is the effect of increasing mass flowrate 𝑚𝑚̇ on Re?
(b) If m and ρ are fixed, what is the effect of increasing D on Re?

Solution
𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷2
For a cylindrical pipe, the cross-sectional area is 𝐴𝐴 = 4
2
𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷 𝑢𝑢𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷 2 𝜌𝜌
𝑚𝑚̇ = 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 → 𝐴𝐴 = → 𝑚𝑚̇ =
4 4
Solving for u
 4𝑚𝑚̇
𝑢𝑢 =
𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷 2 𝜌𝜌

Replace u in the definition of Reynolds number.

𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 4𝑚𝑚̇ 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 4𝑚𝑚̇

𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = → 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 2
→ 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 =
𝜇𝜇 𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷 𝜌𝜌 𝜇𝜇 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
(a) Clearly, an increase of mass flowrate results in an increase of Re.
(b) Clearly, an increase of the pipe diameter results in a decrease of Re

2.22. Problem 22
An incompressible (ρ = constant) liquid flows steadily through a conduit of circular cross-section and
increasing diameter. At location 1, the diameter is 2.5 cm and the velocity is 2 m/s ; at location 2, the
diameter is 5 cm.
(a) What is the velocity at location 2?
(b) What is the kinetic-energy change (J/kg) of the fluid between locations 1 and 2?

Solution
𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷2
(a) A circular cross-section area is calculated as: 𝐴𝐴 = 4
The mass balance of the incompressible flow gives:
∆𝑚𝑚̇ = 0 → 𝑚𝑚̇1 = 𝑚𝑚̇2 → 𝑢𝑢1 𝐴𝐴1 𝜌𝜌 = 𝑢𝑢2 𝐴𝐴2 𝜌𝜌 → 𝜌𝜌 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 → 𝑢𝑢1 𝐴𝐴1 = 𝑢𝑢2 𝐴𝐴2
𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷1 2 2.5 2 2
𝐴𝐴1 𝐷𝐷 2
𝑚𝑚 � � 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚
→ 𝑢𝑢2 = 𝑢𝑢1 4 2 → 𝑢𝑢2 = 𝑢𝑢1 2 → 𝑢𝑢2 = �2 � 100 2
1
𝑢𝑢2 = 𝑢𝑢1 = 0.5
𝐴𝐴2 𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷2 𝐷𝐷2 𝑠𝑠 5 2
𝑠𝑠
4 � � 𝑚𝑚
100
(b)
∆𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 1 2 1 2 1 2 2)
1 2 2)
𝑚𝑚2 𝐽𝐽
= 𝑢𝑢2 − 𝑢𝑢1 → ∆𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 = (𝑢𝑢 2 − 𝑢𝑢1 → ∆𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘 = ((0.5) − 2 ) 2 → −1.875
𝑚𝑚 2 2 2 2 𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

2.23. Problem 23
A stream of warm water is produced in a steady-flow mixing process by combining 1.0 kg/s of cool water
at 298.15 K (25°C) with 0.8 kg/s of hot water at 348.15 K (75°C). During mixing, heat is lost to the
surroundings at the rate of 30 kW. What is the temperature of the warm-water stream? Assume the specific
heat of water constant at 4.18 kJ/ kg-K.

Solution
Write the general energy balance and mass balance for the system
𝑑𝑑(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 1
Energy balance: + �∆(𝐻𝐻 + 𝑢𝑢2 + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔)𝑚𝑚̇� = 𝑄𝑄̇ + 𝑊𝑊̇
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
𝑑𝑑(𝑚𝑚)𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
Mass balance: + �∆(𝑚𝑚)̇ �𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Assume the following
• The process is at steady state
• Negligible potential and kinetic energy.
• No work transferred into the system.
• Constant heat capacity for both streams
The energy balance and mass balance reduces to
Reduced energy balance: [∆(𝐻𝐻)𝑚𝑚̇]𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 𝑄𝑄̇ → 𝑚𝑚̇3 𝐻𝐻3 − (𝑚𝑚̇2 𝐻𝐻2 + 𝑚𝑚̇1 𝐻𝐻1 ) = 𝑄𝑄̇
Reduced mass balance: �∆(𝑚𝑚)̇ �𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 0 → 𝑚𝑚̇3 − (𝑚𝑚̇2 + 𝑚𝑚̇1 ) = 0̇

Combine the energy and mass balances

(𝑚𝑚̇2 + 𝑚𝑚̇1 )𝐻𝐻3 − (𝑚𝑚̇2 𝐻𝐻2 + 𝑚𝑚̇1 𝐻𝐻1 ) = 𝑄𝑄̇
𝑚𝑚̇2 (𝐻𝐻3 − 𝐻𝐻2 ) + 𝑚𝑚̇1 (𝐻𝐻3 − 𝐻𝐻1 ) = 𝑄𝑄̇ → ∆𝐻𝐻 = 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 ∆𝑇𝑇 → 𝑚𝑚̇2 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 (𝑇𝑇3 − 𝑇𝑇2 ) + 𝑚𝑚̇1 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 (𝑇𝑇3 − 𝑇𝑇1 ) = 𝑄𝑄̇
Solve for T 3
𝑄𝑄̇ + 𝑚𝑚̇2 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 𝑇𝑇2 + 𝑚𝑚̇1 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 𝑇𝑇1
𝑇𝑇3 =
𝑚𝑚̇2 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 + 𝑚𝑚̇1 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
−30 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 0.8 𝑠𝑠 ∙ 4.18 ∙ 348.15 + 1 𝑠𝑠 ∙ 4.18 ∙ 298.15 𝐾𝐾
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝐾𝐾 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝐾𝐾
𝑇𝑇3 = = 316,38 𝐾𝐾
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
0.8 𝑠𝑠 ∙ 4.18 + 1 𝑠𝑠 ∙ 4.18
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝐾𝐾 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝐾𝐾

2.24. Problem 24
Gas is bled from a tank. Neglecting heat transfer between the gas and the tank, show that mass and
energy balances produce the differential equation:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=
− 𝑈𝑈 𝐻𝐻 ´𝑚𝑚
Here, U and m refer to the gas remaining in the tank; H' is the specific enthalpy of the gas leaving the
tank. Under what conditions can one assume H' = H?

Solution

Write the general energy balance and mass balance for the system (the tank)
𝑑𝑑(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 1
Energy balance: + �∆(𝐻𝐻 + 𝑢𝑢2 + 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔)𝑚𝑚̇� = 𝑄𝑄̇ + 𝑊𝑊̇
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
𝑑𝑑(𝑚𝑚)𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
Mass balance: + �∆(𝑚𝑚)̇ �𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Assume/consider the following
• Negligible potential and kinetic energy.
• No work transferred into the system.
• No heat transferred into the system.
• Only one stream leaving the tank

The reduced energy and mass balances are

𝑑𝑑(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)
Reduced energy balance: + 𝐻𝐻 ′ 𝑚𝑚̇1 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Reduced Mass balance: + 𝑚𝑚̇1 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Eliminate 𝑚𝑚̇1 from the energy balance by the mass balance

𝑑𝑑(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

− 𝐻𝐻 ′ = 0 → 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑈𝑈 − 𝐻𝐻 ′ = 0 → 𝑚𝑚 + (𝑈𝑈 − 𝐻𝐻 ′ ) =0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 dU dm

𝑚𝑚 = �𝐻𝐻 ´ − 𝑈𝑈� → ´ = → multiply by dt → ′ =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝐻𝐻 − 𝑈𝑈) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 H −U m

Presumption of H’ = H is only valid assuming uniform conditions throughout the tank. This requires the
absence of any gradients in the gas in the tank.

2.25. Problem 25
Water at 301.15 K (28°C) flows in a straight horizontal pipe in which there is no exchange of either heat or
work with the surroundings. Its velocity is 14 m/s in a pipe with an internal diameter of 2.5 cm until it flows
into a section where the pipe diameter abruptly increases. What is the temperature change of the water if
the downstream diameter is 3.8 cm? If it is 7.5 cm]? What is the maximum temperature change for an
enlargement in the pipe?

Solution

Assume a steady-state system

The material balance for a horizontal pipe is straightforward

𝑚𝑚̇1 = 𝑚𝑚̇2 → 𝜌𝜌1 𝑢𝑢1 𝐴𝐴1 = 𝜌𝜌1 𝑢𝑢2 𝐴𝐴2

Assume an incompressible fluid (ρ = constant) and calculate the final velocity:

 𝐴𝐴1 𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷 2 𝐷𝐷1 2
𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢1 𝐴𝐴1 = 𝜌𝜌𝑢𝑢2 𝐴𝐴2 → 𝑢𝑢2 = 𝑢𝑢1 → 𝐴𝐴 = → 𝑢𝑢2 = 𝑢𝑢1 2
𝐴𝐴2 4 𝐷𝐷2

The reduced energy balance with negligible work, heat and potential energy is
1
∆ �𝐻𝐻 + 𝑢𝑢2 � 𝑚𝑚̇ = 0
2
As mass flowrate is constant and can’t be zero, the equation reduces to
1
∆ �𝐻𝐻 + 𝑢𝑢2 � = 0
2
1 𝐷𝐷1 2 1 𝐷𝐷1 2
𝐻𝐻2 − 𝐻𝐻1 + (𝑢𝑢2 2 − 𝑢𝑢1 2 ) = 0 → 𝑢𝑢2 = 𝑢𝑢1 2 → 𝐻𝐻2 − 𝐻𝐻1 + �(𝑢𝑢1 2 )2 − 𝑢𝑢1 2 � = 0
2 𝐷𝐷2 2 𝐷𝐷2
1 𝐷𝐷1 2 1 𝐷𝐷1 4 1 𝐷𝐷1 4
𝐻𝐻2 − 𝐻𝐻1 = − �(𝑢𝑢1 2 )2 − 𝑢𝑢1 2 � → ∆𝐻𝐻 = − 𝑢𝑢1 2 � 4 − 1� → ∆𝐻𝐻 = 𝑢𝑢1 2 �1 − 4 �
2 𝐷𝐷2 2 𝐷𝐷2 2 𝐷𝐷2
Assume a constant heat capacity for the water (C p = 4.18 kJ/kg-K)
1 𝐷𝐷1 4 1 𝐷𝐷1 4
∆𝐻𝐻 = 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 ∆𝑇𝑇 ↔ ∆𝐻𝐻 = 𝑢𝑢1 2 �1 − 4 � → 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 ∆𝑇𝑇 = 𝑢𝑢1 2 �1 − 4 �
2 𝐷𝐷2 2 𝐷𝐷2
1 𝑢𝑢1 2 𝐷𝐷1 4
∆𝑇𝑇 = �1 − � � �
2 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 𝐷𝐷2

Case D 2 = 3.8cm
1 𝑢𝑢1 2 𝐷𝐷1 4 1 (14 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠)2 (0.025 𝑚𝑚)4
∆𝑇𝑇 = �1 − � � � → �1 − � → ∆𝑇𝑇 = 0.019 𝐾𝐾
2 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 𝐷𝐷2 2 4180 𝐽𝐽 (0.038 𝑚𝑚)4
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝐾𝐾
Case D 2 = 7.5cm
1 𝑢𝑢1 2 𝐷𝐷1 4 1 (14 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠)2 (0.025 𝑚𝑚)4
∆𝑇𝑇 = �1 − � � � → �1 − � → ∆𝑇𝑇 = 0.0231 𝐾𝐾
2 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 𝐷𝐷2 2 4180 𝐽𝐽 (0.075 𝑚𝑚)4
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝐾𝐾
Case D 2 = ∞
1 𝑢𝑢1 2 𝐷𝐷1 4 1 𝑢𝑢1 2 1 (14 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠)2
∆𝑇𝑇 = lim �1 − � � � → → → ∆𝑇𝑇 = 0,02344 𝐾𝐾
𝐷𝐷2 →∞ 2 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 𝐷𝐷2 2 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 2 4180 𝐽𝐽
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝐾𝐾
The temperature change is negligible, thus the assumptions of constant density and constant heat
capacity are completely reasonable.
 2.26. Problem 26
Fifty (50) kmol per hour of air is compressed from P 1 = 1.2 bar to P 2 = 6.0 bar in a steady-flow
compressor. Delivered mechanical power is 98.8 kW. Temperatures and velocities are:
𝑇𝑇1 = 300 𝐾𝐾 𝑇𝑇2 = 520 𝐾𝐾
𝑢𝑢1 = 10 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠 𝑢𝑢2 = 3.5 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠
7
Estimate the rate of heat transfer from the compressor. Assume for air that Cp = R and that enthalpy is
2
independent of pressure.

Solution

The material (molar) balance for the compressor is

∆𝑛𝑛̇ = 0 ↔ 𝑛𝑛̇ 1 = 𝑛𝑛̇ 2 ↔ 𝜌𝜌1 𝑢𝑢1 𝐴𝐴1 = 𝜌𝜌1 𝑢𝑢2 𝐴𝐴2 constant
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑔𝑔
Additional information → 𝑛𝑛̇ = 50 �
= 13. 8 / molecular weight = 29
ℎ𝑟𝑟 𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
The energy balance with negligible potential energy
1
∆ �𝐻𝐻 + 𝑢𝑢2 � 𝑛𝑛̇ = 𝑄𝑄̇ + 𝑊𝑊̇
2
Solving for Q
1 1
𝑄𝑄̇ = 𝑛𝑛̇ �∆𝐻𝐻 + ∆𝑢𝑢2 � − 𝑊𝑊̇ → ∆𝐻𝐻 = 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 ∆𝑇𝑇 → 𝑄𝑄̇ = 𝑛𝑛̇ �𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 ∆𝑇𝑇 + ∆𝑢𝑢2 � − 𝑊𝑊̇
2 2
1 2
𝑄𝑄̇ = 𝑛𝑛̇ �𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 ∆𝑇𝑇 + ∆𝑢𝑢 � − 𝑊𝑊̇
2

1
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 7 𝐽𝐽 1 𝑚𝑚2 29 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝐽𝐽
𝑄𝑄̇ = 13.8 ∙ � ∙ 8.314 ∙ (520 − 300) + (3.52 − 102 ) 2 ∙ � − 98800
𝑠𝑠 2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∙ 𝐾𝐾 2 𝑠𝑠 1000 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠
𝑄𝑄̇ = −9904.06 𝐽𝐽⁄𝑠𝑠 = −9.9 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

2.27. Problem 27
Nitrogen flows at steady state through a horizontal, insulated pipe with inside diameter of 38.1 mm. A
pressure drop results from flow through a partially opened valve. Just upstream from the valve the pressure
is 690kPa, the temperature is 322.15 K (49"C), and the average velocity is 6.09 m/s. If the pressure just
downstream from the valve is 138 kPa, what is the temperature? Assume for nitrogen that PV/ T is constant,
C v = (5/2) R, and C p = (7/2) R.

1 𝑚𝑚2 𝐽𝐽
The term 29/1000 fixes the dimensional incongruence as resembles
𝑠𝑠 2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Solution

The mass balance is straightforward

𝑢𝑢1 𝐴𝐴1 𝑢𝑢2 𝐴𝐴2 𝑢𝑢1 𝑢𝑢2

𝑚𝑚̇1 = 𝑚𝑚̇2 → = → 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 → =
𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉2
𝑉𝑉2
𝑢𝑢2 = 𝑢𝑢
𝑉𝑉1 1
The following equations comes as a consequence of the assumption of a constant PV/T.
𝑃𝑃1 𝑉𝑉1 𝑃𝑃2 𝑉𝑉2 𝑇𝑇2 𝑃𝑃1
= → solving for V2 → 𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑉1 ∙ ∙
𝑇𝑇1 𝑇𝑇2 𝑇𝑇1 𝑃𝑃2
Replacing this expression on the later equation
𝑉𝑉2 𝑇𝑇2 𝑃𝑃1 𝑇𝑇2 𝑃𝑃1
𝑢𝑢2 = 𝑢𝑢1 → 𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑉1 ∙ ∙ → 𝑢𝑢2 = 𝑢𝑢1
𝑉𝑉1 𝑇𝑇1 𝑃𝑃2 𝑇𝑇1 𝑃𝑃2

The energy balance for the horizontal insulated pipe is:

1 1
∆ �𝐻𝐻 + 𝑢𝑢2 � 𝑚𝑚̇ = 0 → as ṁ can not be zero → ∆ �𝐻𝐻 + 𝑢𝑢2 � = 0
2 2
1 1
∆ �𝐻𝐻 + 𝑢𝑢2 � = 0 ↔ ∆𝐻𝐻 = − ((𝑢𝑢2 )2 − (𝑢𝑢1 )2 )
2 2
Assuming that enthalpy’s dependency of pressure is negligible and constant heat capacity
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 → ∆𝐻𝐻 = 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 ∆𝑇𝑇
Replacing this expression on the energy balance.
1
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 ∆𝑇𝑇 = − ((𝑢𝑢2 )2 − (𝑢𝑢1 )2 )
2
Replacing the final velocity expression on the energy balance
𝑇𝑇2 𝑃𝑃1 1 𝑇𝑇2 𝑃𝑃1 2 1 𝑇𝑇2 𝑃𝑃1 2
𝑢𝑢2 = 𝑢𝑢1 → 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 ∆𝑇𝑇 = − ((𝑢𝑢1 ) − (𝑢𝑢1 )2 ) → 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 ∆𝑇𝑇 = 𝑢𝑢1 2 (1 − � � )
𝑇𝑇1 𝑃𝑃2 2 𝑇𝑇1 𝑃𝑃2 2 𝑇𝑇1 𝑃𝑃2
1 2 𝑇𝑇2 𝑃𝑃1 2
𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 (𝑇𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑇1 ) = 𝑢𝑢1 (1 − � � )
2 𝑇𝑇1 𝑃𝑃2
Use Newton’s method to find 𝑇𝑇2
1 𝑇𝑇 𝑃𝑃 2
Objective function: 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 (𝑇𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑇1 ) − 𝑢𝑢1 2 �1 − �𝑇𝑇2 𝑃𝑃1 � � =0
2 1 2

Initial value: 𝑇𝑇2 = 𝑇𝑇1 = 322.15

Iterative solution: 𝑇𝑇2 = 321.72 K

 2.28. Problem 28
Water flows through a horizontal coil heated from the outside by high-temperature flue gases. As it
passes through the coil the water changes state from liquid at 200 kPa and 353.15 K (80°C) to vapor at
100 kPa and 398.15 K (125°C). Its entering velocity is 3 m/s and its exit velocity is 200 m/s. Determine
the heat transferred through the coil per unit mass of water. Enthalpies of the inlet and outlet streams are:
Inlet: 334.9 kJ/kg; Outlet: 2726.5 kJ/kg.

Solution

The intensive energy balance for the coil is:

1
∆ �𝐻𝐻 + 𝑢𝑢2 � = 𝑄𝑄̇
2
The heat can be calculated directly
1 (𝑢𝑢2 2 − 𝑢𝑢1 2 )
𝑄𝑄̇ = ∆ �𝐻𝐻 + 𝑢𝑢2 � → 𝑄𝑄̇ = 𝐻𝐻2 − 𝐻𝐻1 +
2 2
(𝑢𝑢2 2 − 𝑢𝑢1 2 ) 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 (2002 − 32 ) 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑄𝑄̇ = 𝐻𝐻2 − 𝐻𝐻1 + = (2726.5 − 334.9) + ∙ = 2411,6
2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 2 1000 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

2.29. Problem 29
Steam flows at steady state through a converging, insulated nozzle, 25 cm long and with an inlet diameter
of 5 cm. At the nozzle entrance (state I), the temperature and pressure are 598.15 K (325°C) and 700 kPa,
and the velocity is 30 m/s. At the nozzle exit (state 2), the steam temperature and pressure are 513.15 K
(240°C) and 350 kPa. Property values are:
𝐻𝐻1 = 3112.5 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘⁄𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑉𝑉1 = 388,61 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘⁄𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝐻𝐻2 = 2945.7 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘⁄𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑉𝑉2 = 667,75 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘⁄𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
What is the velocity of the steam at the nozzle exit, and what is the exit diameter?

Solution
The material balance for the nozzle is:
∆𝑚𝑚̇ = 0 → 𝑚𝑚̇1 = 𝑚𝑚̇2 → 𝑚𝑚̇ = constant
The energy balance for the insulated nozzle gives:
1 1 𝑢𝑢2 2 − 𝑢𝑢1 2
∆ �𝐻𝐻 + 𝑢𝑢2 � 𝑚𝑚̇ = 0 → constant ṁ → ∆ �𝐻𝐻 + 𝑢𝑢2 � = 0 → ∆𝐻𝐻 = −
2 2 2
Solving for 𝑢𝑢2

𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚
𝑢𝑢2 = �−2∆𝐻𝐻 + 𝑢𝑢1 2 → 𝑢𝑢2 = �−2 ∙ ( 2945.7 − 3112,5) ∙ 1000 2
+ 30 2
2
→ 578,36
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠
Considering that the mass flowrate is constant, the final diameter can be calculated
𝑢𝑢1 𝐴𝐴1 𝑢𝑢2 𝐴𝐴2 𝑢𝑢1 𝑉𝑉2
𝑚𝑚̇1 = 𝑚𝑚̇2 → = → solving for A2 → 𝐴𝐴2 = 𝐴𝐴1 ∙ ∙
𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉2 𝑢𝑢2 𝑉𝑉1
For a cylindrical nozzle, the cross-section area is: 𝐴𝐴 = 𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷 2 ⁄4.

𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷2 2 𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷1 2 𝑢𝑢1 𝑉𝑉2 𝑢𝑢1 𝑉𝑉2 𝑢𝑢1 𝑉𝑉2 𝑢𝑢1 𝑉𝑉2
= ∙ ∙ → 𝐷𝐷2 2 = 𝐷𝐷1 2 ∙ ∙ → 𝐷𝐷2 = �𝐷𝐷1 2 ∙ ∙ → 𝐷𝐷2 = 𝐷𝐷1 � ∙
4 4 𝑢𝑢2 𝑉𝑉1 𝑢𝑢2 𝑉𝑉1 𝑢𝑢2 𝑉𝑉1 𝑢𝑢2 𝑉𝑉1

𝑢𝑢1 𝑉𝑉2 30 667,75

𝐷𝐷2 = 𝐷𝐷1 � ∙ → 𝐷𝐷2 = 5 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐� ∙ → 𝐷𝐷2 = 1,493 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑢𝑢2 𝑉𝑉1 578,36 388,61

2.30. Problem 30
In the following take C v = 20.8 and C p = 29.1 J/mol-C° for nitrogen gas:
(a) Three moles of nitrogen at 303.15 K (30°C), contained in a rigid vessel, is heated to 523.15 K (250°C).
How much heat is required if the vessel has a negligible heat capacity? If the vessel weighs 100 kg and has
a heat capacity of 0.5 kJ/kg-C°, how much heat is required?
(b) Four moles of nitrogen at 473.15 K (200°C) is contained in a piston/cylinder arrangement.
How much heat must be extracted from this system, which is kept at constant pressure, to cool it to
313.15 K (40°C) if the heat capacity of the piston and cylinder is neglected?

Solution
(a) A rigid vessel resembles a closed container with constant volume, therefore the following
equation may be applied.
𝑛𝑛(∆𝑈𝑈) = 𝑄𝑄
A) Neglecting the heat capacity of the vessel
𝑛𝑛(∆𝑈𝑈) = 𝑄𝑄 → 𝑛𝑛∆𝑈𝑈 = 𝑛𝑛𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 ∆𝑇𝑇 → 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑛𝑛𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 ∆𝑇𝑇
𝐽𝐽
𝑄𝑄 = 3 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∙ 20.8 ∙ (250 − 30) = 13728 𝐽𝐽 = 13,73 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∙ 𝐶𝐶°
B) Considering the heat capacity of the vessel ( ve – Vessel, N – Nitrogen)
𝑛𝑛(∆𝑈𝑈) = 𝑄𝑄 → 𝑛𝑛∆𝑈𝑈 = 𝑛𝑛𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ∆𝑇𝑇 + 𝑛𝑛𝑁𝑁 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 𝑁𝑁 ∆𝑇𝑇 → 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑛𝑛𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ∆𝑇𝑇 + 𝑛𝑛𝑁𝑁 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 𝑁𝑁 ∆𝑇𝑇
𝐽𝐽 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑄𝑄 = 3 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∙ 20.8 ∙ (250 − 30) + 100 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 0.5 ∙ (250 − 30) = 11013,7 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∙ 𝐶𝐶° 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝐶𝐶°
(b) For a closed system at a constant pressure, the following equation applies
𝑛𝑛(∆𝐻𝐻) = 𝑄𝑄
If the heat capacity of the piston and cylinder is neglected
𝑛𝑛(∆𝐻𝐻) = 𝑄𝑄 → 𝑛𝑛∆𝐻𝐻 = 𝑛𝑛𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃 ∆𝑇𝑇 → 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑛𝑛𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃 ∆𝑇𝑇
𝐽𝐽
𝑄𝑄 = 4 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∙ 29.1 ∙ (40 − 200) = −18624 𝐽𝐽 = 18,62 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∙ 𝐶𝐶°

2.31. Problem 31
In the following take Cv = 21 and Cp = 29.3 kJ/kmol-K for nitrogen gas:
(a) 1.5 kmol of nitrogen at 294.15 K (21°C) contained in a rigid vessel, is heated to 450.15 K (177"C). How
much heat is required if the vessel has a negligible heat capacity? If it weighs 90.7 kg and has a heat
capacity of 0.5 kJ/kg-K, how much heat is required?
(b) 2 kmol of nitrogen at 447.15 K (174"C) is contained in a pistol/cylinder arrangement.
How much heat must be extracted from this system, which is kept at constant pressure, to cool it to
338.15 K (65"C) if the heat capacity of the piston and cylinder is neglected?

Solution
This problem is very similar to problem 2.30 so the same equations may be used.
(a) Constant volume
A) Neglecting the heat capacity of the vessel
𝑛𝑛(∆𝑈𝑈) = 𝑄𝑄 → 𝑛𝑛∆𝑈𝑈 = 𝑛𝑛𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 ∆𝑇𝑇 → 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑛𝑛𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 ∆𝑇𝑇
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑄𝑄 = 1.5 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 21 ∙ (450.15 − 294.15)𝐾𝐾 = 4914𝐽𝐽 = 4,91 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝐾𝐾
B) Considering the heat capacity of the vessel ( ve – Vessel, N – Nitrogen)
𝑛𝑛(∆𝑈𝑈) = 𝑄𝑄 → 𝑛𝑛∆𝑈𝑈 = 𝑛𝑛𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ∆𝑇𝑇 + 𝑛𝑛𝑁𝑁 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 𝑁𝑁 ∆𝑇𝑇 → 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑛𝑛𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ∆𝑇𝑇 + 𝑛𝑛𝑁𝑁 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 𝑁𝑁 ∆𝑇𝑇
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑄𝑄 = 1.5 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 21 ∙ (450.15 − 294.15) + 90.7 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 0.5 ∙ (450.15 − 294.15)
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝐾𝐾 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝐶𝐶°
𝑄𝑄 = 11988,6 𝐽𝐽 = 11,98 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
(b) Constant pressure
A) Neglecting the heat capacity of the vessel
𝑛𝑛(∆𝐻𝐻) = 𝑄𝑄 → 𝑛𝑛∆𝐻𝐻 = 𝑛𝑛𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃 ∆𝑇𝑇 → 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑛𝑛𝐶𝐶𝑃𝑃 ∆𝑇𝑇
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑄𝑄 = 2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 29.3 ∙ (338.15 − 447.15)𝐾𝐾 = −6387,4 𝐽𝐽 = 6,38 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝐶𝐶°

2.32. Problem 32
Find the equation for the work of a reversible, isothermal compression of 1 mol of gas in a piston/cylinder
assembly if the molar volume of the gas is given by:
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑉𝑉 = + 𝑏𝑏
𝑃𝑃
Where b and R are positive constants.

Solution
For a mechanical reversible process, the work is defined as:
𝑉𝑉2
𝑊𝑊 = − � 𝑃𝑃 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑉𝑉1

To integrate this equation, first solve for P on the molar volume expression
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑉𝑉 = + 𝑏𝑏 → 𝑃𝑃 =
𝑃𝑃 𝑉𝑉 − 𝑏𝑏
Then replace this on the work equation.
𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉2 |𝑉𝑉2 − 𝑏𝑏|
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 1
𝑊𝑊 = − � 𝑃𝑃 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 → 𝑊𝑊 = − � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 → 𝑊𝑊 = −𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 → 𝑊𝑊 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ln
𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉 − 𝑏𝑏 𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉 − 𝑏𝑏 |𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑏𝑏|
 2.33. Problem 33
Steam at 14 bar and 588.15 K (315°C) (state 1) enters a turbine through a 75 mm-diameter pipe with a
velocity of 3 m/s . The exhaust from the turbine is carried through a 250mm diameter pipe and is at 0.35
bar and 366.15 K (93"C) [state 21. What is the power output of the turbine?
𝐻𝐻1 = 3074,5 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘⁄𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑉𝑉1 = 0,1909 𝑚𝑚3 ⁄𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝐻𝐻2 = 2871,6 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘⁄𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑉𝑉2 = 4,878 𝑚𝑚3 ⁄𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

Solution
Assume the following
• Steady-state.
• Negligible change of potential energy.
• No heat transfer.

The mass balance of the turbine gives

2
𝑢𝑢1 𝐴𝐴1 (3 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠) (𝜋𝜋(0,075 𝑚𝑚) �4)
∆𝑚𝑚̇ = 0 → 𝑚𝑚̇1 = 𝑚𝑚̇2 → 𝑚𝑚̇ constant → 𝑚𝑚̇1 = → 𝑚𝑚̇1 =
𝑉𝑉1 0,1909 𝑚𝑚3 ⁄𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑚𝑚̇1 = 0,0694
𝑠𝑠
As a consequence of a constant mass flowrate, the final velocity can be calculated directly.
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑢𝑢2 𝐴𝐴2 𝑚𝑚̇2 𝐴𝐴2
𝑚𝑚̇2 = 𝑚𝑚̇1 = 0,0694 → 𝑚𝑚̇2 = → solving for u2 → 𝑢𝑢2 =
𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉2
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
�0,0694 𝑠𝑠 � ∙ 4,878 𝑚𝑚3 ⁄𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑚𝑚
𝑢𝑢2 = 2 = 6,899
�𝜋𝜋(0,25 𝑚𝑚) �4� 𝑠𝑠

The energy balance of the process is

1̇
∆(𝐻𝐻 + 𝑢𝑢2 )𝑚𝑚̇ = 𝑊𝑊𝑠𝑠
2
1
𝑊𝑊𝑠𝑠 = 𝑚𝑚̇ �∆𝐻𝐻 + (𝑢𝑢2 2 − 𝑢𝑢1 2 )�
2
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 6,892 − 32 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑊𝑊𝑠𝑠 = 0,0694 ∙ ((2871,6 − 3074,5) + ∙ )
𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 2 1000 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑊𝑊𝑠𝑠 = −12,74 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

2.34. Problem 34
Carbon dioxide gas enters a water-cooled compressor at the initial conditions P 1 = 1.04bar and T 1 = 284.15
K (10°C) and is discharged at the final conditions P 2 = 35.8 bar and T 2 = 366.15 K (93'C). The entering CO 2
flows through a 100 mm-diameter pipe with a velocity of 6 m/s, and is discharged through a 25 mm-
diameter pipe. The shaft work supplied to the compressor is 12 500 kJ/kmol. What is the heat-transfer rate
from the compressor in kW?

𝐻𝐻1 = 714 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘⁄𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑉𝑉1 = 0,5774 𝑚𝑚3 ⁄𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝐻𝐻2 = 768 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘⁄𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑉𝑉2 = 0,0175 𝑚𝑚3 ⁄𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

Solution
Assume the following
• Steady-state.
• Negligible change of potential energy.

The mass balance of the compressor gives

2
𝑢𝑢1 𝐴𝐴1 (6 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠) (𝜋𝜋(0,1 𝑚𝑚) �4)
∆𝑚𝑚̇ = 0 → 𝑚𝑚̇1 = 𝑚𝑚̇2 → 𝑚𝑚̇ constant → 𝑚𝑚̇1 = → 𝑚𝑚̇1 =
𝑉𝑉1 0,5774 𝑚𝑚3 ⁄𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑚𝑚̇1 = 0,0816
𝑠𝑠
As a consequence of a constant mass flowrate, the final velocity can be calculated directly.
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑢𝑢2 𝐴𝐴2 𝑚𝑚̇2 𝐴𝐴2
𝑚𝑚̇2 = 𝑚𝑚̇1 = 0,0694 → 𝑚𝑚̇2 = → solving for u2 → 𝑢𝑢2 =
𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉2
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
�0,0816 𝑠𝑠 � ∙ 0,0175 𝑚𝑚3 ⁄𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑚𝑚
𝑢𝑢2 = 2 = 2,909
�𝜋𝜋(0,025 𝑚𝑚) �4� 𝑠𝑠

The intensive energy balance of the process is

1
∆(𝐻𝐻 + 𝑢𝑢2 ) = 𝑊𝑊̇𝑠𝑠 + 𝑄𝑄̇
2
Solving for 𝑄𝑄̇
1
𝑄𝑄̇ = �∆𝐻𝐻 + (𝑢𝑢2 2 − 𝑢𝑢1 2 )� − 𝑊𝑊𝑠𝑠
2
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 2,9092 − 62 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑄𝑄̇ = (768 − 714) + ∙ ) − 12500 ∙
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 2 1000 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 44 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑄𝑄̇ = −230,07
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

2.35. Problem 35
Show that W and Q for an arbitrary mechanically reversible non-flow process are given by:

𝑊𝑊 = � 𝑉𝑉 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − ∆(𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃) 𝑄𝑄 = ∆𝐻𝐻 − � 𝑉𝑉 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Solution

For one hand, in a mechanically reversible process, work is defined as:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
For the other hand, recall that
𝑑𝑑(𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃) = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 + 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 → −𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 − 𝑑𝑑(𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃)

Whence,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 − 𝑑𝑑(𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃) → integrating → W = � 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 − ∆(PV)

The first law of thermodynamics for a closed system is:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (Eq. 2.4)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 → 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 − 𝑑𝑑(𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃)

The enthalpy is defined as:

𝐻𝐻 = 𝑈𝑈 + 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 (Eq. 2.11)
Differentiating
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑑𝑑(𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃) → solving for dU → 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝑑𝑑(𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃)

Combining the two expressions for internal energy

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝑑𝑑(𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃) ↔ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 − 𝑑𝑑(𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃)

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝑑𝑑(𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃) = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 − 𝑑𝑑(𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃) → solving for dQ → 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 → 𝑄𝑄 = ∆𝐻𝐻 − � 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉

2.36. Problem 36
One kilogram of air is heated reversibly at constant pressure from an initial state of 300 K and 1 bar until
its volume triples. Calculate W, Q, ΔU, and ΔH for the process. Assume for air that PV/T = 83.14 bar-
cm3/mol-K and Cp = 29 J/mol-K.

Solution

The initial molar volume is

𝑃𝑃1 𝑉𝑉1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐3 ∙ 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 300𝐾𝐾 ∙ 83.14 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐3
= 83.14 → 𝑉𝑉1 = = 24942
𝑇𝑇1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∙ 𝐾𝐾 1 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Average molecular weight of air: 28 ∙ 0.79 + 32 ∙ 0.21 = 28,84 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

1000 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Total moles of air: 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∙ ∙ = 34,67 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
1𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 28,84 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔

Calculate final temperature

 𝑃𝑃1 𝑉𝑉1 𝑃𝑃2 𝑉𝑉2 𝑃𝑃2 𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉2
= → 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑇𝑇2 → 𝑇𝑇2 = 𝑇𝑇1 → 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑃𝑃 → 𝑇𝑇2 = 𝑇𝑇1 → 𝑉𝑉2 = 3𝑉𝑉1
𝑇𝑇1 𝑇𝑇2 𝑃𝑃1 𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉1
3𝑉𝑉1
𝑇𝑇2 = 𝑇𝑇1 → 𝑇𝑇2 = 3𝑇𝑇1 → 900𝐾𝐾
𝑉𝑉1
Recall that for a constant pressure process, equation 2.22 can be applied

𝑇𝑇2
𝐽𝐽 𝐽𝐽
∆𝐻𝐻 = � 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 → ∆𝐻𝐻 = 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 ∆𝑇𝑇 → ∆𝐻𝐻 = 29 ∙ (900𝐾𝐾 − 300𝐾𝐾) = 17400
𝑇𝑇1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∙ 𝐾𝐾 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Heat for a constant pressure process is expressed as:
𝑄𝑄 = 𝑛𝑛∆𝐻𝐻 → 𝑄𝑄 = 34,67 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∙ 17400 𝐽𝐽⁄𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 → 𝑄𝑄 = 603328,71 𝐽𝐽

Work for a constant pressure process is expressed as:

𝑊𝑊 = −𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛∆𝑉𝑉 → 𝑊𝑊 = −𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛(3𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉1 ) → 𝑊𝑊 = −𝑛𝑛2𝑃𝑃𝑉𝑉1
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐3 1 𝑚𝑚3
𝑊𝑊 = −34,67 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∙ 2 ∙ 100000 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 ∙ 24924 ∙ = −172843,27 𝐽𝐽
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1003 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐3

By eq. 2.3.
𝐽𝐽
𝑛𝑛∆𝑈𝑈 = 𝑄𝑄 + 𝑊𝑊 → 𝑛𝑛∆𝑈𝑈 = 603328,71 − 172843,27 → ∆𝑈𝑈 = 12415,2
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

2.37. Problem 37
The conditions of a gas change in a steady-flow process from 293.15 K (20°C) and 1000 kPa to 333.15 K
(60°C) and 100 kPa. Devise a reversible non-flow process (any number of steps) for accomplishing this
change of state, and calculate ΔU and ΔH for the process on the basis of 1 mol of gas. Assume for the gas
that PV/T is constant, C v = (5/2)R, and C p = (7/2)R.

Solution

This problem can be solved in different ways, the choice of steps is totally arbitrary. However the final
change of internal energy and enthalpy must be the same. The chosen steps are:
(a) Heat at constant pressure – V 2
(b) Cool at constant volume – P 2

Recall
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑚𝑚3 ∙ 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
= 𝑅𝑅 → 8,314
𝑇𝑇 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∙ 𝐾𝐾
Calculate initial volume
𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 𝑅𝑅 ∙ 𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖 8,314 ∙ 293.15 𝐾𝐾
= 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 = → 𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 = → 𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 = 0,00243 𝑚𝑚3 ⁄𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 1000000 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
Calculate final volume
𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓 𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅 ∙ 𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 8,314 ∙ 333.15 𝐾𝐾
= 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 = → 𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 = → 𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 = 0,02769 𝑚𝑚3 ⁄𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓 100000 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
 (a) Step 1-2 / constant pressure
Known data
𝑃𝑃1 = 1000 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑃𝑃2 = 1000 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑇𝑇1 = 293.15 𝐾𝐾
𝑉𝑉1 = 0,00243 𝑚𝑚3 ⁄𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉2 = 0,02769 𝑚𝑚3 ⁄𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Calculate 𝑇𝑇2
𝑃𝑃2 𝑉𝑉2 𝑃𝑃2 𝑉𝑉2 1000000 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 ∙ 0,02769 𝑚𝑚3 ⁄𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
= 𝑅𝑅 → 𝑇𝑇2 = → 𝑇𝑇2 = → 𝑇𝑇2 = 3331,5 𝐾𝐾
𝑇𝑇2 𝑅𝑅 8,314 𝑚𝑚3 ∙ 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃⁄𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∙ 𝐾𝐾

Calculate ΔH
𝐽𝐽
∆𝐻𝐻 = 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 ∆𝑇𝑇 → ∆𝐻𝐻 = (7⁄2)𝑅𝑅∆𝑇𝑇 → ∆𝐻𝐻 = (7⁄2) �8,314 � ∙ (3331.5 − 293,15)
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∙ 𝐾𝐾
∆𝐻𝐻 = 88412,94 𝐽𝐽⁄𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Calculate ΔU
𝐽𝐽 𝑚𝑚3
∆𝑈𝑈 = ∆𝐻𝐻 − 𝑃𝑃∆𝑉𝑉 → ∆𝑈𝑈 = 88412,94 − 1000000 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 ∙ (0,02769 − 0,00243 )
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
∆𝑈𝑈 = 63152,10 𝐽𝐽/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

(a) Step 2-3 / constant volume

Known data
𝑃𝑃2 = 1000 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑃𝑃3 = 100 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑇𝑇2 = 3331.5 𝐾𝐾 𝑇𝑇3 = 333.15 𝐾𝐾
𝑉𝑉2 = 0,02769 𝑚𝑚3 ⁄𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉3 = 0,02769 𝑚𝑚3 ⁄𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Calculate ΔU
5 𝐽𝐽 𝐽𝐽
∆𝑈𝑈 = 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 ∆𝑇𝑇 → ∆𝑈𝑈 = ∙ 8,314 ∙ (333.15 − 3331.5)𝐾𝐾 → ∆𝑈𝑈 = −62355
2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∙ 𝐾𝐾 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Calculate ΔH
𝐽𝐽 𝑚𝑚3
∆𝐻𝐻 = ∆𝑈𝑈 + 𝑉𝑉∆𝑃𝑃 → ∆𝐻𝐻 = −62355 + 0,02769 ∙ (100000 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 − 1000000 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃)
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
∆𝐻𝐻 = −87283,28 𝐽𝐽⁄𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Calculate total ΔU and ΔH

∆𝐻𝐻 = ∆𝐻𝐻12 + ∆𝐻𝐻23 = 88412,94 − 87283,28 = 1129,66 𝐽𝐽⁄𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

∆𝑈𝑈 = ∆𝑈𝑈12 + ∆𝑈𝑈23 = 63152,1 − 62355 = 797,10 𝐽𝐽⁄𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚