Deflection in Beams

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

In this chapter, we will learn about the slope and deflection produced in
beams/cantilevers of uniform/non-uniform section, which is subjected to various
types of loadings such as concentrated, uniformly distributed, linearly variable and
turning moments. Macaulay’s method of developing deflection and slope equations
at any section of the beam will be discussed in details and students will also be
able to solve different problems as this method is most versatile.

 Students will also learn about the successive integration of equation of

curvature and bending moment, using constants of integration for the
determination of slope and deflection at any section of the beam.
 Special techniques such as moment area method and conjugate beam method
are also used to determine the slope and deflection in beams.

Introduction

The rigidity of a flexural member depends upon the length of the beam,
types of load and their magnitude. If the deflection in a beam is beyond the
permissible limit, there will be a loss of rigidity causing undesired
deflections and slopes, and also the smooth operation of a flexural member
becomes impossible.

Beams and cantilevers subjected to various types of loads will be dealt with
in details step by step. In addition to double integration method, special
methods such as moment area method and conjugate beam method will
also be discussed in brief.

Starting from the simple cases of beam/cantilevers subjected to

concentrated and/or uniformly distributed loads, cases of beams subjected
to a combination of point loads, variable load and turning moment, will be
analysed.

Relation Between Bending Moment and Curvature

Basic relationship between curvature (d2y/dx2) and bending moment, M,

provides the starting equation for the determination of slope and deflection
at any section of the beam. Under the action of transverse loads, a beam
bends over span length L as shown in Fig. 11.1(a). Consider the length
of BC = δL along the curved beam with horizontal projection δx and vertical
projection δy. The radius of curvature of small length δL = BC is R and O is
the centre of curvature. BG is the tangent to the curve at point B, and FCF is
the tangent to the curve at point C.

Figure 11.1 Bending in beam

Slope at B = ϕ

Slope at C = ϕ + δϕ

The angle subtended by length δL at the centre of curvature = δϕ

    or, Rδϕ = δL

In the limit,                    as shown in Fig. 11.1(b)

Differentiating the above equation on both sides,

but,

Therefore,                         

Moreover,                 

or,

or,

But, slope dy/dx, is a very small quantity in any beam.

 is negligible.

 (from the flexural formula of Chapter 8).

or,                     

This differential equation gives the relationship between the moment of

resistance and curvature (in the Cartesian co-ordinates of a point on the
beam).

Sign Conventions

We have already discussed about sign conventions, SF and BM diagrams,

in Chapter 7; however, we will revise it briefly as follows:

1. On the left side of a section, upward shear force is positive or the shear force
tending to rotate the body in clockwise direction is positive.
2. On the left side of the section, clockwise bending moment is positive, the
bending moment which produces concavity upwards is a positive bending
moment.
3. In x–y Cartesian co-ordinate system, x is positive towards right and y is
positive in upward direction.

Figure 11.2 shows a beam AB in bent shape showing concavity upwards, the

bending moment from A to B is positive. The deflection at A, yA, and the
deflection at B, yB, are positive, while the deflection at C, yC, is negative
(below x axis). Similarly the slope at E, iE, is positive, while the slope at D, iD,
is negative.

Figure 11.2 Slopes and deflections in beam

Simply Supported Beam with a Central Point Load

A beam of length L, hinged at end A and roller supported at end B, carries a

central point load W at centre C. Flexure curve of the beam is ACB, Fig 11.3.
The slope at A is –i′A, the slope at B is –i′B, and the slope at C is zero due to
symmetrical loading. Similarly, the deflection at ends A and B is zero but
the deflection at centre C is yC, the maximum.

Due to symmetry, reactions at A and B will be equal, that is,

Figure 11.3
 

Consider a section YY at a distance of x from end A.

Then, bending moment,         

Using the equation 11.1 of bending moment and curvature, we can write

Integrating Eq. (11.2), we get

where C1 is a constant of integration.

At the centre, x = L/2, dy/dx = 0, and the slope is zero

so,                         

or constant,             
or,

Slope at A,         

From the above equation, we cannot find the slope at B because we have
made equation of bending moment only in portion AC of the beam.

Integrating Eq. (11.3) again,

, where C2 is another constant of integration.

The deflection y = 0 at x = 0, at end A,

    0 = 0 − 0 + C2

    Hence, constant, C2 = 0.

Finally,

Deflection at C, x = L/2, by substituting the value in Eq. (11.4),

   Maximum deflection,

   Slope at B,  (due to symmetry)

Example 11.1 A steel girder of I section supported over a span of 3.6 m
has Ixx = 1,200 × 104 mm4. Determine the slope at ends and deflection at the
centre of the beam, if central load is 16 kN E = 200 GPa = 200 × 109 N/m2 =
200 × 106 kN/m2.

Solution

Exercise 11.1 A girder of uniform section and constant depth is freely supported
over a span of 2 m. Calculate the central deflection under a central load of 20 kN;
if Ixx = 780.7 × 10−8 m4, and also determine the slope at the ends of the beam.
Given E = 200 kN/mm2.

A Beam Carrying Udl with Simply Supported Ends

A beam AB, simply supported at ends over a span L, carries a udl

(uniformly distributed load) of intensity w per unit length. Total load on
beam = wL, due to symmetrical loading about the centre of the beam.

Reactions, RA = RB = wL/2, Fig. 11.4.

Considering a section at a distance of x from end A, then the bending

moment at this section is = RAx – 

or,
In this case, Eq. (11.5) is sufficient to determine the slope and deflection at
any section of the beam as there is only one portion, AB.

Figure 11.4

Integrating Eq. (11.5),

where C1 is a constant of integration.

Slope dy/dx = 0, at x = L/2, by substituting this value, we obtain

or,

Integrating Eq. (11.6),

where C2 is another constant of integration at end A, x = 0, deflection, y = 0.

So,                     0 = 0 − 0 + C2

or constant, C2 = 0.

Finally,

This shows that expression (11.7) is valid from one end to other end of
beam.

At the centre, x = L/2, the deflection is maximum, therefore,

Slope is maximum at ends, when x = 0, from Eq. (11.6),

At end B, x = L, by substituting this value in Eq. (11.6),

Slope at B,             

Example 11.2 An I section steel girder with Ixx = 2,502 × 104 mm4 is used as

a beam for a span length of 4 m. The beam carries a udl of 4 kN/m
throughout its length. Determine the maximum deflection in the beam and
slope at ends of the beam.

Solution

  E = 200 GPa

  EI = 200 × 106 × 2,502 × 10−8 kN m2

      = 5,004 kN m2

   Length, L = 4 m, w = 4 kN/m

Slope at ends,

Exercise 11.2 An I section girder with Ixx = 688.2 × 104 mm4 is supported over a

span of 5 m. How much udl it can carry throughout its length so that maximum
deflection in beam does not exceed 2 mm. What are slopes at ends of the beam?

E = 200 kN/mm2

A Cantilever with the Point Load at Free End

Figure11.5 shows a cantilever AB of length L, free at end A and fixed at
end B, carrying a point load W at A. Considering a section YY at a distance
of x from A.

Bending moment, Mx = −Wx (bending moment producing convexity

upwards)

or         

Integrating Eq. (11.8)

      where C1 is a constant of integration.

at fixed and x = L, slope dy/dx, so

   or constant,      

Integrating Eq. (11.9), we get

      where C2 is another constant of integration.

at x = L, fixed end, deflection, y = 0

  So,

  or,       
Figure 11.5 Cantilever with point load at free end

Finally,

Note that both slope and deflection are maximum at free end A, where x =
0.

  So deflection,

  Slope,

Example 11.3 A steel beam of circular section with diameter of 50 mm is

used as a cantilever of length 3 m. How much load can be safely applied at
the free end of the cantilever, if E = 200 GPa, and deflection is not to
exceed 1 mm and slope is not to exceed 0.2°.

Solution

Diameter,                         d = 50 mm

Moment of inertia,
Deflection,

ymax = 1 mm = 1 × 10−3 m
Length,

Slope,

Safe load is 6.818 N.

Exercise 11.3 A wooden beam of rectangular cross section of breadth 100 mm and
depth 200 mm is used as a cantilever of length 2.5 m. How much load can be
applied at the free end if the deflection in wooden beam is not to exceed 2 mm and
slope is not to exceed 0.5°. If E = 12 GPa.

A Cantilever with a UDL

A cantilever AB of length L, free at end A and fixed at end B carrying a

uniformly distributed load of intensity w per unit length, is shown in Fig.
11.6. The cantilever bends as shown, point A is shifted to A′. Slope and
deflection are maximum at free ends.

Total load on the cantilever = wL′

Reaction at B, RB = wL′

Fixing moment at B, MB = wL2/2 as shown.

Consider a section YY at a distance x from end A.

Bending moment, Mx = Mx = –wx2/2 (bending moment tending to produce

convexity is negative)

or,

Integrating Eq. (11.10)

      where C1 is a constant of integration. At end B, fixed end,

slope dy/dx = 0

So,                     

or,

 
Figure 11.6 A cantilever with a udl

Integrating Eq. (11.11) again, we set

      where C2 is another constant of integration.

Deflection y = 0, at fixed end B, where x = L

  So,         

  or,

Finally,

At end A, x = 0.

 
(from Eq. 11.12)

 
(from Eq. 11.11)

Slope and deflection at any section of the cantilever from A to B can be

determined by using Eqs (11.11) and (11.12).
Example 11.4 A steel cantilever of I section with Ixx = 1,200 × 104 mm4, and
length 4 m carries a udl of intensity w kN/m. If the maximum deflection in
cantilever is not to exceed 1 mm, E = 208 GPa. Determine the value of w.

Solution

    E = 208 × 106 kN/m2

    I = 1,200 × 10−8 m4

  EI = 2,496 kN m2

Say, rate of loading = w kN/m

Length,                     L = 4 m

Maximum deflection, ymax = wL4/8EI = 1 mm = 1 × 10−3 m

or

Exercise 11.4 An aluminium cantilever of rectangular section 48 mm wide and 36

mm deep of length 300 mm carries a uniformly distributed load of 3 kN/m run.
What are values of maximum slope and deflection in cantilever if E for aluminium
is 70 GPa?

Macaulay’s Method

This is the most versatile technique to determine slope and deflection at

any section of a beam/cantilever carrying any type of loading or a
combination of loading such as point loads, udl, moment or a variable load.
In this method following steps are taken:

1. Determine the reactions at supports using the equations of equilibrium.

2. Select any one end as origin and go to the last portion of the beam (separated
by loads) and take x from origin to a section YY in the last portion.
3. Make the equation of bending moment for the section under consideration.

As example shown in Fig. 11.7. Last portion is DE, BM at section YY

4. Integrate this equation two times with constants of integration, C1 and C2.

5. Use boundary conditions of slope and deflection at ends and by carefully using
the terms of the equation which are valid for that end, determine
constants C1 and C2.
6. These constants will be valid for all portions of the beam.
7. Once the equations for deflection and slope with known constants C1 and C2 are
made, then slope and deflection can be calculated at any section of the beam.

Figure 11.7 Beam with several points loads

Example 11.5 A beam AB, 10 m long, carries point loads of 6 and 3 kN

at C and D as shown in Fig. 11.8.

Determine support reactions, deflection at C and D, and slope at

ends A and B, if EI is the flexural rigidity of the beam.

Solution
Reactions

Taking moments about A,

6 × 4 + 7 × 3 = 10RB
Reaction,                       RB = (24 + 21)/10 = 4.5 kN

Total load on beam            = 6 + 3 = 9 kN

Reaction at A,              RA = 9 − RB = 9 − 4.5 = 4.5 kN.

There are three portions, that is, AC, CD and DB in the beam and if A is the
origin then DB is the last portion. Consider a section at a
distance x from A in the portion DB,

Bending moment,                Mx = 4.5x − 6(x − 4) − 3(x − 7)

or

Integrating Eq. (11.13)

Since the beam is not symmetrically loaded about its centre, so we do not
know where slope is zero.

By integrating Eq. (11.14) we obtain,

EIy = 0.75x3 − (x − 4)3 − 0.5(x − 7)3 + C1x + C2

Boundary conditions

x = 0 at end A, deflection y = 0

Figure 11.8 Example 11.5

Moreover in portion AC, only the first term is valid and the other two terms
of equation are not valid.

So, 0 = 0.75 × 0, neglected term – neglected term + C1 × 0 + C2

or, constant C2 = 0

So,                  EIy = 0.75x3 – (x – 4)3 – 0.5(x – 7)3 + C1x

At end B, x = 10 m, deflection y = 0, by substituting the value

  0 = 0.75 × 103 – 63 – 0.5 × 33 + 10C1

  0 = 750 – 216 –13.5 + 10C1

Constant, C1 = –52.05

Finally, the equations are

EIy = 0.75x3 − (x − 4)3 − 0.5(x − 7)3 − 52.05x         (11.16)

Slope at end A, x = 0
EIiA = 2.25 × 0 – neglected terms –52.05

or                     

at end B, x = 10, so all the terms are valid

Deflection

At point C, x = 4 m, hence, the third term in the equation is invalid.

  EIyC = 0.75 × 43 − (4 − 4)3 − neglected term − 52.05 × 4

  EIyC = 48 − 0 − 208.2 = −160.2

Deflection,                     

At point D, x = 7 m, and all the terms in the equation for deflection are
valid.

  EIyD = 0.75 × 73 − (7 − 4)3 − 0.5(7 − 7)3 − 52.05 × 7

  257.25 − 27 − 0 − 364.35

          = −134 1

Deflection,    
Example 11.6 A beam ABCD, 6 m long hinged at end A and roller
supported at end D, is subjected to CCW moment of 10 kN m at point B and
a point load of 10 kN at point C as shown in Fig. 11.9. Determine the
deflection under load of 10 kN and slope at point B, by taking EI as flexural
rigidity of the beam.

Solution

Reaction

Taking moments at A,

10 + RD × 6 = 10 × 4              
RD = 5kN ↑
Total load on the beam = 10 kN

Reaction at A, RA = 10 – 5 = 5kN ↑

There are three portions: AB, BC and CD in beam, with A as the origin

portion and CD is the last. Take a section YY in portion CD at a
distance x from A as shown in the figure.

The equation of bending moment is

Note that 10 kN m is a moment and we cannot take moment of moment,

but 10 kN m is applied at B at a distance of (x – 2) m from section YY.
Moreover (x – 2)° = 1, so only to locate the position of moment, the term
(x – 2)° is taken, that is, (x – 2) raised to power zero, this term locates the
position of moment applied at B.

Integrating Eq. (11.18), we get

where C1 is a constant of integration, we do not know where the slope is
zero as the beam is not symmetrically loaded.

Figure 11.9

Also by integrating Eq. (11.19), we obtain

where C2 is another constant of integration.

y = 0 at end A, x = 0, only first two terms in between are valid in

portion AB, so

or, constant, C2 = 0.

y = 0 at end D, where x = 6 m, all the terms in the equation are valid, so

Finally, the equations for slope and deflection are

The slope at B and x = 2 m, the third term is not valid

Deflection at C, x = 4 m, all the terms in equation for deflection are valid
for x = 4 m

Example 11.7 A beam ABCD, 7 m long hinged at A and roller supported

at D carries 7 kN load at B and 4 kN/m udl over BC = 3 m. If EI = 14,000
kN m2 for the beam, determine the slope at A and deflection at point C.

Solution

Reactions

Total udl on beam = 4 × 3 = 12 kN

CG of this load lies at 2 + 1.5 = 3.5 m from end A

Reactions

Taking moments about A,

 
   7 × 2 + 4 × 3(3.5) = 7 RD

Reaction,         

Reaction,         RA = 7 + 12 − 8 = 11kN

Last portion of the beam is CD. A section YY at a distance x from end A in

the portion CD of the beam is taken to make the equation of bending
moment valid for all the three portions. The udl is extended to
section YY on both sides (upward and downward), so that its net effect
becomes zero.

Bending moment at section YY

      where w is the rate of loading.

Note that the first term is valid for portion AB, the first three terms are
valid for portion BC, and all the four terms are valid for portion CD of the
beam.

Substituting the value of w = 4 kN/m,

Integrating Eq. (11.20)

where C1 is a constant of integration.

Figure 11.10 Example 11.7

Also integrating Eq. (11.21), we obtain

 where C2 is another constant

of integration.

At end A, x = 0, y = 0 (in portion AB, x = 0, their three terms are invalid)

Constant,             C2 = 0.

At the end D, x = 7 m, y = 0, and all the terms in equation are valid.

Constant,            C1 = –54.5

The equations will become

Slope at A, x = 0

Deflection at C, x = 5 m, and all the terms are valid

Figure 11.11 Exercise 11.5

 
Figure 11.12 Exercise 11.6

Exercise 11.5 A beam ABCD of length 5 m carries point loads at B and D as

shown in Fig. 11.11. Load of 2 kN is at D, on CD over-hang portion. If deflection
at D is not to exceed 1 mm, determine EI of the beam.

[Hint: Determine reactions in the last portion CD, Mx = RAx – 10(x – 2) + RC(x –

4)]

Exercise 11.6 A beam ABCD, 6 m long hinged at A and roller supported at D, is

subjected to a point load of 8 kN at B and a cw moment of 8 kN m at C as shown
in Fig. 11.12. If, EI = 1,200 kN m2, determine the deflection at B and slope at C.

[Hint: Determine reactions, RA and RD, in the last portion CD, MAx – 8(x –

2)+8(x – 4)°]

Exercise 11.7 A beam ABCD of length 6 m carries a point load of 4 kN at A and

udl of 12 kN/m over BC = 2 m (Fig 11.13). If, EI = 2,000 kN m2, determine the
deflection at A and slope at C.

[Hint: y = 0 at x = 1 m, x = 6 m]

Eccentric Load on a Beam

A beam AB of length L, hinged at end A and roller supported at end B,

carries a load W at point C such that,

AC = a
CB = b
a + b = L
 

As shown in Fig 11.4, a < b. In this case, we do not know where the slope is
zero but certainly we know that the deflection at ends A and B is zero.

Reactions

Taking moments about A, Wa = RBL

Reaction,                          RB = Wa/L

Figure 11.13 Exercise 11.7

 

Figure 11.14

Reaction,

By taking the origin at A and x is positive towards right at section YY at a

distance x from A in the portion CB.

  Bending moment,
   or

Integrating Eq. (11.20) two times, we obtain

  At end A,         y = 0, x = 0

  EI × 0 = 0 − neglected terms + 0 × C1 + C2

  Constant, C2 = 0

  At end B,   y = 0, x = L

The expression for slope and deflection will be

Deflection under the load x = a

If a = b =   (for central load)

Example 11.8 A beam ABC, 8 m long carries an eccentric load at B, such

that AB = 3 m, BC = 5 m. If EI = 5,000 kN m2, determine (1) slope at
ends A and C, and (2) maximum deflection.

Solution

Reactions

Taking moment about A,     8 × 3 = 8 Rc

Reaction,                                  Rc = 3 kN

Reaction,                                  RA = 8 – 3 = 5 kN

Taking a section in portion BC,

                                     Mx = 5x – 8(x – 3)

Integrating Eq. (11.22) two times, we obtain
where C1 and C2 are constants of integration. At x = 0, y = 0,

EI × 0 = –omitted term + 0 × C1 + C2

Figure 11.15 Example 11.8

Constant, C2 = 0

At x = 8 m, end C, deflection y = 0

Equation for slope will become

At A, x = 0

At C, x = 8 m
ymax occurs in the beam where slope dy/dx is zero. Let us find location of ymax’

Substituting the value of x in equation of deflection,

Exercise 11.8 A beam of 6 m long, simply supported at both the ends carries a
load of 6 kN at a distance of 2 m from one end. Determine the slope at ends and
the maximum deflection. Given E = 200 GPa, I = 4, 800 × 10–8 m4

Impact Loading of a Beam

If a load falls from a height onto a beam, instantaneous deflection is

produced in the beam, causing instantaneous stress of high level in the
beam and the beam starts vibrating, but ultimately the vibrations die down
as the amplitude of vibration goes on decreasing due to air damping.

Consider a beam AB of length L and flexural rigidity EI as shown in Fig.

11.16. A load W falls from a height h on the beam and the deflection under
the load δi is produced in the beam.

Figure 11.16

Loss of potential energy of the falling weight = W (h + δi)

Strain energy absorbed by the beam =  Pδi,

where P is the equivalent gradually applied load on the beam which when
applied gradually produces deflection δi.

Say the load falls at the centre of the beam,

then                 

where K = stiffness constant of beam = 

If W and h are given then δi can be calculated. The maximum

instantaneous stress developed due to δi can also be calculated.

Note that once the vibrations die down.

δi will approach 

Example 11.9 An ISMB 150 rolled steel section is held as a cantilever of

length 2 m. A weight of 200 N is dropped at the free end of the cantilever
producing an instantaneous stress of 90 N/mm2. Calculate the height from
which the weight was dropped and the maximum instantaneous deflection
in the cantilever. I = 726.4 × 10–8 m4, E = 200 GPa

Solution

Length of the beam = 2 m

Say, equivalent load = P kN

Mmax, maximum bending moment = 2P kN m

σmax, maximum stress developed = 90 MPa = 90 × 106 N/m2

Depth = 0.075 m (Note that 150 stands for 150 mm as depth of beam)

Instantaneous deflection,
Maximum instantaneous deflection, δi = 0.008 m

Exercise 11.9 An ISJB 150 rolled steel joist is simply supported over a span of 4
m. A weight of 400 N is dropped onto the middle of the beam, producing an
instantaneous stress of 80 N/mm2. Calculate the height from which the weight was
dropped and the maximum instantaneous deflection in the beam.

I = 322.1 × 104 mm4, E = 200GPa

Propped Cantilevers

A cantilever fixed at one end and simply supported at other end is known as
propped cantilever.

The propped cantilevers are of two types:

1. A known force P is applied at the free end in a direction opposite to the

direction of applied load W as shown in Fig. 11.17.
Bending moment equation is

Taking the boundary conditions at end B, that is, x = L, y = 0, dy/dx = 0,

constants of integration are found out.

Hence, the slope and deflection at any section of the cantilever can be
determined.
 2. Free-end of the loaded cantilever is simply supported so that the deflection at
free end is zero, by knowing the boundary conditions at A and B,
constants C1 and C2 and reaction at A, that is, RA are determined as shown
in Fig. 11.18.

Equation of bending moment for a section YY in portion CB,

Mx = RAx – W(x – a)

Figure 11.17 Propped cantilevers

 

Figure 11.18 Propped cantilevers

 

Integrating Eq. (11.23),

There are three boundary conditions, that is, x = 0, y = 0, x = L, y = 0,

dy/dx = 0, thus one can determine RA, C1 and C2, (3 unknowns.)
Example 11.10 A cantilever AB, 4 m long, carries a vertical load at C,
where AC = 1 m, vertical load = 10 kN. When an upward force of 3 kN is
applied at the end A of cantilever and if EI is the flexural rigidity of the
cantilever, determine the slope and deflection at A (Fig 11.19).

Figure 11.19

Solution

Consider a section YY at a distance of x from A,

Bending moment, Mx = 3(x)–10(x –1)

Integrating Eq. (11.24)

dy/dx = 0, at fixed end B, where x = 4 m

Therefore,
Integrating Eq. (11.25),

EIy = 0.5x3 −   (x − 1)3 + 21x + C2

But, y = 0, at x = 4 m, end B.

So, 0 = 5.4 × 43 −   (3)3 + 21 × 4 + C2

  0 = 32 − 45 + 84 + C2

     = 116 − 45 + C2

  C2 = −71

Finally,

EIy = 0.5x3 −   (x − 1)3 + 21x − 68     (11.27)

At free end A, x = 0

EIiA = 1.5 × 0 − omitted term + 21

Slope,

Deflection,                 

Note that in this case deflection at end A is not zero.

Example 11.11 Cantilever AB, 5 m long, is simply supported at A and fixed

at B. If it carries a udl of 6 kN/m over CB = 3 m, EI of cantilever is 3,600
kN m2. Determine the reaction at A and slope at A and also find out the
deflection at C (Fig. 11.20)?

Figure 11.20

Solution

Say reaction at A is RA. Taking a section at distance x from A, in the

portion CB,

Bending moment,   where w is rate of loading

or,

Integrating Eq. (11.29), we get

where C1 is a constant of integration; dy/dx = 0 at x = 5, by substituting this

value, we obtain

So,
Also by integrating Eq. (11.30), we obtain

At A, x = 0, y = 0

  0 0 = − omitted term + C2

Constant, C2 = 0

Finally,

Moreover, y = 0 at end B, x = 5 m, by substituting this value,

By substituting the value of RA, equations of slope and deflection are

At A, x = 0

Deflection at C, x = 2 m
 

Figure 11.21 Exercise 11.10

 

Figure 11.22 Exercise 11.11

Exercise 11.10 A cantilever, 4 m long, is subjected to upward force of 5 kN

at A and a udl = 10 kN/m over CB = 3 m. EI of cantilever is 12,000 kN m2.
Determine the slope and deflection at A.

Exercise 11.11 A cantilever, 5 m long, is simply supported at one end and fixed at
the other end. It carries a point load of 6 kN at C, 2 m away from A as shown
in Fig. 11.22. Determine the support reactions, deflection at C, slope at A. EI is
flexural rigidity of cantilever.

Stepped Beam
Consider a beam AB of length L, with moment of
inertia I1 for AC and I2 for CB portions of the beam, which is subjected to a
central point load W. Let us determine the deflection at the centre of the
beam.

Reactions are RA = RB = W/2 (as shown).

Taking portion CB, the equation of bending moment becomes

Figure 11.23

The above equation shows the variable moment of inertia.

The equation is modified because the section of the beam is not uniform.

Integrating Eq. (11.31) two times, we obtain,

Constant,

at x = L, y = 0, other end B

By substituting the value of RA = W/2,

Therefore,

At the centre x = L/2,

 
(already proved)
Let us take I1 = 2I2

Slope and Deflection by Area Moment Method

Slope and deflection at any section of a beam can be obtained by (a) area of
bending moment diagram, and (b) first moment of area of BM diagram.

Equations of curvature and moment are

Mdx is the area of BM diagram over a small length dx as shown in Fig.
11.24. Integrating both sides of Eq. (11.32):

 area of BM diagram between sections Y2Y2 and Y1Y1 or between

distances x2 and x1

or i2 − i1 = area of BM diagram between Y2Y1.       (11.33)

Multiply Eq. (11.33) by xdx on both the sides, and then integrating, we get

 = first moment of the BM diagram between
sections Y2 and Y1 about the origin A

EI [(x2i2 − y2) − (x1i1 − y1)] = a

a = area of diagram abcdef.

 = distance of CG of this diagram from A

Figure 11.24 Area-moment diagram

Example 11.12 A simply supported beam of span length L carries a udl of

intensity w throughout its length. Determine the slope at A and deflection
at C by moment area method (Fig 11.25).
Figure 11.25

Solution

BM diagram is parabolic for this case with maximum bending moment at

centre 

Area of the bending moment diagram from A to C

that is, area AC′C

Because of symmetrical loading, ic = 0, and slope at centre is zero.

Slope,         

Now area,         

CG of area AC’C lies at a distance of   from A.

Now,

Finally,

Deflection at centre,         

Exercise 11.12 A cantilever AB of length L carries a point load W at free end.

Draw its bending moment diagram and determine the slope and deflection at free
end A by moment area method.

[Hint: Note that BM diagram is negative]

Figure 11.26 Exercise 11.12

Conjugate Beam Method

In this method, bending moment diagram for beam due to transverse loads
on it is considered as loading diagram (but in term of variation of bending
moment). Taking this bending moment diagram as loading diagram on the
beam, reactions are calculated at supports (in term of bending moment).

Thus,
 

Figure 11.27

Deflection

Moment at any section due to variable bending moment can be determined,

say M′c is moment at C due to bending moment diagram AC′ D′B, and M
′D is the moment at D due to variable moment AC′ D′B, then,

Deflection at 

Deflection at 

A simple example will help in understanding the concepts of conjugate

beam method. A beam AB of length L is simply supported at ends, which
carries a concentrated load at the centre as shown in Fig. 11.28. EI is the
flexural rigidity of the beam.

Figure 11.28(b) shows the bending moment diagram of the beam with

maximum bending moment, WL/4 at the centre supported over length L, at
A and B.
Figure 11.28

Area of the BM diagram is 

Reactions at A and B are given as

   Slope at A,

   Slope at B,

At the point C, moment

Deflection at C,                 

Example 11.13 A beam, 6 m long, is simply supported at ends carries a udl

of intensity 4 kN/m throughout its length. Draw BM diagram of the beam.
Using conjugate beam method, determine the slope at the ends and
deflection in the centre. EI is the flexural rigidity of the beam. EI = 10,500
kN m2.

Solution

Figure 11.29(a) shows a beam of span length L carrying a udl of

intensity w = 4 kN/m.

BM diagram is parabolic with Mmax = 

Bending moment diagram supported on two supports is shown as

conjugate beam in Fig. 11.28(b).

Area of BM diagram

Slope at A,
 

Figure 11.29 Example 11.13

Slope at B, 

Deflection at centre

M′C = moment at centre

 
Figure 11.30 Exercise 11.13

Exercise 11.13 A beam AB, 8 m long, is simply supported at ends. It carries loads
of 8 kN each at 2 m from each end. By conjugate beam method determine (a) slope
at ends, (b) deflection under the loads and (c) deflection at centre (Fig. 11.30).

EI = 14,400 kN m2

Slope and Deflection of Stepped Beams

For stepped cantilevers/beams, conjugate beam method is very

conveniently applied. In such cases, bending moment diagram is plotted for
the beam/cantilever with bending moment diagram as a load diagram and
the reactions at ends are obtained. The ratio of reaction/EI gives slope at
the end, ratio of moment (of bending moment) divided by EI gives
deflection at any section. In case of cantilever, maximum slope and
deflection occur at free end, while both slope and deflection are zero at
fixed end. Therefore in conjugate beam method, cantilever free end
becomes the fixed one and the fixed end becomes the free one, so that the
reaction and moment can be obtained at this fixed end (which is initially
free end) of the cantilever.

Figure 11.31(a) shows a cantilever of length L, fixed at end B, and free at

end A. At the free end, a point load W is applied. The section of the
cantilever is in steps, moment of inertia of AC is I1 and moment of inertia
of CB is I2. Such that I2 = 2I1, ABB′ is the bending moment diagram of the
cantilever.

Let us draw M/EI diagram for the cantilever as in the conjugate cantilever

since I is also variable, so in place of M we will take M/EI for the conjugate
cantilever.
 

Figure 11.31 Stepped cantilever

Reaction,
    Slope at A,         

    Moment,

Example 11.14 A beam of length L carries a central load W as shown

in Fig. 11.32(a). Moment of inertia for quarter length from ends is I1 and for
the middle half length moment of inertia is I2, such that I2 = 2I1, now draw
the conjugate beam diagram.
Figure 11.32 Example 11.14

Solution

If E is Young’s modulus of the material, diagram AE′B is the bending

moment diagram such that 

Conjugate beam diagram gives,

Beam is symmetrically loaded, therefore reactions, RA′ = RB′.

RA′ = area of conjugate beam diagram up to centre.

iE = slope at centre is zero

iE – iA = area of conjugate beam diagram up to centre.

Deflection at centre

Moment at centre, M′E

Deflection at centre = 
Exercise 11.14 A beam, 5 m long, is simply supported at ends. The moment of
inertia for half the length from one end to centre is 1,256 × 104 mm4 and that for the
rest of the beam is 1,889 × 104 mm4. The beam carries a load of 10 kN at the centre.
Determine slope at the ends and deflection at the centre, where E = 210 GPa (Fig.
11.33).

Problem 11.1 A uniform beam of length L is supported symmetrically over

a span l. Determine the ratio of l/L if the upward deflections at the ends is
equal to the downward deflection at the centre due to a concentrated load
at mid span.

Figure 11.33 Exercise 11.14

Solution

Figure 11.34 shows a beam AB of length L, supported over CD = l, central

load is W. Say EI is the flexural rigidity of the beam.
Reaction RC = RD = W/2 (on account of symmetrical loading).

Let us analyse only half the portion of the beam and slope at centre E will
be zero. Take a section YY at a distance of x from A, in portion CE.

Figure 11.34
 
Integrating Eq. (11.34),

So,

Integrating Eq. (11.35),

By substituting the value,

or,

Deflection at A, yA, x = 0

Deflection at E, x = L/2

But yA = –yE (as they are numerically equal)

Problem 11.2 A propped cantilever of length L is fixed at one end and
roller supported at the other end. Cantilever is subjected to a
couple M at L/4 from A as shown in Fig. 11.35. Determine reaction at
propped end, deflection at C.

Figure 11.35

Solution

The reaction at propped end is RA. Consider a section YY at a

distance x from A (on the portion CB).

Integrating Eq. (11.39),
where C1 is a constant of integration.

Now dy/dx = 0 at x = L, so

So,

Also by integrating Eq. (11.40)

C2 is another constant of integration,

0 = 0 – write then omitted term – 0 – 0 – C2

Now y = 0 at x = 0,

Constant, C2 = 0

Finally,

At fixed end, y = 0, x = L, by substituting this value in Eq. (11.41), we get

Deflection at C, x = L/4 by substituting this in Eq. (11.41)

Substituting the value of RA

Problem 11.3 A long steel strip of uniform width and thickness 2.5 mm is
lying on a level floor. Its one end is passing over a roller of 60 mm in
diameter lying on the floor at one point Fig. 11.36. At what distance on
either side of the roller will the strip be clear of the ground? What is the
maximum bending moment in strip? ρ for steel = 76.44 × 10–6 N/mm3.
Take b = 50 mm and E = 210 kN/mm2.

Figure 11.36

Solution

  b = 60 mm

  t = 2.5 mm

  w = b × t × ρ N/mm = weight per unit length

      = 60 × 2.5 × 76.44 × 10−6 = 0.011466 N/mm.

Say L is the length of the strip which is clear from the floor. At A, strip just
leaves the ground. Say RC is reaction at C and RA is reaction at A (Fig. 11.37).
Consider a sections YY at a distance x from C.

Bending moment,                 

or

Integrating Eq. (11.42), we get

where C1 is a constant of integration.

Constant, C1 = 0

where w is rate of loading.

By integrating

where C2 is another constant of integration.

Now, x = L, y = 0, by substituting this value, we get,

Constant,                         

Finally,

Moreover at end A, x = L, dy/dx = 0,

Substituting these values in Eq. (11.43)

or RC = wL/3, by substituting the value of RC in Eq. (11.44)

At point C, y = –60 mm; x = 0. (we have taken x positive towards right.
The y is negative upwards).

Maximum bending moment occurs as a

Substituting these values

Problem 11.4 A beam AB of length 4L is being lifted by a crane and is

bolted to the left and right hand cantilevers at A and B. In raising this beam
into position and before it is properly aligned, it fouls at A and B carrying
one upward force P exerted by crane as shown in Fig. 11.37. Show that the
deflection of the beam at the crane hook if E and I are same for each of the
beam section is 1.328PL3/EI.
Figure 11.37

Solution

   Reaction at A, RA = 0.375 P

   Reaction at B, RB = 0.625 P

   Deflection at A,

   Deflection at B,  

δE due to P at E,

Total deflection at E

Problem 11.5 A beam AB is simply supported at ends of length 8 m, which
carries a udl of 4 kN/m throughout its length. It is propped at the centre by
a force P such that the level of the centre is the same as the level of ends.
Determine the magnitude of P (Fig. 11.38). What are reactions at support
and bending moment at centre? If EI is the flexural rigidity, what is the
slope at ends?

Figure 11.38

Solution

For a simply supported beam, span length L, carrying a udl of intensity w,

the central deflection is

For a simply supported beam, span length L with central load P, the central
deflection is

But net deflection at C is zero.

Substituting the values w = 4 kN/m, L = 8 m, we obtain

Propping force,                     P = 20 kN

Total load on the beam             = 4 × 8 = 32 kN

Reaction, RA = RB is due to symmetric loading

  RA + RB + P = 32 kN

         RA + RB = 32 − 20 = 12 kN,

Reaction,         RA = RB = 6 kN

Bending moment at centre C

Taking moments about C, for portion AC

Slope at ends

Consider a section at a distance x from A,

Constant,

Slope at A,

Due to symmetry, slope at B,         

Problem 11.6 A beam AB, 2 m long, carries a uniformly distributed load of

10 kN/m is resting over a similar beam (of same cross section) CD, 1 m long
as shown in Fig. 11.39. Determine the reaction at C.
Figure 11.39

Solution

Say the reaction at C = P′

Consider a section YY at a distance x from B,

Integrating Eq. (11.45)

Therefore,
By integrating Eq. (11.46), we obtain

Now,   at x = 0 and deflection on CD

Problem 11.7 A beam of length L is hinged at both the ends. An

anticlockwise turning moment M is applied at point C. Point C is at a
distance of L/4 from end A. Determine the slope and deflection at A.
Given EI is the flexural rigidity of the beam. (Fig. 11.40)
Figure 11.40

Solution

For reactions, let us take moments about A

(e cw) M = RB × L (cw)

To balance RB, reaction 

Consider the section YY at a distance of x from A in portion CB of beam.

Bending moment,

or

By integrating Eq. (11.47), we obtain

      where C1 is constant of integration

Again integrating equation (11.47)

at x = 0, y = 0, so

  0 = 0 omitted term + C1 × 0 + C2

Constant, C2 = 0

So                     

At x = L, y = 0 at end B, by substituting this value

Expressions for slope and deflection are

at x = L/4, point C.

Slope,
Deflection

Shape of deflected curve is shown in Fig. 11.40.

Problem 11.8 A simply supported beam of length L carries a load W at

point C, such that AC = a, CB = b, a + b = L. Draw BM diagram for the
beam and determine the deflection under the load. Given EI as the flexural
rigidity of beam Fig 11.41.

Figure 11.41

Solution

BM diagram is shown with

Consider the portion AC, origin at A, x positive towards right, first moment

of area AC′C about origin A
Say slope at C is iC

Slope at A is iA.

Then,

or

Consider portion BC, x origin at B, x positive towards left

By adding Eqs (11.49) with (11.50), we obtain

But iC = –iC, because slope is same and taking x positive towards left, iC = –iC′

Problem 11.9 A simply supported beam of length L carries two

loads W each at L/4 from each end. Draw BM diagram of beam and
determine slope at ends and deflection at centre. EI is the flexural rigidity
of beam.

Solution

Beam with load W at L/4 from each end is shown in Fig. 11.42.

Reaction, RA = RB = W (because of symmetrical loading).

Bending moment, 

Bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. 11.42(b)

Figure 11.42

Slope at ends

Area of BM diagram up to middle of the beam abcd.

Area,

Because of symmetrical loading, iE = 0.

Slope,                   

   (because of symmetrical loading)

First moment of area about A

But,             

So,                 

Deflection at centre,     

Problem 11.10 A cantilever AB of length L is of different section with

moment of inertia I1 for L/2 and I2 for L/2 to L as shown in Fig. 11.43.
Determine the slope and deflection at A if E is Young’s modulus of the
material.

Figure 11.43

Solution

By integrating both the sides

At fixed end, iB = 0

Multiply the equation of bending moment by xdx throughout

But slope iB = 0, deflection yB = 0 at fixed end.

So
Problem 11.11 A cantilever, 3 m long, carries a udl of 20 kN/m throughout
its length. Its free end is attached to a vertical tie rod 2.4 m long and 20 mm
in diameter. The rod is initially straight. Determine the load taken by the
rod and deflection in cantilever at A (Fig. 11.44).

E = 210 kN/mm2

      I = 1,000 × 104 mm4

Figure 11.44

Solution

Tensile force P in rod produces reaction P in cantilever as shown.

Consider a section YY at a distance x for A.

Bending moment, Mx = Px – (wx2/2), where w = 20 kN/m.

Integrating Eq. (11.53), we obtain

where C1 is constant of integration.

 
dy/dx = 0 at B i.e., x = 3 m

So

      = 4.5P − 90 + C1

Constant, C1 = 90 − 4.5P

By integrating Eq. (11.54), we obtain

 (another constant of integrations)

Constant,

Deflection at A,

Extension in bar,
Change the length of the rod, dl = yA

Load taken by rod,             P = 22.31 kN

Deflection in cantilever,         

Problem 11.12 In a structure, a vertical member made of copper is

supported by two steel bars as shown in Fig. 11.45. The copper member is
subjected to a temperature rise of 100°C. Calculate the maximum bending
moment set up in steel member which can be considered as simply
supported beam. Weight of all the members may be neglected. Width of all
the members is 20 mm.

For copper, EC = 105 kN/mm2, αC = 18 × 10–6/°C

For steel, ES = 200 kN/mm2

Figure 11.45

Solution

Steel member

Free expansion of copper member is prevented by

 
= 300 × α × T – 2δ                      
= 300 × 18 × 10–6 – 2 × 0.211 W
= 0.54 – 0.422 W                        
Area of cross section of copper member = 20 × 5 = 100 mm2

Compressive force in copper member, 

Problem 11.13 A beam, 9 m long, is simply supported at ends carries a

linearly varying load of zero intensity at C increasing to 12 kN/m at B over a
distance of 6 m. If EI is the flexural rigidity of the beam, determine the
slope and deflection at point C (Fig. 11.46).

Figure 11.46 Problem 11.13

Solution

Total load on beam 

CG of load from A
 

3 + 4 = 7 m.
Moment about A

36 × 7 = 9RB.

Figure 11.47

Reaction, RB = 28 kN

RA = 36 – 28 = 8 kN.
Take a section YY at a distance x from A (Fig. 11.47).

wx = rate of loading at x

Mx = bending moment at x

By integrating Eq. (11.55), we obtain

Constant,

At C, x = 3

Slope,                     

Problem 11.14 A composite beam consists of a wooden section, 240 mm

width × 260 mm depth. Two steel plates of width 240 mm and thickness 20
mm are fixed on the top and bottom of wooden section as shown in Fig.
11.48. Composite beam is simply supported over a span of 5 m and a load of
30 kN is applied at the centre of the beam. Determine the deflection at the
centre of composite beam. ES = 200 GPa, EW = 15 GPa.

Figure 11.48

Solution

Section is symmetrical about the central axis XX.

Moment of inertia, 

Moment of inertia,
 Key Points to Remember

 For any beam, relation between curvature   and bending

moment M is 

 If moment of inertia I is a variable, then 

 For a beam, simply supported at ends, central load W, EI flexural rigidity and
span length L

Slope at supports  , deflection at centre 

 For a beam, carrying a udl of w

Slope at supports  , deflection at centre 

 For a cantilever with a point load at free end

Slope at free end   deflection at free end 

 For a cantilever carrying a udl of intensity w throughout its length

Slope at free end  , deflection at free end 

 For a beam with a point load at a distance of a from one end and b from the
other, hence, a + b = L, and point load is W
 Slope at ends 

Deflection under load 

 If a load W is allowed to fall through a height h onto a beam or a cantilever at a
particular point, δi is the maximum instantaneous deflection produced under
load, then 

where P is the equivalent static load which when applied gradually

produces deflection δi.
 In Macaulay’s method, choose one end of the beam as origin and a section in
the last portion of the beam, and make the equation of bending moment.
 If a moment M is applied at any section of the beam, while making bending
moment equation, consider M and fix its position by taking distance of the
point of application of moment on the section under consideration from this
origin and write the distance with zero power multiplied by moment M.
 In area moment technique, two sections are considered at a distance
of x1 and x2 from one end, EI[i2 – i1] = area of Bending moment diagram
between sections Y2 and Y1 at a distance of x1 and x2 from the origin.
 EI[(x2i2 – y2) – (x1i1 – y1)] = a 

where a is the area of BM diagram between x1 and x2

 is the distance of CG of this area a, for the origin.