Calculations and Interpretations of The Fundamental Constants

"The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing."

― Socrates

By

Manjunath.R

#16/1, 8th Main Road, Shivanagar, Rajajinagar, Bangalore560010, Karnataka, India

*Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

*Website: http://www.myw3schools.com/
Throughout all of the formulations of the basic equations of gravitation, quantum mechanics,
electromagnetism, the nuclear physics and their application to the real world, there appear again
and again certain fundamental invariant quantities called the fundamental physical constants –
which are generally believed to be both universal in nature and have constant value in time. This
book discusses the calculations and Interpretations of the Fundamental Constants which
consistently appear in the basic equations of theoretical physics upon which the entire scientific
study rests, nor are they properties of the fundamental particles of physics of which all matter is
constituted. The speed of light signifies a maximum speed for any object while the fine-structure
constant characterizes the strength of the electromagnetic interaction. An accurate knowledge of
fundamental constants is therefore essential if we hope to achieve an accurate quantitative
description of our physical universe. The careful study of the numerical values of the fundamental
constants − as determined from various experiments − can in turn determine the overall
consistency and correctness of the basic theories of physics themselves.

I do not know what I may appear to the world, but to

myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the

seashore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a

smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst

the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me.

Isaac Newton
 A set of fundamental invariant quantities that describes
the strengths of all the interactions and the physical
properties of all the particles observed in nature and
appearing in the basic theoretical equations of physics

"It Takes Fundamental Constants To Give Us Our Universe, But They Still Don't Give Everything."

The speed of light (c) The conversion factor between the time dimension and the three space
dimensions in our 4 dimensional space-time
(ultimate speed limit)
If particles with intrinsic mass exceed the speed of light, then c loses its special
status, giving rise to a host of other problems elsewhere in the world of physics,
186,000 miles per second
where c has been used in calculations, such as the equation in Albert Einstein's
theory of special relativity that expresses the equivalence of mass and energy:

E=mc2

Planck's constant (h) One of the smallest constants used in quantum mechanics that sets the

{tells about the behavior of the particles and

scale for quantum phenomena
the waves on the atomic scale} (6.626 070 15 ×10−34 J Hz−1)

Planck's constant defines the amount of energy that a electromagnetic radiation photon can

carry − according to the frequency of the electromagnetic wave in which it travels

Newtonian gravitational constant (G) One of the earliest fundamental constants that defines the strength of
gravitational force

The constant relating the force of gravitational attraction

The basis of our understanding of non-
between two objects to the product of their masses and
relativistic gravity
the inverse square of the distance between them in Sir
The Boltzmann constant (kB) relates
Isaac Newton's universal law of gravitation:
temperature to energy. It is a fundamental
constant of physics occurring in nearly every 𝐆m1 m2
statistical formulation of both classical and F=
r2
quantum physics. It is named after Austrian
physicist and philosopher Ludwig Boltzmann, 6.673 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2
one of the pioneers of statistical mechanics.

1
 The idea of Quantum foam was
PLANCK FORCE:
devised by John Wheeler in 1955

The amount of force required to accelerate one Planck mass by one Planck acceleration:

Planck force = Planck mass × Planck acceleration

c4 ℏc c7
= √ ×√
G G ℏG

The maximum force value that

FPlanck = 1.2103 × 1044 N
can be observed in nature

appears in the Albert Einsteinian field equations describing the properties of a gravitational field surrounding
any given mass:

energy–momentum tensor
Einstein tensor = 8π ×
𝐏𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐤 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞

The Planck force describes how much or how easily space-time is curved by a given amount of mass-energy.

The amount of energy possessed by a Schwarzschild Black Hole is equal to its mass multiplied
by the square of the speed of light: E =Mc2 , where: c is not just the constant namely the
maximum distance a light can travel in one second in vacuum but rather a fundamental feature of
the way space and time are unified to form space-time.

FPlanck This means: Half of the Planck force is responsible for confining
E= × rS 2GM
2
the energy E =Mc2 of the Black Hole to a distance rS= .
c2
The value of h is about 0.6 trillionths of a trillionth
of a billionth of 1 joule-second.

2
 2GM
Any object with a physical radius < will be a Black Hole.
c2

ℏ ℏ
△p △x ≥ △E △t ≥
2 2
Planck momentum × Planck length = ℏ Planck energy × Planck time = ℏ

The Planck time is the time it takes for light to traverse a Planck length. The Planck mass is so large because the
gravitational force in this universe is very weak

The Planck mass is approximately the mass of a

black hole where quantum and gravitational effects
are at the same scale: where its reduced Compton
wavelength and half of its Schwarzschild radius are
approximately the same.

ℏc5 ℏG
If √ is confined to the volume of a cube of size √ it will form a black hole. In fact, this is
G c3
thought to be the smallest possible mass limit for a black hole and at

ℏG
Distance = √
c3

ℏG
Time = √ it is thought that quantum gravitational effects will be very significant.
c5

ℏc5
Energy = √  Space-time would become chaotic quantum foam. Matter and antimatter
G would be constantly created and destroyed.
 Space-time would become quantized (which would cause violations of
Lorentz invariance).
at

3
 The attempt to understand the Hawking radiation has a profound impact upon the understanding
of the Black Hole thermodynamics, leading to the description of what the black hole entropic
energy is:

Black Hole Entropic Energy = Black Hole Temperature × Black Hole Entropy

Mc2
ES = TBH × SBH =
2

This means that the entropic energy makes up half of the mass energy of the Black Hole. For a
Black Hole of one solar mass (M☺ = 2 × 1030 kg), we get an entropic energy of 9 × 10 46 joules –
much higher than the thermal entropic energy of the sun. Given that power emitted in Hawking
dMc2 dES
radiation is the rate of energy loss of the black hole: P = − = 2 ×− . The more
dt dt
power a black hole radiates per second, the more entropic energy being lost in Hawking
radiation. However, the entropic energy of the black hole of one solar mass is about 9 × 10 46
joules of which only 4.502 × 10 –29 joules per second is lost in Hawking radiation.

FPlanck
ES = × rS
4
1
This means: th of the Planck force is responsible for confining the entropic energy E S = (TBH ×
4
2GM
SBH) of the Black Hole to a distance rS= . A photon sphere or photon ring is an area or
c2
region of space where gravity is so strong that photons are forced to travel in orbits. The radius
3GM
of the photon sphere for a Schwarzschild Black Hole: r = . This equation entails that
c2
photon spheres can only exist in the space surrounding an extremely compact object (a Black
Hole or possibly an "ultracompact" neutron star).
1 rd
This means: of the Planck force
E = hυ 3
FPlanck
E= ×r times the radius of the photon sphere
3
The first "quantum" expression in history −
equals the amount of energy possessed
stated by Max Planck in 1900
by a Schwarzschild Black Hole.

4
 "Nature shows us only the tail of the lion. But there is no doubt in my mind that the lion belongs
Radiation Constants:
with it even if he cannot reveal himself to the eye all at once because of his huge dimension. We see
him only the way a louse sitting upon him would." — Albert Einstein

Fundamental physical constants characterizing black body radiation. The first radiation constant
hc
is c1 = 2πhc2 = 3.7417749 × 10−16 Wm2, the second is c2 = = 1.438769 × 10–2 mK, where: h is
kB
the Planck constant c is the speed of light in vacuum and k B the Boltzmann constant.

Radiation

Heat flows through space by means of electromagnetic waves

(elementary charge )2 1
= Z0G0
(Planck charge)2 4
Fine structure constant:
Planck charge
𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞 = √Z0 G0
Sommerfeld's constant e2 1 2
α= = Z0G0
4πε0 ℏc 4
1
α= × impedance of free space × conductance quantum = 0.0072973525693
4

expresses the strength of the electromagnetic interaction between

elementary charged particles.

e2
2 If were greater than 0.1, stellar
(elementary charge ) 4πε0 ℏc
(Planck charge)2
fusion would be impossible and no place
in the cosmos would be warm enough for
carbon-based life as we know it.
When I die my first question to the Devil will be: What is the
meaning of the fine structure constant?

— Wolfgang Pauli

5
 The ultra-high-energy cosmic ray observed in 1991 had a

ℏc5
Planck units measured energy of about 2.5×10−8 √
G

Planck mass
ℏc
mPlanck = √ = 2.176434 × 10−8 kg
G

Planck length
ℏG At which all the fundamental forces are
LPlanck = √ 3 = 1.616255 × 10−35 m
c unified.

Planck time
ℏG Quantum effects of gravity dominate physical
tPlanck = √ 5 = 5.391247 × 10−44 s
c interactions at this time interval.

Planck temperature ℏc5 At this temperature, the wavelength of emitted

TPlanck = √ 2 = 1.416784 × 1032 K
GkB thermal radiation reaches the Planck length.

Planck charge qPlanck = √4πε0 ℏc = 1.875546 × 10−18 C ≈ 11.7e

Planck area ℏG
L2Planck = = 2.6121 × 10−70 m2
c3
Planck volume
ℏ3 G3
L3Planck = √ = 4.2217 × 10−105 m3
c9

Planck momentum
ℏ ℏc3
mPlanckc = =√ = 6.5249 kg-m/s
LPlanck G

Planck energy
ℏ ℏc5 At which quantum effects of gravity
mPlanckc2 = =√ = 1.9561 × 109 J
tPlanck G become strong.

Planck force mPlanck c2 ℏ c4

= = = 1.2103 × 1044 N
LPlanck LPlanck tPlanck G

Events happening at the  It is the gravitational attractive force of two bodies of one Planck

Planck scale are mass each that are held one Planck length apart
 It is the electrostatic attractive or repulsive force of two Planck units
undetectable with
of charges that are held one Planck length apart.
current scientific

technology

6
 Planck power mPlanck c2 ℏ c5
= = = 3.628 × 1052 W
tPlanck t2Planck G

Planck density mPlanck c5 The density at which the Universe can no longer
= = 5.1550 × 1096 kg/m3 be described without quantum gravity
L3Planck ℏG2

Planck acceleration
c c7
=√ = 5.5608 × 1051 m/s2
tPlanck ℏG

Planck frequency
1 c5
=√ = 1.8549 × 1043 s−1
tPlanck ℏG

Planck current
qPlanck 4πε0 c6
=√ = 3.479 × 1025 A
tPlanck G

Planck voltage mPlanck c2 c4

=√ = 1.43 × 1027 V
qPlanck 4πε0 G

ℏc5
For energies approaching or exceeding√ = 1.22 × 1019 GeV , gravity is problematic
G

and cannot be integrated with quantum mechanics. A new theory of quantum gravity is
necessary. Approaches to this problem include:

 String theory (point-like particles are replaced by one-dimensional infinitesimal vibrating strings − smaller
than atoms, electrons or quarks)
 M-theory (The Mother of all theories or Mystery − an 11 dimensional theory in which the weak and strong
forces and gravity are unified and to which all the string theories belong)
A theory that extends general theory of relativity by quantizing spacetime—predicts
that black holes evolve into white holes

 Loop quantum gravity (a theory of quantum gravity which aims to merge quantum mechanics and
general theory of relativity)
 Non-commutative geometry (a branch of mathematics concerned with a geometric approach to noncommutative algebra)
 Causal set theory (an approach to quantum gravity that tries to replace the continuum spacetime structure of
general relativity with the spacetime that has the property of discreteness and causality)

 The study of how things influence one other

 The study of how causes lead to effects

7
 Martin Bojowald
The idea of quantum foam arises out of Albert
Einstein's idea that gravity is caused by the warping
and curving of spacetime

A German physicist who developed the application of loop

quantum gravity to cosmology

The incorporation of a standard model into the

framework of the quantum gravity

Loop Quantum Gravity String Theory

(quantized space and time)

Does not attempt to unify fundamental Attempts to unify all four fundamental
interactions interactions

Approaches the quantum gravity assuming Approaches the quantum gravity assuming
the aspects of general relativity the aspects of quantum theory

Does not require a super-symmetry

Expanding matter
Grand unification theory 1
The Coulomb constant " "
4πε0

is a proportionality constant in
White hole
Fundamental symmetries existed at the
electrostatics equations. It was
beginning of the universe and then broke Quantum transition named after the French
as the temperature dropped − just as
Black hole physicist Charles-Augustin de
H2O which looks the same in every
Coulomb who introduced
direction, freezes into ice, which has
Coulomb's law.
distinct directions.
Contracting matter

8
 Newton's law of gravitation:

Gm1 m2
FG =
r2

G → Proportionality constant
m1 m2
FG ∝
r2

m1 = m2 = 1kg
The universal gravitational constant is numerically
r = 1m
FG = G equal to the Force of attraction between two unit
masses placed at a unit distance apart.

Because E=mc2:

GE1 E2
FG =
c4 r2

1
E1 E2 → Proportionality constant
FG ∝ FPlanck
r2

E1 = E2 = 1J
The reciprocal of Planck force is numerically
r = 1m 1
FG = equal to the Force of attraction between two unit
FPlanck
energies placed at a unit distance apart.

(Stoney mass)2
4π × ℏc × gravitoelectric gravitational constant

Z0 impedance of free space

Fine structure constant: α = =
2RK 2 × von Klitzing constant

e2 (Stoney mass)2 e2
Stoney mass = √4πε (Planck mass) 2= q2Planck
0G

9
 elementary charge
Stoney mass = Planck mass ×
Planck charge

ℏ
△x △p ≥
2

ℏ
△E △t ≥
2

Planck length × Planck momentum

△x △p ≥
2

Planck energy × Planck time

△E △t ≥
2

△p Planck length
≥
Planck momentum △𝑥

△E Planck time
≥
Planck energy △t

1
Gravitoelectric gravitational constant: εg =
4πG

4πG
Gravitomagnetic gravitational constant: μg = The speed of gravitation:
c2g
1
cg =
√εg μg

10
The Schwarzschild radius of the Stoney mass:

2GmS 2G e2
rS =
c2
=
c2
√4πε
0G

4ℏc × fine structure constant

Planck force =
r2S

Optical Telescope

A telescope that is designed to collect visible light

If we take the mass of electron as m, when it is moving with velocity v, then

me
m= 2
√1−v2
c

where me is the rest mass of the electron and m is the relativistic mass.

m2e Hypernova
m2 = v2
1− 2
c

e2 an exploding star that produces even

If m = Stoney mass =√ :
4πε0 G more energy and light than a supernova

Schwarzschild radius of electron

v = c √1 −
2 × Classical electron radius

Velocity a electron must travel so that its relativistic mass to be equal to Stoney mass

11
 The Compton wavelength of the Stoney mass:

h h 4πε0 G
λC = = ×√
mS c c e2

2π×Planck length
λC =
√Fine structure constant

The time it takes for a planet to

complete one spin around its axis
The Hawking radiation temperature is: is called its rotation period.

ℏc3
TBH =
8πGMkB

e2
If M = Stoney mass =√ :
4πε0 G

ℏc3 4πε0 G
TBH = √
8πGkB e2

Planck energy
TBH =
8πkB √Fine structure constant

Planck temperature
TBH =
8π√Fine structure constant

Observatory: A place where telescopes and other astronomical

instruments are housed and used.

12
 ℏc5
If a hot body were to reach the temperature of√ 2 , the radiation it would emit would have a
GkB

ℏG
wavelength of√ 3 , at which quantum gravitational effects become relevant.
c

Planck temperature which equals about 100 million million million million million degrees,

ℏc5
denoted by TPlanck =√ 2 , is the unit of temperature in the system of natural units known as
GkB

Planck units. The Planck temperature is thought to be the upper limit of temperature that we
know of according to the standard model of particle physics − which governs our universe.

In physics the Stoney units form a system

A fundamental limit of quantum theory in
of units named after the Irish physicist combination with gravitation − first
George Johnstone Stoney, who first ℏc5 c2 introduced in 1899 by German physicist Max
TPlanck =√ 2 =
proposed them in 1881 GkB 2πLPlanck Planck together with his introduction of what
today is known as the Planck length, the
Planck mass and Planck time.

ℏG
where: LPlanck = √ is the Planck length and c2 is the second radiation constant. This means:
c3
c2 c2
TPlanck × LPlanck can never be less than or greater than but = .
2π 2π

When the gold particles were smashed together, for a split second, the temperature reached 7.2
trillion degrees Fahrenheit. That was hotter than a supernova explosion. That was the hottest
temperature that we have ever actually encountered in the Large Hadron Collider (the world's
largest and most powerful particle accelerator).

The universe was

Ge2
Stoney length = √ = √α × Planck length at TPlanck about 10−43 seconds
4πε0 c4
after the big bang explosion.
√α c2 At this time, the entire universe
TPlanck × Stoney length =
2π
was roughly one-billionth of
the diameter of a proton.

13
 Hagedorn temperature
c5
Planck density is very large −
ℏG2
{1.7×1012 K}
about equivalent to 10 23 solar masses

No temperature → No heat exchange.

squeezed into the space of a single The temperature at which hadronic matter
atomic nucleus. At Planck time after is no longer stable and must either
the Big Bang explosion, the cosmic "evaporate" or convert into quark matter −
mass density was thought to have been m0 as such − it can be thought of as the
m=
approximately 5.1550 × 10  kg/m  .
96 3 2
√1−v2 "boiling point" of hadronic matter .
c

v2
 When the velocity of the particle v is very small compared to velocity of light c, then is
c2
negligible compared to one. Therefore,

m = m0

v2
 If the velocity of the particle v is comparable to the velocity of light c, then √1 − is less than
c2

one, then

m> m0

 If the velocity of a particle v is equal to velocity of light c, then it possesses infinite mass.

Gm1 m2 q1 q2
FG =
r2 FE =
4πε0 r2
m1 m2 ℏc
FG = × q1 q2 ℏc
m2Planck r2 FE = ×
q2Planck r2

2 ℏc
 m1= m2 = mPlanck q1q2 = q Planck FE =
2 r2
m1 m2 = mPlanck
 m1 > mPlanck and m2 < mPlanck

 q1= q2 = qPlanck
 q1 > qPlanck and q2 < qPlanck
ℏc
FG = elementary charge
r2 qPlanck =
√fine structure constant

14
 The rest mass energy of any particle is defined by the Albert Einstein's mass energy equivalence
relation: Erest = m0c2 = kBTthreshold, where: m0 is the mass of a stationary particle, also known as
the invariant mass or the rest mass of the particle and Tthreshold implies the threshold temperature
below which that particle is effectively removed from the universe. All particles have an intrinsic
m0 c2 c
real internal vibration in their rest frame: ʋC = = , where: υC and λC denote the quantum
h λC
mechanical properties of a particle (i.e., the Compton frequency and Compton wavelength of the
particle).

hc
hʋC = = kBTthreshold
λC

λC × Tthreshold = c2

where: c2 is the second radiation constant and is related to the Stefan–Boltzmann constant (also

π4 c1
known as Stefan's constant) by: σ = . This means:
15c42

1
λC ∝
Tthreshold

The Compton wavelength of the particle is inversely proportional to the threshold temperature
below which that particle is effectively removed from the universe.

c2
TPlanck × LPlanck =
2π
λC × Tthreshold
TPlanck × LPlanck =
2π

(λC × Tthreshold) > (TPlanck × LPlanck)

ℏ
rS × λC = 2 × L2Planck = 2 × Planck area, where: λC = is the reduced Compton wavelength of the particle. This
m0 c
means: The Schwarzschild radius of the particle times the reduced Compton wavelength of the particle is never
smaller than a certain quantity, which is known as Planck area.

15
 If the reduced Compton wavelength of the particle = Stoney length:

ℏ Ge2
=√
m0 c 4πε0 c4

mPlanck
m0 =
√Fine structure constant

Mass a particle must possess so that its reduced Compton wavelength to be equal to Stoney length

2
Erest = m0c2 × hυC

π × Schwarzschild radius of the particle

Erest = Planck energy √
Compton wavelength of the particle

π × Schwarzschild radius of the particle

Erest = Stoney mass × c2 √
Fine structure constant × Compton wavelength of the particle

Sunspot

If the Schwarzschild radius of the particle = Stoney length: A cooler region of the Solar surface −
which looks dark in comparison to the
2Gm0 Ge2 hotter material around it.
=√
c2 4πε0 c4

√Fine structure constant ×Planck mass

m0 =
2

Mass a particle must possess so that its Schwarzschild radius to be equal to Stoney length

Planetary Nebula

A shell of gas ejected by a relatively low-mass star that is in the process of dying and becoming a white dwarf

16
 mPlanck c2 mS c2
Planck temperature = Planck temperature =
kB √α kB

Planck area = L2Planck L2S

Planck area =
α

Planck volume = L3Planck L3S

Planck volume = 3
√α
ℏ ℏ √α
Planck energy = Planck energy =
tPlanck tS

mPlanck c2 m c2
Planck force = Planck force = LS
LPlanck S

ℏ αℏ
Planck force = Planck force =
LPlanck tPlanck LS tS

Planck momentum = mPlanck c mS c

Planck momentum =
√α
mPlanck α mS
Planck density = Planck density =
L3Planck L3S
c c √α
Planck acceleration = Planck acceleration =
tPlanck tS
c c √α
Planck frequency = L
Planck Planck frequency =
LS

mPlanck c2 mS c2
Planck power = Planck power =
tPlanck tS

 mS = Stoney mass
 elementary charge
LS = Stoney length  mS = × Planck mass
 tS = Stoney time Planck charge
 α = Fine structure constant elementary charge
 LS = × Planck length
Planck charge
elementary charge
Astronomical transit is a phenomenon when a  tS = × Planck time
Planck charge
celestial body passes directly between a larger
body and the observer.

17
 ℏc
PLANCK MASS: mPlanck = √ = 2.17647 × 10−8 kg, where: c is the speed of light in a vacuum,
G
G is the gravitational constant, and ħ is the reduced Planck constant.
mPlanck
=n Number of particle masses that make up one Planck mass.
m0

mPlanck c2 kB TPlanck
= =n
m0 c2 kB Tthreshold

TPlanck = n × Tthreshold

TPlanck
λC × Tthreshold = c2 λC × = c2
n

c2
λC = ×n λC ∝ n
TPlanck

This means: The Compton wavelength of the particle is directly proportional to the number of
particle masses that make up one Planck mass.

Planck charge ε Vacuum permittivity

= √4πε0 G = √ 0 = √
Planck mass εg Gravitoelectric gravitational constant

electron charge
= − 1.75882001076×1011 C/ kg
electron mass

proton charge
= + 9.58 × 107 C/ kg
proton mass

18
When negatively charged electrons move in electric and magnetic fields the following two laws apply:

 F = e (E + v × B) → Lorentz force law

me electron mass (E + v × B)
dv = =
 F = mea = me → Newton's second law of motion e electron charge a
dt

E The Planck length ≈ 1.616255 ×10−35 m

 Felectric = eE When equal: v =
B is the scale at which classical ideas about
 Fmagnetic = eBv
gravity and space-time cease to be valid
and quantum effects dominate.

μ0 c Vacuum permeability × Planck speed

Fine structure constant = =
2RK 2 ×von Klitzing constant

Vacuum permeability × Planck speed

Stoney mass = √ × Planck mass
2 × von Klitzing constant

The gravitational coupling constant is a constant characterizing the gravitational attraction

between a given pair of elementary particles. αG is typically defined in terms of the gravitational
attraction between two electrons. More precisely,

Gm2e m2e
αG = = where: me is the invariant mass of an electron
ℏc m2Planck

 mS = Stoney mass
m2e
αG = α ×
m2S  α = Fine structure constant

mPlanck 1
Number of electrons that make up one Planck mass = =
me √αG

1
n=
√αG

19
 The Compton wavelength of electron:
c2 1 c2
λC,e = n × λC,e = ×
TPlanck √αG TPlanck

1 The Compton wavelength of the electron is inversely proportional to the

λC,e ∝
√αG square root of gravitational coupling constant.

4πG
Gravitational characteristic impedance of free space =
cg Speed of gravitation

Quantum of circulation: Half the ratio of the Planck constant to the mass of the electron.

h
Q0 = = 3.636 947 5516 × 10−4 m2 s−1
2me

c1 c1 = first radiation constant

Erest = mec2 =
4πQ0

1 The intrinsic energy of the electron is

Erest ∝
Q0 inversely proportional to the
Quantum of circulation

h h α h  mS = Stoney mass
Q0 = = =√ ×
2me 2√αG mPlanck αG 2mS  α = Fine structure constant

h
λC,e = is the cutoff below which quantum field theory (which can describe particle creation and
me c
annihilation) becomes important. 2h 2Q0
λC,e = 2m c = = 2Q0 √ε0 μ0
e c

20
The classical electron radius is sometimes known as the Compton radius or the Lorentz radius
or the Thomson scattering length is a combination of fundamental physical quantities that define
a length scale for problems involving an electron interacting with electromagnetic radiation. The
classical electron radius is defined by equating the electrostatic potential energy of a sphere of
charge e and radius re with the intrinsic energy of the electron:
e2
= mec2
4πε0 re

e2
re = = Fine structure constant × reduced Compton wavelength of the electron
4πε0 me c2

e2 α ×LPlanck
re = =
4πε0 √αG mPlanck c2 √αG

α
re = √ × Stoney length = 2.8179 × 10−15m
αG

For an electron, the Thomson cross-section is

ℏ
△x △p ≥ numerically given by:
2

8πr2e
σT =
3
λC × m0 c
△x △p ≥
2 8π α
σT = × × (Stoney length) 2
3 αG

△p λC Classical electron radius = Bohr radius × (Fine structure constant) 2

≥
m0 c △x

Classical electron radius

Fine structure constant = √
Bohr radius

21
 Bohr radius:

4πε0 ℏ2 ℏ ℏ
a0 = = =
me e2 me c α √αG mPlanck c α

LPlanck The mean radius of the orbit of an electron

a0 = around the nucleus of a hydrogen atom at its
√αG × α
ground state (lowest-energy level)

5.29177210903×10−11 m

ε0 h2 ε0 h h
a0 = = ×2( )×
π me e2 π 2me e2

2ε0 × Quantum of circulation × von Klitzing constant

a0 =
π

2 × Quantum of circulation × von Klitzing constant

a0 =
πμ0 c2

Wien's Displacement Law

The product of the peak wavelength and the temperature at

λPeak × T = b which a blackbody radiates is constant − which means the
peak of the radiation shifts to shorter wavelengths as the
temperature increases.

hc c2
Wien's constant: b = =
4.9651kB 4.9651

c2 = 4.9651 b The second radiation constant is 4.9651 times the Wien's constant

22
 Radiation density constant:

4σ 8π5 k4B 8π5 kB

a= = = = 7.5657 × 10−16 J m−3 K− 4
c 15c3 h3 15c32

4σ 4π4 c1
a= = √μ0 ε0
c 15c42

where: μ0 is the absolute permeability of free space and ε0 is the absolute permittivity of free space.

8π5 kB 4π4 c1
= √μ0 ε0
15c32 15c42

c1
kB =
2πc2
√μ0 ε0 = 1.3807 × 10−23 J/K

c1
kB =
31.180 b
√μ0 ε0

Magnetic flux quantum:

h
Φ0 =
2e

Conductance quantum:

2e2 where: e is the elementary charge.

G0 =
h

Φ0 × G0 = e

23
 Φ0 × G0 = √Fine structure constant × qPlanck

Magnetic flux quantum × Conductance quantum

Planck charge =
√Fine structure constant

von Klitzing constant:

h h
RK = =
e2 ϕ20 G20

h h
RK =
e 2 = α × q2Planck

Conductance quantum:

2e2 2α × q2Planck 2
G0 = = =
h h RK

The magnetic coupling constant:

ε0 hc πℏ A fundamental physical constant

β= =
2e2 cμ0 e2 characterizing the strength of the
magnetic force interaction

ε0 hc 1 m2S L2S t2S

β= = = = =
2e2 4α 4m2Planck 4L2Planck 4t2Planck

Bohr radius is about 19,000

Bohr radius
times bigger than the classical β=√
16 ×classical electron radius
electron radius

24
 1 1
c= cg =
√μ0 ε0 √μg εg
Time is relative
μ0 ε0 = μg εg
If Gravity travel at the Speed of Light
μ0 εg
It changes with speed and in the presence =
μg ε0
of gravity
The Planck charge √4πε0 ℏc is approximately
11.706 times greater than electron charge.

h
Φ0 × G0 × RK =
e
Magnetic flux quantum × Conductance quantum × von Klitzing constant = Quantum / Charge Ratio

h
Φ0 × G0 × RK =
√Fine structure constant ×qPlanck

ϕ0 × G0 × RK
= Electron mass-to-charge ratio
2Q0

Planck charge: qPlanck = √4πε0 ℏc

ε0
q2Planck = 4πε0 ℏc = 2h √ ε0
μ0 Planck conductance = 4π√
μ0
qPlanck ε0 ℏ
× qPlanck = 4π√ ×
tPlanck μ0 tPlanck

ε0
Planck current × qPlanck = 4π√ × Planck energy
μ0

ε0 1 ε0
Planck current × qPlanck = 4π√ × (qPlanck × Planck voltage) = 4π√
μ0 Planck resistance μ0

25
 Admittance of free space:
Impedance of free space: 1
Y0 =
Z0
μ0
Z0 = μ0c = √
ε0

2h
q2Planck = = 2h × Y0
Z0

2RK e2
q2Planck =
Z0

2R 2R
qPlanck = e √ Z K = ϕ0 G0√ Z K
0 0

Stefan–Boltzmann law:

The radiative power of a black body is proportional to the surface area and to the fourth power of the black body's temperature

P = εσT4A

Emissivity

Stellar Planck constant:

hS = 2 × M × R × CS  For all substances: ε < 1

 M : mass of the neutron star  For a perfect black body: ε = 1

 R: radius of the neutron star

 CS: the characteristic speed of the particles in the neutron star

Stellar Stefan–Boltzmann constant:

Luminosity of the galaxy

ΣS =
Area of the galaxy × (Effective kinetic temperature of the stellar gas of the galaxy)4

26
Rydberg constant:

me e4 Fine structure constant

R∞ = = = 10 973 731.6 m−1
8ε20 ch3 4π ×Bohr radius

1 μ
0 Fine structure constant
R∞ = √ ×
4 ε 0 von Klitzing constant × Compton wavelength of the electron

Rydberg energy:

me c2 μ
0 Fine structure constant
hc R∞ =
4
√ε × von Klitzing constant
0

Rydberg frequency:

Compton frequency of the electron μ

0 Fine structure constant
c R∞ =
4
√ε × von Klitzing constant
0

Rydberg wavelength:

1 ε0 von Klitzing constant × Compton wavelength of the electron

=4√ ×
R∞ μ0 Fine structure constant

Hartree energy:

me c2 μ
0 Fine structure constant
Eh = 2R∞ hc = √ε × = 4.3597447222071 × 10−18 J
2 0 von Klitzing constant

27
 Fine structure constant
R∞ =
4π ×Bohr radius

e2
Fine structure constant = = 4π × Bohr radius × R∞
q2Planck

e
qPlanck =
√4π × Bohr radius × R∞

Fine structure constant

R∞ =
4π ×Bohr radius

Classical electron radius

Fine structure constant = √ = 4π × Bohr radius × R∞
Bohr radius

1 Classical electron radius

R∞ =
4π
√ (Bohr radius )3

Fine structure constant

R∞ =
4π ×Bohr radius

Conductance quantum × impedance of free space

Fine structure constant = = 4π × Bohr radius × R∞
4

Conductance quantum × impedance of free space

R∞ =
16π × Bohr radius

△S0 + SBH ≥ 0

The sum of the entropy outside the black hole and the total black hole entropy never decreases and typically
increases as a consequence of generic transformations of the black hole.

28
 Nernst-Simon statement

The entropy of a system at absolute zero temperature either vanishes or becomes independent of
the intensive thermodynamic parameters

The Bohr magneton is defined in SI units by:

eℏ Faraday constant ×Planck angular momentum √α ×qPlanck × Q0

μB = = =
2me 2 × molar electron mass 2π

ϕ0 ×G0 × Q0
μB =
2π
9.27400968 ×10 −24JT−1
2π μB
Conductance quantum =
ϕ0 ×G0

μN me
The Nuclear magneton is defined in SI units by: =
μB mp

eℏ Faraday constant ×Planck angular momentum

μN = = = 5.050783699 ×10−27JT−1
2mp 2 × molar proton mass

Fine structure constant

μN = √ × Planck charge × reduced Compton wavelength of proton
4μ0 ε0

Planck angular momentum = mPlanck × c × LPlanck = ℏ

mS × c × LS
Planck angular momentum =
α

29
Black Hole: A great amount of matter packed into a very small area where gravity is intense enough to
prevent the escape of even the fastest moving particles. Not even light can break free.

ℏc3
Temperature → TBH =
8πGMkB Evaporation time of a black hole:
TBH mPlanck 480c2 V
= tev =
TPlanck 8πM ℏG

tev V
= 480 ×
tPlanck L3Planck
M 3c6
Density → ρBH = =
4πr3
s 32πG3 M2
3

ρBH m2Planck
=
ρPlanck 32πM2

c5
where: ρPlanck = is the Planck density.
ℏG2 If the star core's mass is more than
about three times the mass of the
Sun, the force of gravity
The rate of evaporation energy loss of the black hole:
overwhelms all other forces and
dMc2 ℏc6 produces a black hole.
P=− =
dt 15360πG2 M2

P m2Planck
=
PPlanck 15360πM2

c5
where: PPlanck = is the Planck power.
G

4πkB M2
Entropy → SBH =
m2Planck
SBH 4πM2
=
SPlanck m2Planck where: SPlanck = kB is the Planck entropy.

30
 ℏc
If M = √ → Planck mass:
G

TPlanck
 TBH =
8π
If V = L3Planck → Planck volume:
ρPlanck
 ρBH = 480tS
32π tev = 480 × tPlanck =
√α
PPlanck
 P=
15360π

 SBH = 4π × SPlanck

Compton shift:

h
△λ = (1−cosθ)
me c

If △λ = Stoney length:

h
√α × LPlanck = (1−cosθ)
me c

√α α
θ = cos−1 (1 − 2πG )

√α α
The wavelength shift of the scattered photon in an angle of θ = cos−1 (1 − 2πG ) is equal to the Stoney length.

2π ℏc 2π × Planck angular momentum × Planck speed

Second radiation constant: c2 = =
kB Planck entropy

31
 If △λ = classical electron radius:

e2 h
= (1−cosθ)
4πε0 me c2 me c

α
θ = cos−1 (1− )
2π

α
The wavelength shift of the scattered photon in an angle of θ = cos−1 (1− ) is equal to the Classical electron radius .
2π

If △λ = Bohr radius:

4πε0 ℏ2 h
= (1−cosθ)
me e2 me c

1
θ = cos−1 (1− )
2πα

1
The wavelength shift of the scattered photon in an angle of θ = cos−1 (1− ) is equal to the Bohr radius .
2πα

First radiation constant: c1 = 4π2ℏc2

c1 = 4π2 × Planck angular momentum × (Planck speed) 2

32
Spin-statistics connection theorem:

 Fermions (such as electrons and protons) having a half integer spin must be described by
Fermi-Dirac statistics
 Bosons (such as photons and helium-4 atoms) having an integer spin must be described
by Bose-Einstein statistics.

2GM
The time it takes for light to travel a distance equal to :
c2

2GM 1
τ1 = ×
c2 c

PPlanck
E= × τ1
2

c5
where: E is the energy of the black hole and P Planck = is the Planck power.
G

The time it takes for light to travel a distance equal to Stoney length:

LS √α × LPlanck
τ2 = =
c c

τ2 =√α × t Planck

h
The time it takes for light to travel a distance equal to m c:
e

h 1 h 1
τ3 = × = =
me c c me c2 υC

h
τ3 = = 2Q0 × μ0 × ε0
me c2

33
 c1 = 2πhc2

hc
c2 =
kB

c1
= 2πckB
c2

c1
= 2π × Planck speed × Planck entropy
c2

Unruh temperature:

ℏa
TU =
2πkB c

where: ħ is the reduced Planck constant, a is the local acceleration, c is the speed of light and kB
is the Boltzmann constant.

 a of 2.47 × 1020 m/s2 corresponds approximately to a TU of 1 K.

 a of 1 m/s2 corresponds approximately to a TU of 4.06 ×10−21 K.

ℏa c2 Planck angular momentum × a × c2

TU = =
c1 c1

Hawking–Unruh temperature:

ℏg
TH =
2πkB c

where: g is the surface gravity of a black hole.

c2 g √μ0ε0
TH =
4π2

34
 PCT theorem

All interactions are invariant

The vacuum energy density or dark energy density is defined as: under the Charge, parity and time
reversal symmetry

c4 Λ = cosmological constant
εΛ = ×Λ
8πG

The mass density corresponding to the vacuum energy density is expressed as:
εΛ
ρΛ =
c2

The act of tearing space apart resulting in a sort

of "reverse singularity" − where space and time
If dark energy gets stronger and stronger over time, it can either be reborn or can disappear into
will eventually overcome gravitational force of attraction
nothingness.
and then everything is torn apart. Big Rip

The ultimate fate of the universe − in which the matter of the universe and even the fabric of spacetime
itself − is progressively torn apart by the expansion of the universe at a certain time in the future − until
distances between single atoms will become infinite.

 the cosmological constant from General theory of Relativity

Dark energy
 the zero-point energy inherent to space from quantum field theory

maintains a constant energy density and would cause all galaxies to recede from each other at
speeds proportional to their distance of separation.

h, c Quantum Field Theory and the standard model of particle physics

G, c General Theory of Relativity (geometric theory of gravitation) and the standard model of cosmology

h, kB Quantum Statistics and Modern quantum physics

35
Second radiation constant:

hc NA h
c2 = = ×c
kB NA kB

 NA = Avogadro number (the number of particles that are contained in one mole of a substance)

6.02214076 × 1023

Molar Planck constant 1

c2 = ×
Ideal gas constant √μ0 ε0

F NA e Molar electron charge

= =
R NA kB Ideal gas constant

F e
= × c2
R hc

F KJ
= × c2 √μ0 ε0
R 2

where: F is the Faraday constant and KJ is the Josephson constant.

h Molar Planck constant

Quantum of circulation = =
2me 2 ×Molar electron mass

The Avogadro number is named after the Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro – who − in
1811 − first proposed that the equal volumes of gases under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure will contain equal numbers of molecules.

36
 h 2Gme
Q0 × rS = ×
2me c2

Gℏ Planck volume
Q0 × rS = 2π = 2π
c2 Planck time

Q0 × rS
Planck volumetric flow rate =
2π

Energy
= Specific energy
mass

Planck Energy
= Planck Specific energy = c2
Planck mass

Planck specific energy = (Planck speed) 2

Hawking radiation temperature:

ℏc3 Solar mass

TBH = = 6 × 10−8 K
8πGMkB Mass of the black hole

Unruh temperature:

ℏa
Black hole's gravitational acceleration TU =
2πkB c

c4
If a = :
4GM
TU = TBH

The temperature of the vacuum − observed by an isolated observer accelerating at the Black hole's
c4
gravitational acceleration of g = 4GM m/s2 is Hawking radiation temperature.

37
 2GM ℏc3
rS × TBH = ×
c2 8πGMkB

c2
rS × TBH =
8π2
c2 c2
This means: rS × TBH can never be less than or greater than but = .
8π2 8π2

ℏa
Unruh temperature =
2πkBc

If Unruh temperature = Planck temperature:

ℏa
TPlanck = → a = 2π × aPlanck
2πkB c

If a = Planck acceleration:

ℏaPlanck TPlanck
TU = → TU =
2πkB c 2π

2e
 Josephson constant: KJ =
h
h 2e2
 Magnetic flux quantum: ϕ0 =  Conductance quantum: G0 =
2e h
h
 Resistance quantum: R0 =
KJ × ϕ0 = 1 2e2

G0 × R0 = 1

38
 Modified Newtonian dynamics

Schwarzschild radius of electron: Hypothesis proposing a modification of Newton's

law of universal gravitation to account for observed
2Gme
rS = properties of galaxies
c2
The threshold temperature below which the electron is effectively removed from the universe:

me c2
Tthreshold =
kB

2Gm2e
rS × Tthreshold =
kB

αG × c2
rS × Tthreshold =
π
Irradiation

KE = e × V

KE = √α × qPlanck × V The process by which an object is exposed to

radiation
KE V
= √α ×
EPlanck VPlanck

If V = Planck voltage:

KE = √α × EPlanck

Planck voltage:

Planck energy c4
VPlanck =
Planck charge
= √4πε G = √Planck force × Coulomb constant
0

Planck current:

Planck charge 4πε0 c6 Planck force × Planck specific energy

IPlanck = = √ =√
Planck time G Coulomb constant

39
Planck pressure:

Planck force c7 ℏ α2 ℏ
ΠPlanck = = = = = 4.633 × 10113 Pa
Planck area ℏG2 L3Planck tPlanck L3S tS

Most of the matter in the Universe is dark

Dark Matter → nonluminous and it looks like a matter

Why does it gravitate as ordinary matter does, and thus slows the expansion of the universe?

α2 ℏ
ΠPlanck =
L3S tS

classical electron radius ℏ

ΠPlanck = ×
Bohr radius L3S tS

Planck frequency
Planck acceleration =
√ε0 μ0

h
λC,e = = 𝟐 × 𝐌𝐚𝐠𝐧𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐟𝐥𝐮𝐱 𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐮𝐦× Electron Charge to mass ratio × √μ0ε0
me c

40
 Both Albert Einstein's and Sir Isaac Newton's theories of gravitation have a problem when they
encounter quantum mechanics and that problem involves the very nature of space and time.

ℏG
√ = LPlanck → a fundamental limit to space
c3

ℏG
√ = tPlanck → a fundamental limit to time
c5

S = kB lnW This equation takes pride of

place on the Ludwig Eduard
Boltzmann's grave in the
A measure of statistical disorder of a system
Zentralfriedhof, Vienna.

If S = Planck entropy = kB:

W = e = 2.718281828459045

Planck charge 4πε0 G

Planck capacitance = = √4πℏcε0 × √
Planck voltage c4

Planck capacitance = Coulomb constant × Planck length

1 μ0 c2 μ0 μ0
= = × Planck specific energy= × (Planck speed) 2
4πε0 4π 4π 4π

41
 Planck charge
If I = Planck current = Planck time :
Q = ne × e
qPlanck dne
dQ dne = ×e
= ×e tPlanck dt
dt dt

dne dne 1
I= ×e =
dt dt √α tPlanck

1
Rate of flow of electrons =
Stoney time

"The infinite is nowhere to be found in reality,

no matter what experiences, observations, and Standard gravitational parameter:
knowledge are appealed to"
μ = GM
− David Hilbert
For Planck mass:

μ = GmPlanck = √G × ℏ × c
GMsun

For Stoney mass:

Heliocentric gravitational constant μ = GmS = √α GmPlanck = √α × G × ℏ × c

Classical electron radius:

1
re = × e2
4πε0 me c2

The threshold temperature below which the electron is effectively removed from the universe:

me c2
Tthreshold =
kB

α ×c2
re × Tthreshold =
2π

42
 Bohr radius:

ℏ
a0 =
me cα

c2
a0 × Tthreshold =
2πα

Black Hole Density:

m2Planck m2S
ρBH = ρPlanck × = ρPlanck ×
32πM2 32π α M2

e2
If M = mS = √ : ρPlanck
4πε0 G
ρBH =
32π α

The rate of evaporation energy loss of the black hole:

m2Planck m2S
P = PPlanck × = PPlanck ×
15360πM2 15360 π α M2

e2
If M = mS = √ :
4πε0 G PPlanck
P=
15360 π α

e2
4πM2 4π α M2 If M = mS = √ :
Black hole Entropy: SBH = SPlanck × = 4πε0 G
m2Planck m2S

SBH = SPlanck × 4π α

43
 m2Planck 4πM2
P × SBH = PPlanck ×
15360πM 2 × SPlanck × m2Planck

Planck power × Planck entropy kB c5

P × SBH = =
3840 3840G

m2Planck 4πM2
ρBH × SBH = ρPlanck × × SPlanck ×
32πM2 m2Planck

Planck density × Planck entropy kB c5

ρBH × SBH = =
8 8ℏG2

Rydberg wavelength:

1 8ε20 h3 c
λ R∞ = =
Rydberg constant me e4

2 3 me c2
λR∞ × Tthreshold = 8εm0he4c ×
e kB

2c2
λR∞ × Tthreshold =
α2

44
 2Gme 1
rS × re = ×
c2 4πε0 me c2

rS × re = 2αL2Planck

rS × re = 2 × Fine structure constant × Planck area

2Gme ℏ
rS × a0 = ×
c2 me cα

2L2Planck
rS × a0 = α

2 × Planck area
rS × a0 = Fine structure constant

rS × re = 2L2S

2L2S
rS × a0 =
α2

Mach's Principle

The inertia of the mass is caused by all other masses in the entire universe

45
 2 3 2Gme
8ε0h c
λR∞ × rS = me e4
×
c2

8πL2Planck
λR∞ × rS =
α2

8π ×Planck area
λR∞ × rS =
α2

8πL2S
λR∞ × rS =
α3

Science aims at constructing a world which shall be symbolic of the world of commonplace experience.

− Arthur Eddington

Ge2 Coulomb constant

 Stoney length = LS = √ =e√
4πε0 c4 Planck force

Ge2 0 μ
 Stoney time = TS = √ 6 =e√
4πε0 c 4π × Planck force

LPlanck LS
c= = = √Planck specific energy
tPlanck tS

c 1 LS Planck speed
Refractive index: n = = = =
v v√ε0μ0 v × tS v

46
First radiation constant:

(Stoney length)2
c1 = 4π × Planck angular momentum ×
2
(Stoney time)2

Bohr's Quantization Rule:

L = nℏ

electron angular momentum

n=
Planck angular momentum

For n = 1:

Electron angular momentum = Planck angular momentum

Second radiation constant:

hc molar Planck constant Stoney length

c2 = = ×
kB Ideal gas constant Stoney time

Stoney time
Radiation Constant = 4 × Stefan-Boltzmann constant ×
Stoney length

ℏc3
Black hole temperature: TBH =
8πGkB m0

The threshold temperature below which the particle of mass m0 is effectively removed from the universe:

m0 c2
Tthreshold =
kB
T2Planck
TBH × Tthreshold =
8π

47
Kardashev scale

Classification of alien civilization based on how much energy an extraterrestrial civilization uses

 Type I civilization (planetary civilization): A civilization capable of using and

storing all of the energy resources available on its planet.
 Type II civilization (stellar civilization): A civilization capable of using and
controlling all of the energy resources available in its planetary system or all of the
energy that its star emits.
 Type III civilization (galactic civilization): A civilization capable of accessing
and controlling all of the energy resources available in its galaxy.

h me c2
Q0 × T threshold = ×
2me kB

c2 c2 LS
Q0 × T threshold = =
√4μ0ε0 2tS

White's Energy Formula:

C=E×T

Culture evolves as the amount

 E is a measure of energy consumed per capita per year of energy harnessed per capita
 T is the measure of efficiency of technical factors utilizing the energy per year is increased
 C represents the degree of cultural development

48
 2 ρ∝ a−3(1+w)
a∝t 3(1+w)

1
 Radiation dominated universe (w = ):
3
Planetary engineering
1
a∝t 2

ρ∝ a−4 The development and application of

technology for the purpose of influencing
the environment of a planet
 Non-relativistic matter dominated universe (w = 0):

2
a ∝ t3

ρ∝ a−3

 Dark energy dominated universe (w = −1):

Λ
a∝ 𝑒 Ht with H = √
3

Terraforming

The hypothetical process of deliberately modifying the Planet's atmosphere,

temperature, surface topography or ecology to be similar to those of Earth in order

to make it suitable for human life

49
 Geoengineering
The gravitational force between 2 electrons is:

Gm2e
FG =
r2

The electrical force between 2 electrons is: Planetary engineering applied to Earth

e2
FE =
4πε0r2
β → magnetic coupling constant

FG αG
= = 4β × αG
FE α

The electric field E is related to the electric force F that acts on an electron charge e by:

F
E=
e

F = √α qPlanck E

 Habitable Planet: A Planet with an environment hospitable to life.

 Biocompatible Planet: A Planet possessing the necessary physical parameters for life to
flourish on its surface.

eℏ me c2 e
μB × Tthreshold = × = × c2 × c
2me kB 4π

e c1
μB × Tthreshold = × c2 × √
4π 2πh

c1
μB × Tthreshold = c2 √
32π3RK

50
 If M = me:
mPlanck mPlanck
TBH = TPlanck × TBH = TPlanck ×
8πM 8πme

TPlanck
TBH =
8π√αG

m2Planck m2Planck
ρBH = ρPlanck × ρBH = ρPlanck ×
32πM2 32πm2e

ρPlanck
ρBH =
32παG

m2Planck m2Planck
P = PPlanck × P = PPlanck ×
15360πM2 15360πm2e

PPlanck
P=
15360παG

4πM2 4πm2e
SBH = SPlanck × SBH = SPlanck ×
m2Planck m2Planck

SBH = 4π SPlanck αG
αG → Gravitational coupling constant

v × vPhase = c2 = (Planck speed) 2 = Planck specific energy

Since the particle speed v < c for any particle that has mass − according to Albert Einsteinian special
theory of relativity, the phase velocity of matter waves always exceeds c, i.e. vPhase > Planck speed

Stoney length
Planck length  vPhase > Stoney time
vPhase >
Planck time
Stoney length
 v<
Stoney time

51
 The strong coupling constant

One of the fundamental parameters of the Standard Theory of particle physics that
defines the strength of the force that holds protons and neutrons together

The electrostatic repulsion between 2 electrons is described in quantum electrodynamics

as the result of an exchange of a virtual photon between the 2 electrons.

A particle with a mass m, when at motion, has an energy of E = √p2 c 2 + m20 c 4 . But for photons
E = √p2 c 2 + 0 = pc since they are never at rest; they always move at the speed of light.

Energy ∝ momentum Requirement for masslessness

2
e2 e2
mec = r = Classical electron radius =
4πε0 r 4πε0 me c2

Gm2e 𝐒𝐜𝐡𝐰𝐚𝐫𝐳𝐬𝐜𝐡𝐢𝐥𝐝 𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐮𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐧 Gme

mec2 = r= =
r 2 c2

1 eV is the energy that an electron acquires when it is accelerated through a voltage of one volt.

me × Hartree velocity × Bohr radius 1 keV = 1000 eV Rydberg constant sets the
1 MeV = 1000 keV
magnitude of the various
1 GeV = 1000 MeV
ℏ allowed electron energy
1 TeV = 1000 GeV
{Planck angular momentum} levels in atoms such as

hydrogen.

52
 At energy of 14,000 GeV (i.e., 15,000 times the mass of a proton in units of energy):

The velocity of the proton is 0.999999998c (so almost equal to c).

Gm2e M 𝟐𝐆𝐌
mpc2 =
r
𝐜𝟐
μN rS
r= × Sun 1.99 × 1030 kg 2.95 × 103 m
μB 2

Jupiter 1.90 × 1027 kg 2.82 m

Distance between 2 electrons at which Earth 5.97 × 1024 kg 8.87 × 10−3 m

gravitational potential energy between them is
equal to intrinsic energy of proton Moon 7.35 × 1022 kg 1.09 × 10−4 m

Saturn 5.683 × 1026 kg 8.42 × 10−1 m

Gm2e Uranus 8.681 × 1025 kg 1.29 × 10−1 m

mPlanckc2 =
r
Neptune 1.024 × 1026 kg 1.52 × 10−1 m
rS
r = √electron gravitational coupling constant ×
2 Mercury 3.285 × 1023 kg 4.87 × 10−4 m

Venus 4.867 × 1024 kg 7.21 × 10−3 m

Distance between 2 electrons at which Mars 6.39 × 1023 kg 9.47 × 10−4 m

gravitational potential energy between them is
equal to Planck energy Human 70 kg 1.04 × 10−25 m

My studies of the natural sciences have particularly involved that Planck mass 2.18 × 10−8 kg 3.23 × 10−35 m
part of physics which looks at the atomic world.

(Twice the Planck length)

Amedeo Avogadro

Stellar gas constant = Avogadro constant × Stellar Boltzmann constant

53
 The relativistic energy of an electron can be expressed in terms of its momentum in the expression:

E = √p2 c 2 + m2e c 4

2
E = √p2 c 2 + αG EPlanck

ℏc3
If p = Planck momentum = √ :
G

E = EPlanck √1 + αG

Relativistic energy a electron must possess so that its momentum to be equal to Planck momentum

Stoney energy:

2
mPlanck L2Planck
ES = mSc = √α
t2Planck

ms L2S
t 2S

Stoney temperature:
TPlanck × mPlanck
ES EPlanck TBH =
TS = = √α × 8πM
kB kB

TS = √α × TPlanck TS × mS
TBH =
8π × α × M

54
 Today's universe in Planck and Stoney units

Age 13.8 × 109 years 8.08 × 1060 tPlanck tS

8.08 × 1060
√α
Diameter 8.7 × 1026 m 5.4 × 1061 LPlanck LS
5.4 × 1061
√α
Mass 3 × 1052 kg approx. 1060 mPlanck mS
approx. 1060
√α
Density 9.9 × 10−27 kg⋅m−3 mPlanck α mS
1.8 × 10−123 1.8 × 10−123
L3Planck L3S

Temperature 2.725 K 1.9 × 10−32 TPlanck T

1.9 × 10−32 √αS
(Temperature of the cosmic
microwave background
radiation)

Cosmological 1.1 × 10−52 m−2 1 α

2.9 × 10−122 2.9 × 10−122
L2Planck L2S
constant

Hubble constant 2.2 × 10−18 s−1 1 √α

1.18 × 10−61 1.18 × 10−61
tPlanck tS

Planck charge c10 4πε0 1 1

Planck charge density = =√ = ×
Planck volume ℏ2 G3 t2Planck √G × Coulomb constant

α 1
Planck charge density = ×
t2S √G × Coulomb constant

55
 Planck energy c7
Planck energy density = =
Planck volume G2 ℏ

mPlanck α × mS
Planck energy density = =
LPlanck × t2Planck LS × t2S

Planck force ℏ
Planck force density = =
Planck volume L4Planck tPlanck

5
α2 ℏ
Planck force density =
L4S tS

Hartree Energy:

αhc a0 = Bohr radius

Eh = 2 R∞ hc =
2πa0

Hartree Force:

Hartree Energy
Fh =
Bohr radius

αhc
Fh = re = classical electron radius
2πa20

α5 hc
Fh =
2πr2e

56
 αhc αℏc e2
Fh = = =
2πa20 a20 4πε0 a20

 Z0 = impedance of free space

 G0 = conductance quantum

Z0 G0 hc
Fh =
8πa20

Hartree Momentum:

ℏ α2 ℏ
ph = =
a0 re RK = von Klitzing constant

Z20 ℏ
ph =
4R2K re

Hartree Time:

ℏ ℏ
th = =
Eh 2R∞ hc

tPlanck tS
th = =
4πR∞ LPlanck 4πR∞ LS

57
  Eh × t h = ℏ

 ph × a0 = ℏ

Eh × th = ph × a0

a0
Eh = ph ×
th

Hartree velocity
Hartree velocity: Planck speed =
Fine structure constant

a0
vh = =α×c
th

α LPlanck α LS
vh = =
tPlanck tS

2
mev2h
Erest = mec =
α2

The threshold temperature below which the electron is effectively removed from the universe:

me c2 molar electron massv2h

Tthreshold = = × 2
kB ideal gas constant α

molar electron mass v2h a0

Tthreshold = ×
ideal gas constant re

58
 c1 = 4π2 × Planck angular momentum × (Planck speed) 2

(Hartree velocity)2
c1 = 4π × Planck angular momentum ×
2
(Fine structure constant)2

2πhv2h a0
c1 =
re

hc molar Planck constant Hartree velocity

c2 = = ×
kB ideal gas constant Fine structure constant

The Compton wavelength of the electron

h Fine structure constant

= 2 × Quantum of circulation ×
me c Hartree velocity

1
c=
√μ0 ε0

α
vh =
√μ0 ε0

59
 ℏ
△x △p ≥
2
ℏ
△E △t ≥
2

Bohr radius × Hartree momentum

△x △p ≥
2

Hartree energy × Hartree time

△E △t ≥
2
Sir Isaac Newton's famous Law of
Universal Gravitation states that the
force of gravitation is proportional to
1
− which
(radius of the planet)2
implies that if a radius of the planet
shrinks by a factor of 2, then the △p Bohr radius
≥
force of gravitation at its surface Hartree momentum △𝑥
must rise by a factor of 4.

△E Hartree time
≥
Hartree energy △t

c4 a20 v2h
Planck force = =
G Gr2e

c5 v5h a20 v2h Ls

Planck power = = = ×
G Gα 5 Gr2e ts

60
Black hole surface gravity is given by:

c4
gBH =
4GM

Planck force
= Black hole mass × Black hole surface gravity
4

gBH mPlanck
=
aPlanck 4M

ℏc
If M = mPlanck = √ :
G
aPlanck
gBH =
4

e2
If M = mS = √ :
4πε0 G
aPlanck
gBH =
4√ α

Lorentz factor:

1
γ= A term by which relativistic
2
√1−v2 mass, time and length changes
c
for an object in motion

The Lorentz factor is always greater than 1 but it grows towards infinity as the object's velocity

approaches the speed of light.

61
If v = Hartree velocity:

1
γ=
√1−α2

m0
 m=
√1−α2
1
 L = L0 √1 − α2 Fine structure constant =
4 × magnetic coupling constant

△t0
 △t =
√1−α2

1
 KE = m0c2 ( − 1)
√1−α2

The wavelength of a relativistic particle is given by:

c
If v = :
c2 √2
λ = λC √ 2 −1
v λ = λC

If v = vh:

1 a
λ = λC √ 2 − 1 = λC √ 0 − 1
α re

λ = λC √16β2 − 1

β → magnetic coupling constant

62
 Hartree Temperature:

Eh hc α
Th = = ×
kB kB 2πa0

c2 α
Th =
2πa0

Hartree electric potential:

Eh 4R∞ Φ0
Vh = = 4R∞ × c × Φ0 =
e √μ0 ε0

4R∞ vh Φ0
Vh =
Eh hc α Φ0 vh α
Vh = = × =
e e 2πa0 πa0

Hartree pressure:

Eh αhc 1
Ph = = ×
a30 2πa0 a30

ℏ
Ph = vh ×
a40

Hartree current:

e e αℏc e × vh
Ih = × Eh = × Ih =
ℏ ℏ a0 a0

63
Hartree charge density:

13
e α 2 qPlanck
=
a30 r3e

Hartree electric dipole moment:

e ×re
e × a0 =
α2

3
−2
Hartree electric dipole moment = α × qPlanck × re

The gravitational force between 2 electrons:

Gm2e
FG =
r2

αℏc
If FG = Hartree Force = :
a20

αℏc Gm2e
=
a20 r2

αG
r=√ × a0 = √4 × β × αG × a0
α

Distance between 2 electrons at which gravitational force between them is equal to Hartree force

64
The electrical force between 2 electrons:

e2
FE =
4πε0 r2

αℏc
If FG = Hartree Force = :
a20

αℏc e2
=
a20 4πε0 r2

re
r = a0 =
α2

Distance between 2 electrons at which electrical force between them is equal to Hartree force

Quantum Chromodynamics Units:

QCD Length:

ℏ
LQCD = = reduced Compton wavelength of the proton
mp c

QCD Time:

ℏ 1
2 =
tQCD =
mp c Compton angular frequency of the proton

QCD mass:

mQCD = mp = 1.673 × 10−27 kg

QCD energy: EQCD = mpc2

QCD Temperature:

EQCD
TQCD = = the threshold temperature below which the proton is effectively removed from the universe
kB

65
 ℏ
△E △t ≥
2

EQCD × tQCD
△E △t ≥
2

△E tQCD
≥
EQCD △t

ℏ ℏ
LQCD × tQCD × mQCD = × × mp
mp c mp c2

mPlanck × LPlanck × tPlanck

LQCD × tQCD × mQCD =
√Proton gravitational coupling constant

Astronomical range Typical units

Distances to satellites kilometers

Distances to near-Earth objects lunar distance

Solar mass

Planetary distances astronomical units, gigameters

Solar mass 1

Distances to nearby stars parsecs, light-years

Jupiter masses 1048
Distances at the galactic scale kiloparsecs
Earth masses 332950
Distances to nearby galaxies megaparsecs

66
 F = eE

αℏc
If F = Hartree force = :
a20

Φ0 vh
E=
πa20

ℏ mp c2
LQCD × TQCD = ×
mp c kB

c2
LQCD × TQCD =
2π

LQCD
=c
tQCD

LPlanck LS
=c =c
tPlanck tS

LQCD L LS
= t Planck =
tQCD Planck tS

67
 LQCD LPlanck
c1 = 2πh × ×
tQCD tPlanck

EQCD = mQCD × c2

LQCD LS
EQCD = mQCD × ×
tQCD tS

The electrical force between 2 protons is given by:

e2
FE =
4πε0 r2

If r = LQCD:

e2
FE =
4πε0 L2QCD

EQCD
FE = Fine structure constant ×
LQCD

The gravitational force between 2 protons is given by:

68
 Gm2p
FG =
r2

If r = LQCD:

Gm2p
FG =
L2QCD

EQCD
FG = Proton gravitational coupling constant ×
LQCD

The critical density of the universe:

3H2
ρcritical =
8πG

c5
If ρcritical = Planck density = :
ℏG2

8π
H=√
3 × tPlanck

If the galaxy is taken to be spherical and the mass within the radius R is M, the circular rotational

GM
velocity at distance R is given by: vrot = √ . Thus, if vrot is constant, it follows that M ∝ R, so that
r

the total mass within radius R increases linearly with the distance from the centre.

69
 me v2 3kBT
=
2 2

kB ideal gas constant

v2 = 3 × ×T=3× ×T
me molar electron mass

3v2h T
2
v = ×
α2 √ αG TPlanck

 vh = Hartree velocity and αG = Electron gravitational coupling constant

 α = Fine structure constant and T Planck = Planck temperature

me v2
= eV
2

e
v2 = 2 × × V = 2 × electron charge to mass ratio × V
me

Faraday constant
v2 = 2 × ×V
molar electron mass

α × ε0
εg = Gravitoelectric gravitational constant v2 = 2V √
αG × εg

70
 Radiation density constant:

4σ 4σ × tQCD
a= =
c LQCD

If I = Hartree current:

e dne
× Eh = ×e
ℏ dt

dne Eh
=
dt ℏ

1
Rate of flow of electrons =
Hartree time

Space debris

Extremophiles

Artificial objects in space that

are orbiting Earth but no longer

Organisms capable of living in extreme environments serve a useful function

Precisely because Mars is an environment of great potential biological interest,

it is possible that on Mars there are pathogens, organisms which, if transported

to the terrestrial environment, might do enormous biological damage.

− Carl Sagan

71
The volume of the black hole:

4πR3S
VBH =
3

VBH 32π M3
= ×
VPlanck 3 m3Planck

If M = mPlanck:

32π VPlanck
VBH =
3

If M = mS = √α × mPlanck:

3
32π × α2 × VPlanck
VBH =
3

The surface area of the black hole:

ABH = 4πR2S

If M = mPlanck:
ABH M2 ABH = 16π × APlanck
= 16π ×
APlanck m2Planck
If M = mS:

ABH = 16π × α × APlanck

72
 1
c=
√ε0 μ0

tQCD
LQCD =
√ε0 μ0

The Compton wavelength of the electron:

λC,e = 2π × α × a0

αℏc
Eh × λC,e = × (2π × α × a0)
a0

Eh × λC,e = α2hc

αℏc ℏ
Eh × LQCD = ×
a0 mp c

electron mass
Eh × LQCD = α2ℏc ×
proton mass

α2 ℏc
Eh × LQCD =
1836.15267343

73
Hartree energy:

αℏc me cα
Eh = = αℏc ×
a0 ℏ

Eh = α2mec2

Eh e2 𝑍0 𝐺0 Th
α=√ = = =√
me c2 q2Planck 4 Tthreshold

ℏG
Eh × LPlanck = α2mec2 × √ 3
c

αG = electron gravitational coupling constant

Eh × LPlanck = α2 √αG ℏc

Eh × LS = α2 mec2 × ( √α LPlanck )

5
Eh × LS = α √αG ℏc
2

Hartree energy × Rydberg wavelength = 2hc

74
 2Gme
Eh × rS = α2mec2 ×
c2

Eh × rS = 2α2 × αG × ℏc

Gmp me
FG =
r2

Gm2Planck
FG = √Proton gravitational coupling constant × √Electron gravitational coupling constant
r2

ℏc
FG = 2 √Proton gravitational coupling constant × √Electron gravitational coupling constant
r

α2 ℏ "there are no arbitrary constants ... nature is

 Eh × tQCD =
1836.15267343 so constituted that it is possible logically to
lay down such strongly determined laws that
 Eh × tPlanck = α2 √αG ℏ
within these laws only rationally determined
5 constants occur (not constants, therefore,
 Eh × tS = = α √αG ℏ
2 whose numerical value could be changed
without destroying the theory)."

― Albert Einstein

75
 h
△λ = (1 − cosθ)
me c

If △λ = LQCD:

h
LQCD = (1 − cosθ)
me c

me
θ = cos−1 (1− )
2πmp

me
The wavelength shift of the scattered photon in an angle of θ = cos−1 (1− ) is equal to the
2πmp
QCD length.

e ℏ
Ih × tQCD = × Eh ×
ℏ mp c2

me e×α2
Ih × tQCD = e × α ×
2
=
mp 1836.15267343

electron gravitational coupling constant

Ih × tQCD = e × α2 × √
proton gravitational coupling constant

76
 e ℏ
Ih × tPlanck = × Eh ×
ℏ mPlanck c2

Ih × tPlanck = e × α2 × √electron gravitational coupling constant

e
Ih × t S = × Eh × (√α × tPlanck)
ℏ

5
Ih × t S = e × α 2× √electron gravitational coupling constant

h e
Φ0 × Ih = × × Eh
2e ℏ

Φ0 × Ih = π Eh

Hartree energy
= (Fine structure constant) 2 × √electron gravitational coupling constant
Planck energy

77
 Hartree force Planck length
= α2 × √electron gravitational coupling constant ×
Planck force Bohr radius

Hartree force:

α2 me c2 me c2
Fh = = 2πα3
a0 λC,e

1
Rest mass energy of electron = × Hartree force × Compton wavelength of electron
2πα3

m2e c3 kB T2threshold
Fh = = 2πα3 = 2πα3
h c2

ℏ
EQCD × tPlanck = mpc2 ×
mPlanck c2

EQCD × tPlanck = √proton gravitational coupling constant × ℏ

ℏ
EQCD × tS = mpc2 × (√α × )
mPlanck c2

EQCD × tS = √Fine structure constant × proton gravitational coupling constant × ℏ

78
 ℏ
EQCD × th = mpc2 ×
Eh

1836.15267343 × ℏ
EQCD × th =
α2

The energy required to eject the

Einstein's Photoelectric Equation:
electron from the metal surface
E = W0 + KEelectron

me v2
= h (υ – υ0)
2

v = 2 √Q 0 (υ − υ0 )

eVS = h (υ – υ0)

VS = 2 Φ0 (υ – υ0)

c ℏ
aPlanck × th = ×
tPlanck α2 me c2

c
aPlanck × th =
α2 √electron gravitational coupling constant

79
 c ℏ
aPlanck × tQCD = ×
tPlanck mp c2

c
aPlanck × tQCD =
√proton gravitational coupling constant

eℏ
Eh × μB = α2mec2 ×
2me

α2 × e × c1
E h × μB =
8π2

eℏ
Eh × μN = α2mec2 ×
2mp

α2 × e × c1 me α2 × e × c1
Eh × μN = × =
8π2 mp 14689.2213874 π2

80
 eℏ
EPlanck × μB = mPlanckc2 ×
2me

e × c1
EPlanck × μB =
√electron gravitational coupling constant × 8π2

eℏ
ES × μB = √α mPlanckc2 ×
2me

√Fine structure constant × e × c1

E S × μB =
√electron gravitational coupling constant × 8π2

Planck power c8 mS c2 α αmS

Planck intensity = = = × =
Planck area ℏG 2 tS L2S t3S

(Planck force)2 4π2 × (Planck power)2

Planck intensity = =
ℏ First radiation constant

1
Planck power = √First radiation constant × Planck intensity
2π

81
 m2e c4 c4 4ℏω2C
Planck Intensity = × =
ℏ G2 m2e rS

 ωC = Compton angular frequency of the electron

 rS = Schwarzschild radius of the electron

eℏ
EQCD × μB = mpc2 ×
2me

√proton gravitational coupling constant × e × c1

EQCD × μB =
√electron gravitational coupling constant × 8π2

eℏ
EQCD × μN = mpc2 ×
2mp

e × c1
EQCD × μN =
8π2

eℏ
EPlanck × μN = mPlanckc2 ×
2mp

e × c1
EPlanck × μN =
√proton gravitational coupling constant × 8π2

82
 eℏ
ES × μN = √α mPlanckc2 ×
2mp

√Fine structure constant × e × c1

E S × μN =
√proton gravitational coupling constant × 8π2

Planck Temperature:

ℏc5
TPlanck = √ 2
GkB

c2 hc me c2
TPlanck = √Gm × 2πkB
×√
kB
e

c2 × Tthreshold
TPlanck = √ πrS

"Fine Structure Constant: Fundamental numerical constant of atomic physics and quantum

electrodynamics, defined as the square of the charge of the electron divided by the product of

Planck's constant and the speed of light."

― Steven Weinberg

83
 Eh ℏ
Fh × th = ×
a0 Eh

Fh × th = α mec

Fh × th = Fine structure constant × √electron gravitational coupling constant × Planck momentum

Eh ℏ
Fh × tPlanck = ×
a0 EPlanck

Fh × tPlanck = α3 × electron gravitational coupling constant × Planck momentum

Eh √α × ℏ
Fh × tS = ×
a0 EPlanck

7
Fh × tS = α × electron gravitational coupling constant × Planck momentum
2

84
 Reduced mass of hydrogen atom:
me mp  μ ≤ me
μ=
(me +mp ) μ ≤ mp


√electron gravitational coupling constant × √proton gravitational coupling constant × Planck mass
μ=
(√electron gravitational coupling constant + √proton gravitational coupling constant)

Hartree Power:

α2 me c2
Ph = Fh × vh = × αc
a0

α4 m2ec4
Ph =
ℏ

Ph = α4 × Electron gravitational coupling constant × Planck power

Ph × tPlanck = α4 × Electron gravitational coupling constant × Planck energy

9
Ph × tS = α × Electron gravitational coupling constant × Planck energy
2

"The fine-structure constant derives its name from its origin. It first appeared in
Sommerfeld's work to explain the fine details of the hydrogen spectrum. ... Since
Sommerfeld expressed the energy states of the hydrogen atom in terms of the constant
[alpha], it came to be called the fine-structure constant."

― John S. Rigden

85
 c h
aPlanck × Q0 = ×
tPlanck 2me

π × c3
aPlanck × Q0 =
√electron gravitational coupling constant

c h
aPlanck × Φ0 = ×
tPlanck 2e

πc ×Planck voltage
aPlanck × Φ0 =
√Fine structure constant

h
Eh × Q0 = α2mec2 ×
2me

α2 c1
E h × Q0 =
4π2

h
EQCD × Q0 = mpc2 ×
2me

√proton gravitational coupling constant × c1

EQCD × Q0 =
4π2√electron gravitational coupling constant

86
 h
EPlanck × Q0 = mPlanckc2 ×
2me

c1
EPlanck × Q0 = 2
4π √electron gravitational coupling constant

h
ES × Q0 = √α mPlanckc2 ×
2me

√Fine structure constant × c1

ES × Q0 = 2
4π √electron gravitational coupling constant

A quantum fluctuation can create an proton antiproton pair with energy △E ≥ 2mpc2 provided the fluctuation
ℏ
lives less than the time △t ≤ . In that time, the proton and antiproton can separate by a distance of order
△E
△x = c ×△t. As they separate they gain energy eE ×△x, in the electric field with strength E. If they gain
sufficient energy to compensate for their rest mass, they no longer have to annihilate: they can become real
particles. The condition for real proton− antiproton pair creation is therefore that the electric field be greater
than a critical value, Ecritical given by:

ℏ
e Ecritical × (c × ) = 2mpc2
2mp c2

4m2p c3
Ecritical =
ℏe

A modern mathematical proof is not very different from a modern machine, or a modern test setup: the simple

fundamental principles are hidden and almost invisible under a mass of technical details.

— Hermann Weyl

87
 Eh ℏ
Fh ×tQCD = ×
a0 mp c2

α3 × electron gravitational coupling constant ×Planck momentum

Fh × tQCD =
√proton gravitational coupling constant

α4 m2e c4 ℏ
Ph × tQCD = ×
ℏ mp c2

α4 × Electron gravitational coupling constant × Planck energy

Ph × tQCD =
√Proton gravitational coupling constant

Number of electron charges that make up one Planck charge:

Planck charge 1 2
n= = =
Electron charge √α √ impedance of free space × conductance quantum

The radius of photon orbit: Any photon orbiting below this distance
will plunge into the black hole, while
3GM
r= photon that remains further away will
c2
ℏc
If M = mPlanck = √ : spiral out towards infinity.
G

r = 3 × Planck length

88
The electric potential energy between 2 electrons:

e2
Ep =
4πε0 r

If Ep = Hartree energy:

e2
α2mec2 = 4πε r
0

Distance between 2 electrons at which

re the electric potential energy between
r=
α2
them is equal to Hartree energy

The gravitational potential energy between 2 electrons:

Gm2e
Ep =
r

If Ep = Hartree energy:
2
Gm
α2mec2 = r e

Distance between 2 electrons at which the

rS
r= gravitational potential energy between them is
2 × α2
equal to Hartree energy

"It doesn't matter how beautiful your theory is, it doesn't matter how smart you
are. If it doesn't agree with experiment, it's wrong. "

− Richard P. Feynman

89
 e2
If = Planck energy = mPlanck c 2 :
4πε0 r
Distance between 2 electrons at which
the electric potential energy between
r = √electron gravitational coupling constant × re
them is equal to Planck energy

e2
If = Stoney energy = √α mPlanck c 2 :
4πε0 r
Distance between 2 electrons at

electron gravitational coupling constant which the electric potential energy

r=√ × re
Fine structure constant between them is equal to Stoney
energy

Gm2e
If = Planck energy = mPlanck c 2 :
r

Distance between 2 electrons at which the

rS
r = √electron gravitational coupling constant × gravitational potential energy between
2
them is equal to Planck energy

Gm2e
If = Stoney energy = √α mPlanck c 2 :
r "Primitive life is very common
and intelligent life is fairly rare.
electron gravitational coupling constant rS
r=√ × Some would say it has yet to
Fine structure constant 2
occur on Earth."

− Stephen Hawking

Distance between 2 electrons at which the gravitational

potential energy between them is equal to Stoney energy

90
 Gm1 m2
FG =
r2
2Gm
Because rS = :
c2
FPlanck rS1 × rS2
FG = ×
4 r2
FPlanck
→ Proportionality constant
4
rS1 × rS2
FG ∝
r2

Niels Bohr was a Danish physicist who is generally regarded as one of the foremost physicists of
the 20th century. He was the first to apply the quantum concept, which restricts the energy of a
system to certain discrete values, to the problem of atomic and molecular structure. For that work
he received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1922. His manifold roles in the origins and development
of quantum physics may be his most-important contribution, but through his long career his
involvements were substantially broader, both inside and outside the world of physics.

In 1911, fresh from completion of his PhD, the young Danish physicist Niels Bohr left Denmark
on a foreign scholarship headed for the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge to work under J. J.
Thomson on the structure of atomic systems. At the time, Bohr began to put forth the idea that
since light could no long be treated as continuously propagating waves, but instead as discrete
energy packets (as articulated by Max Planck and Albert Einstein), why should the classical
Newtonian mechanics on which Thomson's model was based hold true? It seemed to Bohr that
the atomic model should be modified in a similar way. If electromagnetic energy is quantized,
i.e. restricted to take on only integer values of hυ, where υ is the frequency of light, then it

91
seemed reasonable that the mechanical energy associated with the energy of atomic electrons is
also quantized. However, Bohr's still somewhat vague ideas were not well received by Thomson,
and Bohr decided to move from Cambridge after his first year to a place where his concepts
about quantization of electronic motion in atoms would meet less opposition. He chose the
University of Manchester, where the chair of physics was held by Ernest Rutherford. While in
Manchester, Bohr learned about the nuclear model of the atom proposed by Rutherford. To
overcome the difficulty associated with the classical collapse of the electron into the nucleus,
Bohr proposed that the orbiting electron could only exist in certain special states of motion -
called stationary states, in which no electromagnetic radiation was emitted. In these states, the
angular momentum of the electron L takes on integer values of Planck's constant divided by 2π,
h
denoted by ℏ = (pronounced h-bar). In these stationary states, the electron angular
2π
momentum can take on values ℏ, 2ℏ, 3ℏ... but never non-integer values. This is known as
quantization of angular momentum, and was one of Bohr's key hypotheses. He imagined the
h h
atom as consisting of electron waves of wavelength λ = = endlessly circling atomic
me v p
nuclei. In his picture, only orbits with circumferences corresponding to an integral multiple of
𝐧ℏ
electron wavelengths could survive without destructive interference (i.e., r = could
𝐦𝐞 𝐯
survive without destructive interference). For circular orbits, the position vector of the electron r
is always perpendicular to its linear momentum p. The angular momentum L has magnitude
mevr in this case. Thus Bohr's postulate of quantized angular momentum is equivalent to mevr =
nℏ where n is a positive integer called principal quantum number. It tells us what energy level
the electron occupies.
For an electron moving in a circular orbit of radius r:

v
h h ω=
Since λ = = (de Broglie relation), r
me v p

hvp
pvp = = hυ = ℏω
λ

92
 h
where ℏ = is the reduced Planck constant, ω = 2πυ is the angular frequency and vp is the
2π
phase velocity.

ℏv
pvp =
r

Since nℏ = pr (quantization of angular momentum),

v = n × vp

The velocity of the electron or the group velocity of the corresponding matter wave associated
with the electron is the integral multiple of the phase velocity of the corresponding matter wave
associated with the electron.
h
Quantum of circulation: Q0 =
2me
By the de Broglie hypothesis, we see that:
mevr = nℏ
pvp hυ
=
λ λ

nQ0 2Q0
pv
=
hυ v= → v=
nλ λ πr λ

Substituting nλ = 2πr, v nQ0 nQ0

ω= = =
r πr2 Area of circular orbit
me v2 hυ
= 2π λ
r

The classical description of the nuclear atom is based upon the Coulomb attraction between the
positively charged nucleus and the negative electrons orbiting the nucleus. Furthermore, we
consider only circular orbits. The electron, with mass me and charge e− moves in a circular orbit
of radius r with constant velocity v. The attractive Coulomb force provides the necessary
acceleration to maintain orbital motion. (Note we neglect the motion of the nucleus since its
mass is much greater than the electron). The total force on the electron is thus

93
 Ze2 me v2
F= =
4πε0 r2 r

𝐹 hυ
where ε0 = 8.854 ×10−12 is the permittivity of free space. F = 2π λ
𝑚

Ze2 hυ
− = − 2πr
4πε0 r λ

Substituting 2πr = nλ,

Ze2
− = U = − nhυ The potential energy of the electron
4πε0 r

The negative sign indicates that it requires energy to pull the orbiting electron away from the nucleus.

From the equation:

me v2 pv
KE = =
2 2

we can determine the kinetic energy of the electron (neglecting relativistic effects)

nℏ
Substituting p = ,
r

nℏv nℏω nhυ The kinetic energy of the electron

KE = = = hυ
2r 2 2 is the integral multiple of
2

The total energy of the electron E = KE + U is thus:

nhυ
E = KE + U = + (− nhυ)
2

nhυ
E=−
2

94
 The frequency of photon absorbed or emitted when transition occurs between two stationary
states that differ in energy by ΔE, is given by:
△E E2 −E1
υphoton = =
h h

where E1 and E2 denote the energies of the lower and higher allowed energy states respectively.
This expression is commonly known as Bohr's frequency rule.

n hυ n hυ
(− 2 2 ) − (− 1 1 )
2 2
υphoton =
h

n1υ1 – n2υ2 = 2υphoton

In physics (specifically, celestial mechanics), escape velocity is the minimum speed needed for
me v2
an electron to escape from the electrostatic influence of a nucleus. If the kinetic energy of
2
2
Ze
the electron is equal in magnitude to the potential energy 4πε r , then electron could escape
0
from the electrostatic field of a nucleus.
me v2 Ze2
=
Orbital velocity: 2 4πε0 r

Ze2 me v2 me v2
= = nhυ
4πε0 r2 r 2

Ze2 nhυ
vorbital = √ =√
4πε0 rme me 2nhυ
v = vescape = √ = √4nQ 0 υ
me

Z ×classical electron radius Z ×Bohr radius

vorbital = c√ = c × Fine structure constant √
r r

95
 Z ×Bohr radius
vorbital = Hartree velocity √
r

Total energy of the electron:

2πr = nλ
nhυ Ze2 me v2
E=− = (standing-wave condition)
2 4πε0 r2 r
+
E nυ
=−
me c2 2υC Ze2 h
= meω2r λ=
4πε0 r2 p
me c2
υC = is the Compton frequency of (de Broglie relation)
h
the electron. Ze2 4π2
= me × ×r
4πε0 r2 T2 L = nℏ

(Bohr’s postulate)

4π2 Z
= re c2 ×
T2 r3 where re denote the Classical electron radius

r3
T2 ∝
Z

"The very nature of the quantum theory ... forces us to regard the space-time coordination and the claim of
causality, the union of which characterizes the classical theories, as complementary but exclusive features of
the description, symbolizing the idealization of observation and description, respectively."

― Niels Bohr

96
 h
The moment of inertia of an electron in nth orbit is: particle λ= wave
me v
I = n × mer2
Planetary Model failed to
nℏ
explain stability of atoms in mer =
v
accordance with classical laws

of physics
2
2 ℏr n ℏ
I=n × v =
ω

The acceleration of the electron:

Iω
n=√
v2 ℏ
a= =ω×v
r

2π nhυ 2π √2nQ0υ Plum Pudding Model failed to

a=
T
√m = T
e explain large-angle deflections

of scattered alpha particles

e2 1
F=Z× ×
4πε0 r2

hc
F = Z × Fine structure constant ×
2 × Area of the circular orbit

Ze2 me n2 ℏ2
= ×
4πε0 r2 r m2e r2
n2 n2 re
r= × Bohr radius =
Z Zα2

97
 Rydberg formula:

n22 −n21
υphoton = Rydberg frequency × Z 2
n21 n22

For hydrogen atom: Z = 1

n22 −n21 n1 n2 Series Name

υphoton = Rydberg frequency ×
n21 n22
1 2–∞ Lyman

2 3–∞ Balmer
n1 υ1 − n2υ2 n22 −n21
= Rydberg frequency ×
2 n21 n22
3 4–∞ Paschen

n21 n22 (n1υ1 − n2 υ2 ) 4 5–∞ Brackett

Rydberg frequency =
2(n22 −n21 )
5 6–∞ Pfund

6 7–∞ Humphreys

 Area of ellipse (integral form):

∮ Ldφ

 Area of ellipse (geometrical form):

2πnℏ
Bohr-Sommerfeld quantization rule for angular momentum:

∮ Ldφ = 2πnℏ Bohr quantization rule

In the case of circular orbits: L is constant and

2π
∮ Ldφ = L ∫ dφ = 2πnℏ → L = nℏ
0

98
 Hartree electric potential Eh qPlanck
= ×
Planck voltage e EPlanck
Total energy of the electron:

hc R∞ nhυ
E = KE + U = − =−
n2 2

3
n3 υ α2 × √electron gravitational coupling constant
R∞ =
2c

me v2 Ze2
Ionization energy =
r 4πε0 r2

1 n3 υ
α=
Z
√υ
Electron charge × Ionization potential Ze2 Zαc nhυ C
v= = =√
4πε0 nℏ n me
The minimum energy required to
liberate the electron from the
Separation energy
binding of nucleus.

The energy needed to remove a proton or a neutron from an

Ground state → Excited state atomic nucleus.

First excitation potential = E2 − E1

Rydberg formula for the spectrum of the hydrogen atom:
hc R∞ hc R∞
− + = −3.4 + 13 .6 = 10.2 eV
n22 n21
n21 n22 n21
λmax = λmin =
Second excitation potential = E3 − E1 (n22 −n21 )R∞ R∞
hc R∞ hc R∞
− + = −1.5 + 13 .6 = 12.1 eV
n23 n21
λmax n22
=
λmin (n22 −n21 )
E= hυ
Because E = mc2:
Bohr's model does not work for

systems with more than one electron.

The Planck constant relates mass to frequency.

99
 2
e=
Fine structure constant: KJ RK 4
h=
K2J RK
e2 h K2J h K2J μ0
α= = = √ε
2ε0 ch 8ε0 c 8 0 RK = von Klitzing constant

1
KJ = = Josephson constant
Magnetic flux quantum

Nothing can better illustrate the positive and hectic pace of progress which the art of
experimenters has made over the past twenty years, than the fact that since that time, not only one,
but a great number of methods have been discovered for measuring the mass of a molecule with
practically the same accuracy as that attained for a planet.

− Max Planck

△α = αprevious − α now

If the fine-structure constant really is a constant, then any experiment should show that

△α = 0

Any value far away from zero would indicate that α does change over time. So far, most experimental data
is consistent with α being constant.

Even if there is only one possible unified theory, it is just a set of rules
and equations. What is it that breathes fire into the equations and
makes a universe for them to describe? The usual approach of science
of constructing a mathematical model cannot answer the questions of
why there should be a universe for the model to describe. Why does
the universe go to all the bother of existing?

― Stephen Hawking

100
 The wavelength associated with an electron is related to the momentum of the electron by the de
h
Broglie relation: λ =
p

h dp p2 dλ
p= → = ×− Sir Isaac Newton first presented his three laws of motion in the "Principia
λ dt h dt
Mathematica Philosophiae Naturalis" in 1686. His second law defines a
force exerted on the electron to be equal to the rate of change in momentum
dp
of the electron: F =
dt

p2 dλ
F= ×−
h dt

me
mrelativistic = 2 The mass of the electron is not constant; it varies with changes in its velocity.
√1−v2
c

m2relativistic c2 – m2relativistic v2 = me2c2

On differentiation mrelativisticv dv + v2dmrelativistic = c2dmrelativistic

dmrelativistic (c2 – v2) = mrelativisticv dv

mrelativisticc2 = mec2 + KE
dmrelativistic mrelativistic va
=
dt (c2 −v2) dmrelativistic c2 dKE
= = Fv
dt dt

mrelativistic × a m3relativistic a For non-relativistic case (v << c):

F= v2
=
1− 2 m2e
c F= mea

101
 Albert Einstein was a German-

In no experiment, m3relativistic a p2 dλ born theoretical physicist, widely

F= = ×−
matter exists both as a m2e h dt acknowledged to be one of the
greatest physicists of all time.
particle and as a wave
Einstein is known for developing
simultaneously. It is
the theory of relativity, but he
either the one or the also made important contributions
other aspect. to the development of the theory
m2e v2 dλ
a= ×− of quantum mechanics.
hmrelativistic dt

For nonrelativistic case (v << c):

me v2 dλ
a= ×−
h dt

"It was an act of desperation. For six years I had struggled with the blackbody theory. I knew the
problem was fundamental and I knew the answer. I had to find a theoretical explanation at any cost,
except for the inviolability of the two laws of thermodynamics."
− Max Planck
Irradiance is power per unit area.

Just like Energy, TOTAL MOMENTUM IS ALWAYS CONSERVED

Classical Picture Quantum Picture

Energy of EM wave ~ (Amplitude) 2 hc

Energy of photon =
λ

102
 The time will come when diligent research over long periods
will bring to light things which now lie hidden. A single
2 lifetime, even though entirely devoted to the sky, would not
An 'up' quark has a charge of + 3 e
be enough for the investigation of so vast a subject... And so
this knowledge will be unfolded only through long successive
2 ages. There will come a time when our descendants will be
qup = + 3 e
amazed that we did not know things that are so plain to
them... Many discoveries are reserved for ages still to come,
1
and a 'down' quark has a charge of − 3 e when memory of us will have been effaced.

1
qdown = − 3 e ― Seneca

q2up 4αℏc q2down αℏc

2 = 2 =
FE = FE =
4πε0 r 9r2 4πε0 r 9r2

qup × qdown 2αℏc

FE = =−
4πε0 r2 9r2

1 α2
Hartree wave number = =
a0 re

Hartree energy = ℏω0 = 2ℏcR∞ = α2mec2

ℏω0 = 2ℏcR∞

Hartree frequency = 2 × Rydberg frequency

ℏω0 = α2mec2

Hartree frequency = α2 × Compton angular frequency of electron

103
 ε0 E2 Electromagnetic wave consists of an
 Energy density of electric field = oscillating electric field with a
2
B2 perpendicular oscillating magnetic field.
 Energy density of magnetic field =
2μ0

"What is known of [photons] comes from

Energy density of EM wave:
observing the results of their being created
ε0 E2 B2 or annihilated."
uwave = +
2 2μ0
− Eugene Hecht
E 1
c= =
B √ε0 μ0

uwave = ε0 E 2 uwave does not depend on the

frequency of the wave
uparticle = number density of photons × hυ

depend on the frequency of the wave

uwave = uparticle

number density of photons ∝ E2

"The more important fundamental laws

and facts of physical science have all
been discovered, and these are now so A very small increase in temperature
4σT4 will result in a very large increase in
firmly established that the possibility of Radiation pressure =
3c the radiation pressure
their ever being supplanted in
consequence of new discoveries is
exceedingly remote.... Our future Hydrostatic Equilibrium:
discoveries must be looked for in the gas and radiation pressure balance the gravity
sixth place of decimals."

Thermal Equilibrium:
− Albert A. Michelson, 1894
Energy generated = Energy radiated

104
 Hartree pressure Eh L3Planck
= ×
Planck pressure a30 EPlanck

Hartree pressure = α5 × (electron gravitational coupling constant) 2 × Planck pressure

2 2
Erelativistic = p2c2 + Erest
2
Erelativistic − E2rest = p2c2

(Erelativistic − Erest) (Erelativistic + Erest) = p2c2

For non-relativistic case:

p2
KE =
(mrelativistic + mrest ) mrest v2
KE =
2

p2 dλ KE(mrelativistic + mrest ) dλ
F= ×− → F= ×−
h dt h dt

hF For non-relativistic case:

KE = dλ
(mrelativistic + mrest ) × − mrelativistic = mrest
dt

F = mresta
ha
KE = dλ
2 × − dt where KJ is the Josephson constant

ha
KE = eV = dλ
2 × − dt
3kB T ha
KE = = dλ
2 2 × − dt
dλ
a = KJV ×−
3kB T dλ dt
a= ×−
h dt

105
 Cherenkov radiation is the electromagnetic radiation emitted when a charged particle (such as
an electron) travels in a medium with speed v such that:

c
<v<c
n

where c is speed of light in vacuum, and n is the refractive index of the medium. We define the
ratio between the speed of the particle and the speed of light as:
v 1 The emission of Cherenkov
=
c n × cosθ radiation depends on the refractive
The heavier the charged particle, the higher
kinetic energy it must possess to be able to emit index n of the medium and the
c
Cherenkov radiation. cosθ = velocity v of the charged particle in
n×v
that medium
Since the charged particle is relativistic, we can use the relation:

c2
λ = λC √ 2 −1
v

λ = λC √n2 cos 2 θ − 1

If λ = λC: The wavelength of the charged particle is

√2 equal to its Compton wavelength when
θ = cos−1 ( n )
√2
Cherenkov angle equals cos−1 ( )
n

The Cherenkov Effect is used as a tool in: Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov was a Soviet
physicist who shared the Nobel Prize in
 nuclear physics to detect solar neutrinos
physics in 1958 with Ilya Frank and Igor
 high energy experiments to identify the nature of particles
Tamm for the discovery of Cherenkov
 astrophysical experiments to study the cosmic showers
radiation, made in 1934.

106
 "The element carbon can be found in more kinds of molecules than the sum of all other kinds of
molecules combined. Given the abundance of carbon in the cosmos — forged in the cores of stars,
churned up to their surfaces, and released copiously into the galaxy — a better element does not exist
on which to base the chemistry and diversity of life. Just edging out carbon in abundance rank, oxygen
is common, too, forged and released in the remains of exploded stars. Both oxygen and carbon are
major ingredients of life as we know it."

― Neil deGrasse Tyson

For a spherical star of uniform density, the The core pressure of a star of mass M and radius R is
gravitational binding energy EB is given by given by:
the equation:
5GM2
Pcore =
3GM2 4πR4
EB = −
5R

where G is the gravitational constant, M is the

mass of the star and R is its radius. 25EB 25
Pcore = − =− × ρB
9V 9
EB rS
− =
0.3Mc2 R
where ρB is the gravitational binding energy density of
the star.
2GM
where rS = is the Schwarzschild radius of
c2
the star. Any star with Radius smaller than its
Schwarzschild radius will form a black hole. Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar was an Indian-American
astrophysicist who spent his professional life in the United
If R < rS: |EB| > 0.3Mc 2 States. He was awarded the 1983 Nobel Prize for Physics
with William A. Fowler for "...theoretical studies of the
physical processes of importance to the structure and
The star will form a black hole
evolution of the stars"

107
 10EB rS The core density of the star is given by:
3Mc 2 =− R
3M
ρcore =
9PcoreV πR3
− = EB:
25

The core temperature of the star is given by:

Pcore rS
=
0.833ρE R
5μmH GM
Tcore =
3kB R

Mc2
where ρE = is the mass energy density of the star.
V where kB is the Boltzmann constant,
μ denotes mean molecular weight of
the matter inside the star and mH is
If R < rS: The star will form
Pcore > 0.833ρE the mass of hydrogen nucleus
a black hole.

William Alfred Fowler was an American

nuclear physicist, later astrophysicist, who,
4μmH Pcore with Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar won the
ρcore × Tcore = ρcore × Tcore × kB
kB Pcore = 1983 Nobel Prize in Physics. He is known for
4μmH
his theoretical and experimental research
into nuclear reactions within stars and the

9Pcore 9 × ρcore× Tcore × kB energy elements produced in the process.

ρB = − =−
25 100μmH

The ideal gas equation PV = NkBT does not hold good for the matter present inside a star. Because, most
stars are made up of more than one kind of particle and the gas inside the star is ionized. There is no
indication of these facts in the above equation. We need to change the ideal gas equation, so that it holds
good for the material present inside the star. It can be shown that the required equation can be written as PV
M
= kBT where μ denotes mean molecular weight of the matter inside the star, M is the mass of the star
μmH

and mH is the mass of hydrogen nucleus.

P ρ T
PV kB 4Pcore =4× ×
= = Pcore ρcore Tcore
MT μmH ρcore Tcore

108
 Planck force Planck pressure Planck pressure
Planck force density = = = √α
Planck volume Planck length Stoney length

Gmp me
mec2 =
r

Distance between proton and

Schwarzschild radius of proton electron at which the gravitational
r=
2 potential energy between them is
equal to intrinsic energy of electron

The saddest aspect of life right now is

that science gathers knowledge faster
than society gathers wisdom.

Gmp me
― Isaac Asimov mpc2 =
r

Distance between proton and electron

Schwarzschild radius of electron
r= at which the gravitational potential
2
energy between them is equal to
intrinsic energy of proton

Black hole type Description Constraints

Schwarzschild has no angular momentum angular momentum = 0 electric charge = 0
and no electric charge
Kerr does have angular momentum electric charge = 0
but no electric charge
Reissner–Nordström has no angular momentum but angular momentum = 0
does have an electric charge
Kerr–Newman has both angular momentum
and an electric charge

109
 Mc2
dQ = TBH × SBH
Heat Capacity: C = 2
dT
2SBH
3 Specific heat capacity of a black hole = −
ℏc M
Substituting dQ = dMc2 and T = 8πk GM:
B

8πkB GM2
Heat capacity of a black hole = −
ℏc

8πkB GM c2
Specific heat capacity of a black hole = − =−
ℏc Black hole temperature

4πkB GM2
SBH = "For the past forty-five years, Stephen and hundreds
ℏc
of other physicists have struggled to understand the
On differentiation
precise nature of a black hole's randomness. It is a
question that keeps on generating new insights about
the marriage of quantum theory with general
8πkB GM relativity—that is, about the ill-understood laws of
dSBH = × dMc2
ℏc3
quantum gravity."

TBH × dSBH = dMc2

― Stephen Hawking

Black holes are the harmonic oscillator of

quantum gravity.
Mc2
= TBH × SBH
2
(A. Strominger)
On differentiation

dMc2 = 2 (TBH × dSBH) + 2 (dTBH × SBH) = 2 dMc2 + 2 (dTBH × SBH)

 Neutron Star has a hard surface; the curvature is large - but finite.
dMc2  Black Hole: No Surface − curvature is infinite at the centre.
− = 2SBH
dTBH

110
A photon of higher frequency causes the ejected photoelectron to
propagate faster. The energy of photon − converted into the kinetic It is impossible, using the current
energy of the electron − is proportional to its frequency. laws of quantum mechanics and
the known behavior of gravity, to
determine a position to a
ℏ, c, G, e, ε0, me, mp …..
ℏG
precision smaller than√ 3
c

Other constants

h Fundamental dimensionless constants

λC =
mp c mp
me
e2
re =
4πε0 me c2 e2
α=
4πε0 ℏc

Gm2e
ℏ, c, G, ε0 αG =
ℏc
1
Magnetic coupling constant =
4α

Planck units
mp μB proton gravitational coupling constant
ℏc = = √electron gravitational coupling constant
me μN
mPlanck = √
G
The Planck units simplify
ℏG Theories of proton decay predict
LPlanck = √ the expression of physics
c3 laws and are the universal that the proton has a half life on
limits beyond which all the the order of at least 1032 years. Till
ℏG
tPlanck = √ 5 known laws of physics
date, there is no experimental
c break down. In order to
evidence of proton decay.
comprehend anything
qPlanck = √4πε0 ℏc
beyond it − we need new
unbreakable laws of
theoretical physics.

111
If you wish to make
eℏ 2Gme
an apple pie from μB × r S = ×
2me c2
scratch, you must
first invent the
universe. √α × c1 × qPlanck
μB × r S =
4π2 × FPlanck

― Carl Sagan

eℏ 2Gmp √α × c1 × qPlanck
μN × r S = × =
2mp c2 4π2 × FPlanck

A thinker sees his own actions as eℏ ℏ

μB × a0 = ×
experiments and questions--as 2me me cα

attempts to find out something.

Success and failure are for him eQ20
μB × a0 =
2π2 cα
answers above all. αeQ20
μB × r e =
2π2 c
― Friedrich Nietzsche

Gm2e GE2rest k2B T2threshold

FG = = =
r2 c4 r2 Planck force × r2

1 (First radiation constant)2 μ0 ε0 T2threshold

FG = × ×
4π2 × Planck force (Second radiation constant)2 r2

Gm2Planck 1 (First radiation constant)2 μ0 ε0 T2Planck

FG = = 4π2× Planck force × (Second radiation constant)2 ×
r2 r2

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 Gm2e GE2rest h2 υ2C
FG = = =
r2 c4 r2 Planck force × r2

c1 × Planck angular momentum

FG =
Planck force × λC × r2

Gm2e G e2 ℏ2
FG = = ×
r2 r2 4μ2B

L2Planck e2 c1 Planck area × e2 × c1

FG = =
16π2 μ2B r2 √ε0 μ0 16π2 × μ2B × r2 × √ε0 μ0

Gravitational redshift

The change in the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation photon in a gravitational field predicted by
general theory of relativity. A heuristic Newtonian derivation gives

△E GM
z= = −
E rc2

I do not feel obliged to believe that

Science, my lad, is made up
the same God who has endowed us
of mistakes, but they are
with sense, reason, and intellect has
mistakes which it is useful to
intended us to forgo their use.
Mc = − z × Planck force × r
2
make, because they lead little
― Galileo Galilei by little to the truth.

[Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina]

― Jules Verne

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 Gravitational waves are 'ripples' in space-time, generated by accelerated masses that propagate as
waves outward from their source at the speed of light. They were proposed by Henri Poincaré
(French mathematician, theoretical physicist, engineer and philosopher of science) in 1905 and
subsequently predicted in 1916 by Albert Einstein on the basis of his general theory of relativity.

Gravitational waves were first directly detected by the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave
Observatory (LIGO) in 2015. Gravitational wave is to gravity what light is to
electromagnetism. It is the transmission of variations in the gravitational field as waves.
Predicted by Einstein's theory of general relativity, the waves transport energy known as
gravitational radiation. Two objects orbiting each other in highly elliptical orbit or circular orbit
about their center of mass comprises binary system. This system loses mass by emitting
E
gravitational wave (ripple in the geometry of space and time) whose frequency υ = <<
h
frequency of electromagnetic radiation and this is associated with an in-spiral or decrease in
orbit. Suppose that the two masses are m1 and m2, and they are separated by a distance "r"
orbiting each other in highly circular orbit about their center of mass. The rate of loss of energy
from the binary system through gravitational radiation is given by:
−11
dE 32G4 m21 m22 (m1 +m2 ) where G = 6.674 × 10 m3 kg−1 s −2 is the Newtonian gravitational
P=− =
dt 5c5 r5 constant and c = 3 × 108 ms−1 is the speed of light in vacuum.
Gravitational radiation robs the energy of orbiting masses. As the
energy of the orbiting masses reduces, the distance between the masses
Gm1 m2 decreases, and they orbit more rapidly. More generally, the rate of
P=v×
2r2
decrease of distance between the masses with time is given by:
2P
FG =
v dr 64G3 m1 m2 (m1 +m2 )
v=− =
dt 5c5 r3

where FG is the force of gravitation between the two masses orbiting each other in highly circular orbit about their
center of mass. The loss of energy through gravitational radiation could eventually drop the mass m1 into the mass
m2. The lifetime of distance "r" between the masses orbiting each other in highly circular orbit about their center of
mass is given by:
5c5 r4
tlife = r 2P 8P × tlife
256G3m1 m2 (m1 +m2 ) tlife = FG = =
4×v v r

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 The gravitational wave signal was observed by LIGO detectors in Hanford and in Livingston
on 14 September 2015. An exact analysis of the gravitational wave signal based on the
Albert Einsteinian theory of general relativity showed that it came from two merging stellar
black holes with 29 and 36 solar masses, which merged 1.3 billion light years from Earth.
Before the merger, the total mass of both black holes was 36 + 29 solar masses = 65 solar
masses. After the merger, the mass of resultant black hole was 62 solar masses.

What happened to three solar masses?

It was turned into the energy transported by the emitted gravitational waves. Using Albert
Einstein's equation E = mc2, where E is the energy transported by the emitted gravitational
waves, m is the missing mass (3 solar masses) and c is the speed of light, we can estimate the
energy released as gravitational waves:
The amplitude of gravitational
waves gets smaller with the E = (3 × 2 × 1030 kg) × (3 × 108 m/s) 2
distance to the source.
E = 5.4 × 1047 J

This is roughly 1021 more energy than the complete electromagnetic radiation emitted by our sun.

E 5.4 × 1047
υ= = = 8.14 × 1080s−1
h 6.626 ×10−34

 Gravity → Curvature of 4-dimensional (3 space + 1 time) space-time fabric produced by matter.

 Gravitational-waves → Ripples on 4-dimensional space-time produced by accelerated matter.

"Newton's law of gravitation. That's all you need (with a spot of calculus to crunch the numbers) to
work out how the Earth will orbit the Sun or how an apple will fall if you let it go at a certain height.
The only trouble is that Newton had no idea how this gravity thing worked. His model was simply:
There is an attraction between bits of stuff, and let's not bother about why."

Albert Einstein theorized that smaller masses travel toward larger masses, not because they are ― Brian Clegg
"attracted" by a mysterious force called gravity, but because the smaller objects travel through
space that is warped by the larger object.

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References:

 http://www.ebyte.it/library/educards/constants/ConstantsOfPhysicsAndMath.html.

 The Fundamental Constants: A Mystery of Physics by Harald Fritzsch.

 The Constants of Nature By John D. Barrow.

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physical_constants.

 Hawking on the Big Bang and Black Holes by Stephen W. Hawking.

 The Universe in a Nutshell by Stephen W. Hawking.

Natural science, does not simply describe and

explain nature; it is part of the interplay between

nature and ourselves.

Werner Heisenberg

116