Heat and Mass Transfer MECE 4102

CHAPTER 4

Chapter 4:
Condensation, Boiling and Radiation, Heat
Exchanger and Mass Transfer
I- Condensation, Boiling and Radiation
1.1 Reflection, Absorption, and Transmission of Radiation
When radiation falls on a body, a part of it may be absorbed, a part may be reflected and the
remaining may pass through the body. The fraction of the incident radiation absorbed by the
body is transformed into heat. If Q is the incident radiant energy, out of which QA is
absorbed, QR is reflected, and QT is transmitted through the body, then, refer figure.

(4.1)

Dividing both sides of the equation by Q,weget

(4.2)

The first fraction in the equation is known as absorptivity α, second is reflectivity ρ, and the
third fraction is transmissivity τ. Hence,

(4.3)

Practically, most solids used in engineering applications are nontransparent or opaque (also
termed as athermanous) to the thermal radiation, i.e., the transmissivity τ = 0. However, there
are some solids which are transparent to waves of certain wavelength. For example, the
ordinary glass transmits radiation very readily at wavelengths below about 2 µm but is
essentially opaque to long-wavelength radiation above 3 or 4 µm. From Eq. (4.3), for the
opaque solids

Or (4.4)

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CHAPTER 4
This means that a body with good reflectivity possesses poor absorptivity, and vice versa.
- If the transmissivity τ of a body is equal to one, the absorptivity and reflectivity are equal
to zero and whole of the incident radiation would pass through the body Such a body is
termed as absolutely transparent
- If the entire incident radiation is absorbed by the body, the absorptivity α =1. Such a body
is termed as a blackbody. It is to be noted that the blackbody derives its name from the
observation that surface appearing black to the eye is normally good absorber of incident
visible light.
- However, except for the visible region, this observation is not a good indicator of the
absorbing capability of the surface. If a surface absorbs all incident rays, except the light
rays, it does not appear black although it has a very high absorptivity.
- The absorption or reflection of heat rays depends on the state of the surface.
1.2 Planck’s Spectral Distribution of Emissive Power
The radiation emitted from a surface consists of electromagnetic waves of various
wavelengths and the energy distribution varies in intensity with the wavelength. Thus, a
change in the temperature of the body causes changes in the magnitude of the radiant energy
and spectrum as well.
The energy emitted by a surface in all directions at a given wavelength is called spectral or
monochromatic emissive power of the body
Mathematically, the law gives the spectral distribution of the monochromatic emissive power
Ebλ with the wavelength as

(4.6)

Where

1.3 Total Emissive Power: Stefan–Boltzmann Law

The Stefan–Boltzmann law states that the total amount of energy emitted per square meter
by a blackbody, known as emissive power of the body, is proportional to the fourth power of
the absolute temperature of the body, i.e.,
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1.4 Real and Gray Bodies
The emissive power of a blackbody is the maximum and the emissive power of a
real body is always less than that of a blackbody.
The ratio of the emissive power Eλ of a real body at a particular wavelength and temperature
to that of a blackbody Ebλ at the same wavelength and temperature is called the
monochromatic emissivity ελ of the body.

(4.7)

A body whose radiation spectrum is continuous and similar to that of a blackbody, its
monochromatic emissivity ελ is constant for all wavelengths as well as temperatures. Such
body is known as gray body. The value of monochromatic emissivity of a gray body is
0 < ελ < 1.
For most of the practical bodies encountered in engineering applications an integrated
average value of emissivity, as defined below, is used.

(4.8)

ஶ
Where ‫׬‬଴ ‫ܧ‬ఒ ݀ߣ is the total emissive power which is the rate of emission of radiant heat per
unit area for all wavelengths and in all directions and σT4 is the emissive power of a
blackbody at the same temperature. The emissivity ε in Eq. (4.8) is the total hemispherical
emissivity or the total emissivity of a substance at a given.
1.5 Blackbody Radiation in a Wave Length Interval
The Stefan–Boltzmann law gives the hemispherical total emissive power of a blackbody
(from λ =0–∞). The fraction of the emissive power in the wavelength interval (ሺ‫ܨ‬଴ିఒଶ −
‫ܨ‬0−ߣ1 can be found by subtracting value of fraction ‫ܨ‬0−ߣ1 from that of fraction ‫ܨ‬0−ߣ2.
Thus the fraction of the emission in a given wavelength band in the above equation are only
dependent on the variable (λT). Some typical values of Fo-λT are given in Table. It is
interesting to note that exactly one fourth of the total emissive power lies in the wavelength
range below the peak of the Planck’s spectral distribution at any temperature.
.

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CHAPTER 4

EXEMPLE
The surface of the Sun has an effective blackbody temperature of 5800 K. Determine the
fraction of the radiant energy of the Sun lying in the following ranges.
(i) Visible range (0.35 ≤ λ ≤ 0.75 µm)
(ii) Ultraviolet (0.01 ≤ λ ≤ 0.35 µm)
(ii) 0 ≤ λ ≤ 3 µm
At what wavelength and frequency is the maximum energy emitted? What is themaximum
value of the hemispherical spectral emissive power?

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CHAPTER 4
Solution

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Heat and Mass Transfer MECE 4102
CHAPTER 4

I.6 Intensity of Radiation and Lambert’s Cosine Law

The intensity of normal radiation In is defined as the rate of emission of energy from unit
surface area of a body in normal direction through unit solid angle. To the emissive power
given by Stefan–Boltzmann law we obtain
(4.9)

the total directional emissivity εϕ on angle ϕ is

(4.10)
where Iϕ refers to a real surface and Ibϕ to that of a black surface
Example 2
A blackbody at 1100 K is radiating to space.
(a) What is spectral intensity in a direction normal to the surface at λ =5 µm?
(b) What is directional spectral emissive power at ϕ = 40° away from the normal
to the surface at λ =5 µm?
(c) What is the ratio of the spectral intensity of the blackbody at λ =1 µm to the
spectral intensity of the blackbody at λ =5 µm?
(d) How much energy is emitted by the blackbody in the range 1 ≤ λ ≤ 5 µm?
(e) Calculate the wavelength such that emission from 0 to λ is equal to the
emission from λ to ∞.

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Heat and Mass Transfer MECE 4102
CHAPTER 4
Solution

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Heat and Mass Transfer MECE 4102
CHAPTER 4

II- Heat Exchanger and Mass Transfer

In general, a heat exchanger is an equipment to accomplish the task of transfer of
heat between two or more entities at different temperatures.
Many types of heat exchangers are employed, which vary both in application and design.
The heat exchangers may be classified on the basis of the configuration of the
fluid flow paths through the heat exchanger. The common flow path configurations are
illustrated diagrammatically in Figure4.2.

Fig. 4.2 Flow path configurations: a Parallel flow. b Counterflow. c Single-pass cross-
flow. d Multi-pass cross-flow
- In the parallel flow or co-current heat exchangers, Fig.4.2a, the two fluid streams enter
together at one end and leave together at the other end, whereas in the counterflow or
countercurrent exchangers, the two fluid streams move in opposite directions as shown in
Fig. 4.2b.
- In single pass cross-flow exchangers, Fig.4.2c, the fluids flow through the heat exchanger
matrix at right angles to each other. An example of such type of exchanger is the
automobile radiator where the air is forced across the radiator tubes carrying water to be
cooled.
- In multi-pass cross-flow exchanger, one of the fluids shuttles back and forth across the
flow path of the other fluid as shown in Fig.4.2d
2.1 Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)

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Refer Fig.4.3. For the heat exchanger, the mean temperature difference ∆tm for the whole
surface can be defined as as log mean temperature difference (LMTD)

(4.11)

EXAMPLE
A cold fluid is heated from 40 to 120°C by condensing steam at 180°C. Calculate the LMTD.
Solution

2.2 Effectiveness-NTU Method

The method, known as effectiveness-NTU method, is based on the effectiveness of a heat
exchanger in transferring the heat. The effectiveness ε of a heat exchanger is defined as the
ratio of the actual heat transfer q to the maximum possible qmax, that is

2.3 Mass Transfer

Mass transfer can take place by molecular diffusion and convection. The molecular diffusion
is mass transfer at microscopic level due to a concentration difference.The terms mass
convection or convective mass transfer describe the process of mass transfer between a
surface and a moving fluid. Just like heat convection, mass convection

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can be free or forced, laminar or turbulent, and internal or external.
2.3.1 Fick’s Law of Diffusion
The rate of mass diffusion ݉B of component B in direction x is proportional to the
concentration gradient of the component B in that direction, i.e.,

(4.12)

where

Remark: The Fick’s law, which describes the transport of mass due to concentration gradient,
is analogous to the Fourier’s law of heat conduction, which gives transport of heat due to the
temperature gradient,
2.3.2 Fick’s Law for Gases in Terms of Partial Pressures
For gases, the Fick’s law can be expressed in terms of the partial pressures. Applying the
characteristic gas equation for the gas B, we get
(4.13)

Thus the diffusion coefficient for the diffusion of B into C, DCB, equals the diffusion
coefficient DCB for the diffusion of C into B. DCB = DCB =D.
2.3.3 Fick’s Law on Mass Basis and Mole Basis
For constant mixture density ρ and constant molar concentration C, the above relations
simplify to

(4.14)

2.3.4 Diffusion Coefficient

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Diffusion coefficient is a transport property, which depends on temperature T, pressure p, and
nature of the component in the system. Typical values of the diffusion coefficient (binary
diffusion) are given in Table

2.3.5 Convective Mass Transfer

The convective mass transfer is defined by the following equation:

(4.15)

where hm is the mass transfer coefficient. The equation is similar to the convective heat
transfer equation defined earlier. The mass transfer coefficient can be correlated to the
diffusion coefficient. For one dimensional steady state diffusion across this thin layer of
thickness ∆‫ݔ‬, we can write, from the Fick’s law,
2.3.6 Convective Mass Transfer Equation in Terms of Partial Pressure Difference
We have,

(4.16)

For an isothermal process, T1 = T2 = T (say), then the mass transfer equation in the terms of
partial pressures is

(4.17)

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Example:
Hydrogen gas is maintained at 3 bar and 1 bar on opposite sides of a plastic membrane, which
is 0.3 mm thick. The temperature is 25°C, and the binary diffusion coefficient of hydrogen in
the plastic is 8.7 × 10−8 m2/s. The solubility of hydrogen in the membrane is 1.5 × 10−3
kmol/m3 bar. What is the diffusive mass flux of hydrogen through the membrane?
Solution

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Heat and Mass Transfer MECE 4102
CHAPTER 4

TUTORIALS chapter4
Exercise 1
Figure shows a greenhouse where plants are grown in cold regions by trapping solar energy
inside the greenhouse. The sheet of silica glass on the top of the greenhouse transmits 90 % of
the incident radiation in the wavelength band 0.35–2.7 µm and is essentially opaque to the
radiation at longer and shorter wavelengths. Estimate the percent solar radiation which the
glass will transmit. Consider the Sun as a blackbody at about 6000 K.

Exercise 2
The hydrogen gas diffuses through a steel wall of 2 mm thickness. The molar concentration of
hydrogen at the interface is 1.5 kg-mol/m3 and it is zero on the outer face. Calculate the
diffusion rate of hydrogen, if its diffusivity coefficient is 0.3 × 10–12 m2/s
Exercise 3
The tyre tube of a vehicle has a surface area of 0.62 m2 and wall thickness of 10 mm. The
tube has air filled in it at a pressure of 2.2 bar. The air pressure drops to 2.18 bar in period of 6
days. The solubility of air in the rubber is 0.075 m3 of air/m3 of rubber at 1 bar. The volume
of air in the tube is 0.034 m3 and operating temperature is 300 K. Calculate
diffusivity of air in the rubber.

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