Manual Assembly Lines

Sections:
1. Fundamentals of Manual Assembly Lines
Chapter 4 2. Analysis of Single Model Assembly Lines
3. Line Balancing Algorithms
4. Other Considerations in Assembly Line
Design
5. Alternative Assembly Systems

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Manual Assembly Lines
Work systems consisting of multiple workers
organized to produce a single product or a
limited range of products
 Assembly workers perform tasks at
workstations located along the line-of-flow of
the product
 Factors favoring the use of assembly lines:
 High or medium demand for product
 Similar or identical products
 Total work content can be divided into work
elements
 Not possible to automate assembly tasks
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Why Assembly Lines are Productive
 Specialization of labor
 Learning curve
 Interchangeable parts
 Components made to close tolerances
 Work flow
 Products are brought to the workers
 Line pacing
 Workers must complete their tasks within
the cycle time of the line

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Manual Assembly Line
A production line that consists of a sequence of
workstations where assembly tasks are
performed by human workers
 Products are assembled as they move along
the line
 At each station a portion of the total work
content is performed on each unit
 Base parts are launched onto the beginning of
the line at regular intervals (cycle time)
 Workers add components to progressively
build the product
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Manual Assembly Line
Configuration of an n-workstation manual
assembly line

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Two assembly
operators working
on an engine
assembly line
(photo courtesy of
Ford Motor
Company)

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Assembly Workstation
A designated location along the work flow path at
which one or more work elements are performed
by one or more workers

Typical operations performed at manual assembly stations

Adhesive application Electrical connections Snap fitting

Sealant application Component insertion Soldering
Arc welding Press fitting Stitching/stapling
Spot welding Riveting Threaded fasteners

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Work Transport Systems
 Manual methods
 Work units are moved between stations by
the workers without powered conveyor
 Problems:
 Starving of stations
 Blocking of stations
 Mechanized work transport - types:
 Continuously moving conveyor
 Synchronous transport
 Asynchronous transport
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Coping with Product Variety
 Single model assembly line (SMAL)
 Every work unit is the same
 Batch model assembly line (BMAL)
 Two or more different products
 Products are so different that they must be
made in batches with setup between
 Mixed model assembly line (MMAL)
 Two or more different models
 Differences are slight so models can be
made simultaneously with no downtime
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Analysis of Single Model Lines
Annual demand Da must be reduced to an
hourly production rate Rp
Da
Rp 
50Sw Hsh

where Sw = number of shifts/week, and Hsh =

number of hours/shift

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Determining Cycle Time
Production rate Rp is converted to a cycle time
Tc, accounting for line efficiency E
60E
Tc 
Rp
where 60 converts hourly production rate to
cycle time in minutes, and E = proportion
uptime on the line

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Number of Workers Required
The theoretical minimum number of workers
on the line is determined as:
Twc
w = Minimum Integer 
*
Tc
where Twc = work content time, min; and Tc =
cycle time, min/worker

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Theoretical Minimum Not Possible
Two reasons why theoretical minimum number of
workers cannot be achieved in practice:
 Repositioning losses – Some time will be lost
at each station every cycle for repositioning the
worker or the work unit; thus, the workers will
not have the entire Tc each cycle
 Line balancing problem – It is not possible to
divide the work content time evenly among
workers, and some workers will have an
amount of work that is less than Tc

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Repositioning Losses
Repositioning losses occur on a production
line because some time is required each
cycle to reposition the worker, the work unit,
or both
 Repositioning time = Tr
Service time = time available each cycle for
the worker to work on the product
 Service time Ts = Tc – Tr
Ts Tc  Tr
Repositioning efficiency Er = 
Tc Tc

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Cycle Time on an Assembly Line
Components of cycle time at several stations on a
manual assembly line

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Line Balancing Problem
Given:
 The total work content consists of many distinct
work elements
 The sequence in which the elements can be
performed is restricted
 The line must operate at a specified cycle time
The Problem:
 To assign the individual work elements to
workstations so that all workers have an equal
amount of work to perform

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Work Element Times
Total work content time Twc
ne
Twc = Tek
k 1
where Tek = work element time for element k
Work elements are assigned to station i that
add up to the service time for that station
Tsi = Tek
ki
The station service times must add up to the
total work content time
n
Twc = Tsi
i 1
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Precedence Constraints
 Restrictions on the order in which work
elements can be performed

Precedence
diagram

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Measures of Balance Efficiency
Line balance efficiency Eb

Twc
Eb =
wT s

Balance delay d
wTs  Twc
d=
wTs

Note that Eb + d = 1

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Worker Requirements
The actual number of workers on the assembly
line is given by:

RpTwc Twc Twc

w = Min Int   
60EEr Eb Er EbTc EbTs

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Workstation Manning Level
Defined as the number of workers per station
 For a single station, station i, Mi = wi

w
 For the line, M =
n

where w = number of workers, and n = number

of stations on the line

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Tolerance Time
Defined as the time a work unit spends inside the
boundaries of the workstation
 Provides a way to allow for product-to-product
variations in task times at a station

Ls
 Tt =
vc

where Tt = tolerance time, min; Ls = station

length, m (ft); and vc = conveyor speed, m/min
(ft/min)

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Line Balancing Objective
To distribute the total work content on the
assembly line as evenly as possible among the
workers
 Minimize (wTs – Twc)
or w
 Minimize ∑(Ts - Tsi)
i =1

Subject to: (1) ∑Tek  Ts

k∈i

(2) all precedence requirements are obeyed

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work
by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Line Balancing Algorithms
1. Largest candidate rule
2. Kilbridge and Wester method
3. Ranked positional weights method, also
known as the Helgeson and Birne method

In the following descriptions, assume one

worker per workstation

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Largest Candidate Rule
List all work elements in descending order based
on their Tek values; then,
1. Start at the top of the list and selecting the first
element that satisfies precedence requirements
and does not cause the total sum of Tek to
exceed the allowable Ts value
When an element is assigned, start back at the
top of the list and repeat selection process
2. When no more elements can be assigned to the
current station, proceed to next station
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 until all elements have
been assigned to as many stations as needed

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Solution for Largest Candidate Rule

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Solution for Largest Candidate Rule
Physical layout of workstations and assignment of
elements to stations using the largest candidate
rule

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Kilbridge and Wester Method
Arrange work elements into columns according to
their positions in the precedence diagram
 Work elements are then organized into a list
according to their columns, starting with the
elements in the first column
 Proceed with same steps 1, 2, and 3 as in the
largest candidate rule

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Kilbridge & Wester Method

Arrangement
of elements
into columns
for the K&W
algorithm

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Ranked Positional Weights Method
A ranked position weight (RPW) is calculated for
each work element
 RPW for element k is calculated by summing
the Te values for all of the elements that follow
element k in the diagram plus Tek itself
 Work elements are then organized into a list
according to their RPW values, starting with the
element that has the highest RPW value
 Proceed with same steps 1, 2, and 3 as in the
largest candidate rule

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Other Considerations in Line Design
 Methods analysis
 To analyze methods at bottleneck or other
troublesome workstations
 Utility workers
 To relieve congestion at stations that are
temporarily overloaded
 Preassembly of components
 Prepare certain subassemblies off-line to
reduce work content time on the final
assembly line

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Other Considerations - continued
 Storage buffers between stations
 To permit continued operation of certain
sections of the line when other sections
break down
 To smooth production between stations with
large task time variations
 Parallel stations
 To reduce time at bottleneck stations that
have unusually long task times

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Alternative Assembly Systems
 Single-station manual assembly cell
 A single workstation in which all of the
assembly work is accomplished on the
product or on some major subassembly
 Common for complex products produced in
small quantities, sometimes one of a kind
 Assembly by worker teams
 Multiple workers assigned to a common
assembly task
 Advantage: greater worker satisfaction
 Disadvantage: slower than line production

Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work

by Mikell P. Groover, ISBN 0-13-140650-7.
©2007 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.