PN Zenernv6501

Diode Characteristics Trainer
NV6501
Learning Material
Ver 1.1
141-B, Electronic Complex,

Pardeshipura, Indore- 452 010 India
Tel.: 91-731- 4211500
email: [email protected]
Toll free : 1800-103-5050
NV6501
Diode Characteristics Trainer

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Table of Contents
1. Introduction 3
2. Features 4
3. Technical Specifications 5
4. Theory 6
5. Experiments
Experiment 1 31
Study of V-I Forward Characteristics of Silicon diode
Experiment 2 34
Study of V-I Reverse Characteristics of Germanium diode
Experiment 3 37
Study of V-I Characteristics of Zener diode
Experiment 4 42
Study of V-I Characteristics of Light Emitting Diode (LED)
6. Warranty 47
7. List of Accessories 47
Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 2

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Introduction
NV6501 Diode Characteristics Trainer is very useful for basic electronics
Laboratories. This is useful for students to plot different characteristics of diode in all
different types’ configurations and to understand various region of operation of diode.
This is a stand alone unit with inbuilt DC power supply and as well as built in
Voltmeter and Ammeter. This is a complete system to study the Diode
Characteristics. It is designed such that student can easily plot the forward and reverse
characteristics of different Diode. NV6501 is a compact, ready to use Diode
Characteristics experiment board. This is useful for students to plot V-I characteristics
of Si Diode, Zener Diode, Germanium Diode and Light Emitting Diode in forward as
well as in reverse bias region of operation.

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Features
A complete system to study the Diode Characteristics
Forward and Reverse Characteristics can be performed on this trainer kit

Silicon, Zener , Germanium and Light Emitting Diodes are provided with
this system
A built in Current and Voltage terminals are provided
A LCD for displaying voltage and current both
Different test points are provided
Learning Material CD
2 Year Warranty

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Technical Specifications
DC power supply : +12V
Mains Supply : 230V AC ±10%, 50Hz
Ammeter
Range : 1µA to 200 mA
Display : 3½ digits
Voltmeter
Range : 1mV to 200 V
Display : 3½ digits
Zener Diode : 6.8V
Dimensions (mm) : W450 × H113 × D280

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Theory
Introduction:
A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one direction
with greater ease than in the other. The most common type of diode in modern circuit
design is the semiconductor diode, although other diode technologies exist.
Semiconductor diodes are symbolized in schematic diagrams as shown below :
Figure 1
When placed in a simple battery-lamp circuit, the diode will either allow or prevent
current through the lamp, depending on the polarity of the applied voltage :
Figure 2
When the polarity of the battery is such that electrons are allowed to flow through the
diode, the diode is said to be forward-biased. Conversely, when the battery is
"backward" and the diode blocks current, the diode is said to be reverse biased. A
diode may be thought of as a kind of switch: "closed" when forward-biased and
"open" when reverse-biased.
V-I Characteristic:
The static voltage-current characteristic for a P-N Junction Diode is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3

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Forward Characteristic:
When the diode is in forward-biased and the applied voltage is increased from zero,
hardly any current flows through the device in the beginning. It is so because the
external voltage is being opposed by the internal barrier voltage VB whose value is 0.7
V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge. As soon as VB is neutralized, current through the diode
increases rapidly with increasing applied supply voltage. It is found that as little a
voltage as 1.0 V produces a forward current of about 50mA.
Reverse Characteristic:
When the diode is reverse-biased, majority carrier are blocked and only a small
current (due to minority carrier) flows through the diode. As the reverse voltage is
increased from zero, the reverse current very quickly reaches its maximum or
saturation value Io which is also known as leakage current. It is of the order of
nanoamperes (nA) and microamperes ( A) for Ge.
As seen from Figure 3, when reverse voltage exceeds a certain value called
breakdown voltage VBR, the leakage current suddenly and sharply increases, the curve
indicating zero resistance at this point.
Zener Diode:
It is the reverse-biased heavily-dopped silicon (or germanium) P-N Junction diode
which is operated in the breakdown region where current is limited by both external
resistance and power dissipation of the diode. Silicon is preferred to diode because of
its higher temperature and current capability. Zener breakdown occurs due to breaking
of covalent bonds by the strong electric field set up in the depletion region by the
reverse voltage.
It produces an extremely large number of electrons and holes, which constitute the
reverse saturation current (called zener current Iz) whose value is limited only by the
external resistance in the circuit.
V-I Characteristic:
Figure 4 shows typical characteristics in the negative quadrant. The forward
characteristic is simply that of an ordinary forward-biased junction diode. The
important points of the reverse characteristic are Vz = Zener breakdown voltage.
Iz min = Minimum current to sustain breakdown
Iz max = Maximum Zener current limited by, maximum power dissipation. Since its
reverse characteristic is not exactly vertical, the diode possesses some resistance
called Zener dynamic impedance. Its value is given by Zz = Vz / Iz.
Zener diode are available having zener voltage of 2.4V to 200V. This voltage is
temperature dependent. The product Vz, Iz, gives their power dissipation. Maximum
ratings vary from 150mV to 50W.

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Figure 4
For proper working of a Zener diode in any circuit, it is essential that it must
1. Be reverse-biased,
2. Have voltage across it which is greater than Vz,
3. Be in a circuit where current is less than Iz maximum
Light-Emitting Diodes:
Diodes, like all semiconductor devices, are governed by the principles described in
quantum physics. One of these principles is the emission of specific-frequency radiant
energy whenever electrons fall from a higher energy level to a lower energy level.
A diode intentionally designed to glow like a lamp is called a light-emitting diode, or
LED. Diodes made from a combination of the elements gallium, arsenic, and
phosphorus (called gallium-arsenide-phosphide) glow bright red, and are some of the
most common LEDs manufactured. By altering the chemical constituency of the PN
junction, different colours may be obtained. Some of the currently available colours
other than red are green, blue, and infra-red (invisible light at a frequency lower than
red). Other colours may be obtained by combining two or more primary-colours (red,
green, and blue). The schematic symbol for an LED is a regular diode shape inside of
a circle, with two small arrows pointing away (indicating emitted light).
Figure 5
This notation of having two small arrows pointing away from the device is common
to the schematic symbols of all light-emitting semiconductor devices. Conversely, if a
device is light-activated (meaning that incoming light stimulates it), then the symbol
will have two small arrows pointing toward it. It is interesting to note, though, that
LEDs are capable of acting as light-sensing devices: they will generate a small

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voltage when exposed to light, much like a solar cell on a small scale. This property
can be gainfully applied in a variety of light-sensing circuits.
Because LEDs are made of different chemical substances than normal rectifying
diodes, their forward voltage drops will be different. Typically, LEDs have much
larger forward voltage drops than rectifying diodes, anywhere from about 1.6 volts to
over 3 volts, depending on the color. Typical operating current for a standard-sized
LED is around 20 mA. When operating an LED from a DC voltage source greater
than the LEDs forward voltage, a series-connected "dropping" resistor must be
included to prevent full source voltage from damaging the LED. LED starts emitting
light as its forward voltage reaches at a particular level and its intensity will increase
further with the increase in applied forward voltage. LEDs emit no light when reverse
biased. In fact, operating LEDs in reverse direction will quickly destroy them if the
applied voltage is quite large. LEDs V-I characteristic curve is shown in Figure 6.
Characteristics of LED
Figure 6
General Theory of Diode and Applications:

1. Diodes
2. Rectification
3. Power supply filter
4. Applications of Diodes
Signal rectifier
Diode gate
Diode clamps
Limiter
1. Diode:
Some elements are linear (resistors, capacitors, inductors), which means that doubling
the applied signal (let us say a voltage) produces a doubling of the response (let us say
a current). They are also passive – they do not have built-in source of power. They are
two-terminal devices, (which is self-explanatory).

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Diode is also two-terminal, passive but non-linear a device. Figure 7 shows the diode.
Diode voltage-current curve, U-I curve

Figure 7
In Figure 7 there is U-I (voltage-current) curve (characteristic). The diode arrow,
anode terminal, shows the direction of forward current flow. If the diode is in a circuit
in which a current of 10mA=10*10-3A is flowing from anode to cathode, then the
anode is approximately 0.5 Volt more positive than cathode. We call it the forward
voltage drop. The reverse current is measured in nanoampers and 1nA=1×10-9A. It is
so small in comparison to mA that can be neglected until we reach the reverse
breakdown voltage. Typically it is approximately 75V and normally we never subject
a diode to voltage large enough to cause reverse breakdown.
Similarly, the forward voltage drop, which is about 0.5 or 0.8 V, is of little concern.
For these reasons we treat the diode as a good approximation of an ideal one-way
conductor.
Commercially available diodes are described also by other important characteristics,
e.g.: maximum forward current, capacitance (measured in pF), leaking current,
reverse recovery time (measured in nanoseconds, 0-2-4-5000).
2. Rectification:
A rectifier changes AC (alternating current) to DC (direct current). This is the most
important application of diodes. Diodes are sometimes called Rectifiers.
The basic circuit is shown in Figure 8.
Half-wave rectifier
Figure 8

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The ac represents a source of AC voltage. It can be a transformer or just ac sine-wave

power line. For sine-wave input, of amplitude much larger than forward voltage drop,
the output will look like it is shown in Figure 9.
Voltage across RLoad in

Figure 9
The process and the circuit we call a half-wave rectifier, because only half of the input
waveform is used.
In Figure 10 is shown a full-wave rectifier and Figure 10 shows the voltage across the
load. The small gaps across zero voltage occur because of the forward voltage drop.
Full-wave bridge rectifier Voltage across RLoad in Figure

Figure 10
3. Power supply filtering:
The rectified wave from Figure 10 is not good for application: it is dc only in the
sense that it does not change polarity. But it does not have constant value and has
plenty of ripples i.e. small waves or undulations (wave like forms). It has to be
smoothed out in order to obtain authentic direct current. This can be done by means of
a low-pass filter, which is shown in Figure 11.
Full-wave bridge with RC filter

Figure 11

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The full-wave bridge diodes prevent flow of current back out of the capacitor. The
1 2
capacitor is an energy storage element. The energy stored in a capacitor is E 2 CU .
For C in F (farads) and U in V (Volts), E comes out in J (joule) and J=Watt/sec. The
capacitor value is chosen so that R load 1 / f , where f is the ripple frequency. For
power line sine wave it is 2×50Hz =100Hz. It allows ensuring small ripples, by
making the time constant for discharge much longer than the time between recharging
(the capacitor is charging very quickly, while discharging is very slow).
It is quite easy to calculate the approximate ripple voltage (see figure 12). Let us
assume that the load current stays constant (it will, for small ripples). The load causes
the capacitor to discharge somewhat between cycles. The capacitor will loose some
voltage, let us say U . In this case, we have:
I dU
U t (from I C dt )
C ,
Power-supply ripple calculation

Figure 12
Instead of t we use 1 / f or 1 / 2f respectively for half-wave rectification and for full-
wave rectification. Finally we obtain approximate ripple voltage:
I load
For halve-wave U fC
,
I load
For full-wave U 2fC
.
If one wanted to do exact calculation (with no approximation), one would use the
exact exponential formula (see lecture Capacitors, RC circuits). Sometimes it may be
necessary.
A DC power supply using the bridge circuit looks (in the USA) as shown in figure 13.

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Bridge rectifier circuit

Figure 13
The curved electrode indicates a polarized capacitor, which must not be allowed the
opposite polarity.
4. Applications of diodes :
Signal rectifier
If the input is not a sine wave, we usually do not think of it as a rectification in the
sense as it was for power supply. For instance, we might want to have a series of
pulses corresponding to the rising edge of a square wave (see figure 14, left hand side
and right hand side of the capacitor C). While both, the rising and the falling, pulses
are in the output after differentiation performed by CR circuit. The simplest way is to
rectify the differentiated wave.
A series of pulses' rectifier

Figure 14
We should remember about forward drop voltage of the diode: This circuit gives no
output for signal for input smaller then, forward drop voltage, let us say 0.5 Vpp (peak
to peak). If this is a problem, there are various tricks that help to combat this
limitation. For instance:
1. Use Schottky diodes with smaller forward drop voltage (approximately 0.2V),
2. Use so called circuit solution, which means modifying the circuit structure and
compensating the drop,
3. Use matched-pair compensation, use transistors, FETs.

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Diode gates :
Another application of diode is to pass the higher of two voltages without affecting
the lower. A good example is battery backup, a method of keeping devices running
(for instance a precision electronic clock) in case of power failure. Figure 15 shows a
circuit that does the job.
Diode OR gate, battery backup.

Figure 15
[OR gate : The output of OR gate is high if either input (or both) is high. In general,
gates can have any number of inputs. The output is low only if all inputs are low].
1. The battery does nothing until the power fails.
2. Then the battery takes over the control, without interruption.
Diode clamps (stabilizatory poziomu) :

Sometimes it is necessary to limit the range of signal (for instance not to exceed
certain voltage limit and not to destroy a device). The circuit in Figure 16 will
accomplish this.
Diode voltage clamp

Figure 16
The diode prevents the output from exceeding 5.6V, with no effect on voltages
smaller than this, including negative voltages. The only limitation is that the input
must not be so negative that the reverse breakdown voltage is exceeded. Diode clamps
are the standard equipment on all inputs in the CMOS family of digital logic
(Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor). Without them, the delicate input

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circuits are easily destroyed by static electricity.

Limiter :
The circuit in Figure 17 limits the output swing to one diode drop, roughly 0.6V.
Diode limiter
Figure 17
It might seem very small, but if the next device is an amplifier with large voltage
amplification, its input has to be always near zero voltage. Otherwise the output is in
state of saturation. For instance we have an op-amp with a gain of 1000. The amplifier
operates with supply voltage 15V. Sometimes it can be 12V or 18V or something
in between. It will never give output voltage bigger than the supply voltage, i.e. 15V.
It means that the input signal 15mV ( 15V/1000) or bigger will saturate the output.
This particular amplifier gives the output proportional to the input (proportionality
factor is 1000) only for input signals from the interval (-15mV, +15mV).
This diode limiter is often used as input protection for high-gain amplifiers.
Over-voltage protection :
Diodes are frequently used to conduct damaging high voltages away from sensitive
electronic devices. They are usually reverse-biased (non-conducting) under normal
circumstances. When the voltage rises above the normal range, the diodes become
forward-biased (conducting). For example, diodes are used in (stepper motor and H-
bridge) motor controller and relay circuits to de-energize coils rapidly without the
damaging voltage spikes that would otherwise occur. (Any diode used in such an
application is called a flyback diode). Many integrated circuits also incorporate diodes
on the connection pins to prevent external voltages from damaging their sensitive
transistors. Specialized diodes are used to protect from over-voltages at higher power
(see Diode types above) Logic gates.
Diodes can be combined with other components to construct AND and OR logic
gates. This is referred to as diode logic.
Ionising radiation detectors :
In addition to light, mentioned above, semiconductor diodes are sensitive to more
energetic radiation. In electronics, cosmic rays and other sources of ionising radiation
cause noise pulses and single and multiple bit errors. This effect is sometimes
exploited by particle detectors to detect radiation. A single particle of radiation, with
thousands or millions of electron volts of energy, generates many charge carrier pairs,
as its energy is deposited in the semiconductor material. If the depletion layer is large

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enough to catch the whole shower or to stop a heavy particle, a fairly accurate
measurement of the particle’s energy can be made, simply by measuring the charge
conducted and without the complexity of a magnetic spectrometer or etc. These
semiconductor radiation detectors need efficient and uniform charge collection and
low leakage current. They are often cooled by liquid nitrogen. For longer range (about
a centimetre) particles they need a very large depletion depth and large area. For short
range particles, they need any contact or un-depleted semiconductor on at least one
surface to be very thin. The back-bias voltages are near breakdown (around a
thousand volts per centimetre). Germanium and Silicon are common materials. Some
of these detectors sense position as well as energy. They have a finite life, especially
when detecting heavy particles, because of radiation damage. Silicon and Germanium
are quite different in their ability to convert gamma rays to electron showers.
Semiconductor detectors for high energy particles are used in large numbers. Because
of energy loss fluctuations, accurate measurement of the energy deposited is of less
use.
Temperature measuring :
A diode can be used as a temperature measuring device, since the forward voltage
drop across the diode depends on temperature. From the Schottky ideal diode
equation given above, it appears the voltage has a positive temperature coefficient (at
a constant current)but depends on doping concentration and operating temperature
(Sze 2007). The temperature coefficient can be negative as in typical thermistors or
positive for temperature sense diodes down to about 20 kelvins.
Semiconductor Theory:
There are three basic types of materials that we are concerned with in electronics.
These are conductors, semiconductors and insulators. Materials that have very low
electrical resistivity (in the order of 1 x 10-6 ohm-meters) are called conductors.
Materials that have very high electrical resistivity (in the order of 1 x 1013 ohm-
meters) are called insulators. Semiconductors are materials that have resistivity values
in between those of conductors and insulators; they are neither good conductors nor
good insulators.
Examples of conductors : Examples of insulators: Examples of Semiconductors:

Copper Rubber Silicon
Aluminum PVC Germanium
Silver Paper
Gold Mica

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Semiconductor materials are used to make a range of devices that are used in modern
electronic circuits. In order to understand how these devices work we must first gain
an understanding of the electrical properties of naturally occurring (intrinsic)
semiconductors. We then need to learn about the electrical properties of extrinsic
semiconductors. Extrinsic semiconductor material is just a naturally occurring pure
semiconductor material that has been modified by a manufacturing process.
First we will look at the atomic structure of intrinsic semiconductors to understand
their electrical properties. Then we will look at how this structure is modified to
produce extrinsic semiconductor material and how this changes the materials
electrical properties. Finally we will look at the construction and operation of a
semiconductor diode which is the most basic semiconductor device used in electronic
circuits. During this section we will consider "true" electron flow rather than
conventional current flow which is used in electrical circuit analysis.
Pure Silicon :
First a very pure crystal of silicon must be produced. The atomic structure of the
silicon can be represented by the diagram below. Silicon like all semiconductors is a
group 4 element and its atoms have only four electrons in the outer shell (4 valence
electrons). It takes eight electrons to fill the outer shell and make it stable. The atoms
share their valence electrons with neighbouring atoms so that each atom effectively
contains eight electrons in the outer shell. This sharing of valence electrons with
neighbouring atoms forms covalent bonds. It is these covalent bonds that bind the
atoms together.
Figure 18
Note this is a simplified diagram showing a 2 dimensional representation of the
structure of silicon. Obviously silicon has a 3 dimensional structure and the covalent
bonds do not really lie in a single plane as shown in the diagram. The actual
arrangement of covalent bonds forms a shape called a tetrahedron.

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This diagram does give a good representation of how the electrons are bound to the
atoms. This reflects the fact that there are no free electrons to produce an electrical
current if a voltage is applied to the material. However an energy level diagram is
better for explaining more about the electrical properties of silicon.
Semiconductor diodes :
Most modern diodes are based on semiconductor p-n junctions. In a p-n diode,
conventional current can flow from the p-type side (the anode) to the n-type side (the
cathode), but cannot flow in the opposite direction. Another type of semiconductor
diode, the Schottky diode, is formed from the contact between a metal and a
semiconductor rather than by a p-n junction.
Voltage-Current characteristics :
A semiconductor diode’s voltage-current, or V-I, characteristic curve is related to the
transport of carriers through the so-called depletion layer or depletion region that
exists at the p-n junction between differing semiconductors. When a p-n junction is
first created, conduction band (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diffuse into
the P-doped region where there is a large population of holes (places for electrons in
which no electron is present) with which the electrons “recombine”. When a mobile
electron recombines with a hole, both hole and electron vanish, leaving behind an
immobile positively charged donor on the N-side and negatively charged acceptor on
the P-side. The region around the p-n junction becomes depleted of charge carriers
and thus behaves as an insulator.
However, the depletion width cannot grow without limit. For each electron-hole pair
that recombines, a positively-charged dopant ion is left behind in the N-doped region,
and a negatively charged dopant ion is left behind in the P-doped region. As
recombination proceeds and more ions are created, an increasing electric field
develops through the depletion zone which acts to slow and then finally stop
recombination. At this point, there is a “built-in” potential across the depletion zone.
If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in
potential, the depletion zone continues to act as an insulator preventing a significant
electric current. This is the reverse bias phenomenon. However, if the polarity of the
external voltage opposes the built-in potential, recombination can once again proceed
resulting in substantial electric current through the p-n junction. For silicon diodes,
the built-in potential is approximately 0.6 V. Thus, if an external current is passed
through the diode, about 0.6 V will be developed across the diode such that the P-
doped region is positive with respect to the N-doped region and the diode is said to be
“turned on” as it has a forward bias.

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I–V characteristics of a P-N junction diode

Figure 19
A diode’s I–V characteristic can be approximated by four regions of operation (see
the figure 19).
At very large reverse bias, beyond the peak inverse voltage or PIV, a process called
reverse breakdown occurs which causes a large increase in current that usually
damages the device permanently. The avalanche diode is deliberately designed for use
in the avalanche region. In the Zener diode, the concept of PIV is not applicable. A
Zener diode contains a heavily doped p-n junction allowing electrons to tunnel from
the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band of the n-type material,
such that the reverse voltage is “clamped” to a known value (called the Zener
voltage), and avalanche does not occur. Both devices, however, do have a limit to the
maximum current and power in the clamped reverse voltage region.
The second region, at reverse biases more positive than the PIV, only a very small
reverse saturation current flows. In the reverse bias region for a normal P-N rectifier
diode, the current through the device is very low (in the µA range).
The third region is forward but small bias, where only a small forward current is
conducted.
As the potential difference is increased above an arbitrarily defined cut-in voltage or
on-voltage, the diode current becomes appreciable (the level of current considered
“appreciable” and the value of cut-in voltage depends on the application), and the
diode presents a very low resistance.
The current–voltage curve is exponential. In a normal silicon diode at rated currents,
the arbitrary 'cut-in' voltage is defined as 0.6 to 0.7 volts. The value is different for
other diode types — Schottky diodes can be as low as 0.2 V and red light-emitting

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diodes (LEDs) can be 1.4 V or more and blue LEDs can be up to 4.0 V.
At higher currents the forward voltage drop of the diode increases. A drop of 1v to
1.5v is typical at full rated current for power diodes.
Shockley diode equation :

The Shockley ideal diode equation or the diode law (named after transistor co-
inventor William Bradford Shockley, not to be confused with tetrode inventor Walter
H. Schottky) is the I–V characteristic of an ideal diode in either forward or reverse
bias (or no bias). The equation is:
Where
I is the diode current,
IS is a scale factor called the saturation current,
VD is the voltage across the diode,
VT is the thermal voltage,
and n is the emission coefficient, also known as the ideality factor. The emission
coefficient n varies from about 1 to 2 depending on the fabrication process and
semiconductor material and in many cases is assumed to be approximately equal to 1
(thus the notation n is omitted).
The thermal voltage VT is approximately 25.85 mV at 300 K, a temperature close to
“room temperature” commonly used in device simulation software. At any
temperature it is a known constant defined by:
where
q is the magnitude of charge on an electron (the elementary charge),
k is Boltzmann’s constant,
T is the absolute temperature of the p-n junction in kelvins
The Shockley ideal diode equation or the diode law is derived with the assumption
that the only processes giving rise to current in the diode are drift (due to electrical
field), diffusion, and thermal recombination-generation. It also assumes that the
recombination-generation (R-G) current in the depletion region is insignificant. This
means that the Shockley equation doesn’t account for the processes involved in
reverse breakdown and photon-assisted R-G. Additionally, it doesn’t describe the
“leveling off” of the I–V curve at high forward bias due to internal resistance.
Under reverse bias voltages (see figure 19) the exponential in the diode equation is
negligible, and the current is a constant (negative) reverse current value of -IS. The
reverse breakdown region is not modeled by the Shockley diode equation.
For even rather small forward bias voltages (see figure 19) the exponential is very
large because the thermal voltage is very small, so the subtracted ‘1’ in the diode
equation is negligible and the forward diode current is often approximated as

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The use of the diode equation in circuit problems is illustrated in the article on diode
modeling.
Small-signal behavior :
For circuit design, a small-signal model of the diode behavior often proves useful. A
specific example of diode modeling is discussed in the article on small-signal
circuits.Types of semiconductor diode
There are several types of junction diodes, which either emphasizes a different
physical aspects of a diode often by geometric scaling, doping level, choosing the
right electrodes, are just an application of a diode in a special circuit, or are really
different devices like the Gunn and laser diode and the JFET:
Normal (p-n) diodes which operate as described above. Usually made of doped silicon
or, more rarely, germanium. Before the development of modern silicon power rectifier
diodes, cuprous oxide and later selenium was used; its low efficiency gave it a much
higher forward voltage drop (typically 1.4–1.7 V per “cell”, with multiple cells
stacked to increase the peak inverse voltage rating in high voltage rectifiers), and
required a large heat sink (often an extension of the diode’s metal substrate), much
larger than a silicon diode of the same current ratings would require. The vast
majority of all diodes are the p-n diodes found in CMOS integrated circuits, which
include 2 diodes per pin and many other internal diodes.
Avalanche diodes :
Diodes that conduct in the reverse direction when the reverse bias voltage exceeds the
breakdown voltage. These are electrically very similar to Zener diodes, and are often
mistakenly called Zener diodes, but break down by a different mechanism, the
avalanche effect. This occurs when the reverse electric field across the p-n junction
causes a wave of ionization, reminiscent of an avalanche, leading to a large current.
Avalanche diodes are designed to break down at a well-defined reverse voltage
without being destroyed. The difference between the avalanche diode (which has a
reverse breakdown above about 6.2 V) and the Zener is that the channel length of the
former exceeds the “mean free path” of the electrons, so there are collisions between
them on the way out. The only practical difference is that the two types have
temperature coefficients of opposite polarities.
Crystal diodes :
These are a type of point contact diode. The cat’s whisker diode consists of a thin or
sharpened metal wire pressed against a semiconducting crystal, typically galena or a
piece of coal. The wire forms the anode and the crystal forms the cathode. Cat’s
whisker diodes were also called crystal diodes and found application in crystal radio
receivers. Cat’s whisker diodes are obsolete.

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Constant current diodes :

These are actually a JFET with the gate shorted to the source, and function like a two-
terminal current-limiting analog to the Zener diode; they allow a current through them
to rise to a certain value, and then level off at a specific value. Also called CLDs,
constant-current diodes, diode-connected transistors, or current-regulating diodes.
Esaki or tunnel diodes :
These have a region of operation showing negative resistance caused by quantum
tunneling, thus allowing amplification of signals and very simple bistable circuits.
These diodes are also the type most resistant to nuclear radiation.
Gunn diodes :
These are similar to tunnel diodes in that they are made of materials such as GaAs or
InP that exhibit a region of negative differential resistance. With appropriate biasing,
dipole domains form and travel across the diode, allowing high frequency microwave
oscillators to be built.
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) :
In a diode formed from a direct band-gap semiconductor, such as gallium arsenide,
carriers that cross the junction emit photons when they recombine with the majority
carrier on the other side. Depending on the material, wavelengths (or colors) from the
infrared to the near ultraviolet may be produced. The forward potential of these diodes
depends on the wavelength of the emitted photons: 1.2 V corresponds to red, 2.4 to
violet. The first LEDs were red and yellow, and higher-frequency diodes have been
developed over time. All LEDs are monochromatic; “white” LEDs are actually
combinations of three LEDs of a different color, or a blue LED with a yellow
scintillator coating. LEDs can also be used as low-efficiency photodiodes in signal
applications. An LED may be paired with a photodiode or phototransistor in the same
package, to form an opto-isolator.
Laser diodes :
When an LED-like structure is contained in a resonant cavity formed by polishing the
parallel end faces, a laser can be formed. Laser diodes are commonly used in optical
storage devices and for high speed optical communication.
Peltier diodes :
are used as sensors, heat engines for thermoelectric cooling. Charge carriers absorb
and emit their band gap energies as heat.
Photodiodes :
All semiconductors are subject to optical charge carrier generation. This is typically
an undesired effect, so most semiconductors are packaged in light blocking material.
Photodiodes are intended to sense light (photodetector), so they are packaged in
materials that allow light to pass, and are usually PIN (the kind of diode most
sensitive to light). A photodiode can be used in solar cells, in photometry, or in
optical communications. Multiple photodiodes may be packaged in a single device,

NV6501
either as a linear array or as a two dimensional array. These arrays should not be
confused with charge-coupled devices.
Point-contact diodes :
These work the same as the junction semiconductor diodes described above, but their
construction is simpler. A block of n-type semiconductor is built, and a conducting
sharp-point contact made with some group-3 metal is placed in contact with the
semiconductor. Some metal migrates into the semiconductor to make a small region
of p-type semiconductor near the contact. The long-popular 1N34 germanium version
is still used in radio receivers as a detector and occasionally in specialized analog
electronics.
PIN diodes :
A PIN diode has a central un-doped, or intrinsic, layer, forming a p-type / intrinsic /
n-type structure. They are used as radio frequency switches and attenuators. They are
also used as large volume ionizing radiation detectors and as photodetectors. PIN
diodes are also used in power electronics, as their central layer can withstand high
voltages. Furthermore, the PIN structure can be found in many power semiconductor
devices, such as IGBTs, power MOSFETs, and thyristors.
Switching diodes :
Switching diodes, sometimes also called small signal diodes, are a single p-n diode in
a discrete package. A switching diode provides essentially the same function as a
switch. Below the specified applied voltage it has high resistance similar to an open
switch, while above that voltage it suddenly changes to the low resistance of a closed
switch. They are used in devices such as ring modulation.
Schottky diodes :
Schottky diodes are constructed from a metal to semiconductor contact. They have a
lower forward voltage drop than any p-n junction diode. Their forward voltage drop at
forward currents of about 1 mA is in the range 0.15 V to 0.45 V, which makes them
useful in voltage clamping applications and prevention of transistor saturation. They
can also be used as low loss rectifiers although their reverse leakage current is
generally much higher than non Schottky rectifiers. Schottky diodes are majority
carrier devices and so do not suffer from minority carrier storage problems that slow
down most normal diodes-so they have a faster “reverse recovery” than any p-n
junction diode. They also tend to have much lower junction capacitance than PN
diodes and this contributes towards their high switching speed and their suitability in
high speed circuits and RF devices such as switched-mode power supply, mixers and
detectors.
Super Barrier Diodes :
Super barrier diodes are rectifier diodes that incorporate the low forward voltage drop
of the Schottky diode with the surge-handling capability and low reverse leakage
current of a normal p-n junction diode.

NV6501
Gold-doped” diodes :
As a dopant, gold (or platinum) acts as recombination centers, which help a fast
recombination of minority carriers. This allows the diode to operate at signal
frequencies, at the expense of a higher forward voltage drop. Gold doped diodes are
faster than other p-n diodes (but not as fast as Schottky diodes). They also have less
reverse-current leakage than Schottky diodes (but not as good as other p-n diodes).A
typical example is the 1N914.
Snap-off or Step recovery diodes :
The term ‘step recovery’ relates to the form of the reverse recovery characteristic of
these devices. After a forward current has been passing in an SRD and the current is
interrupted or reversed, the reverse conduction will cease very abruptly (as in a step
waveform). SRDs can therefore provide very fast voltage transitions by the very
sudden disappearance of the charge carriers.
Transient voltage suppression diode (TVS) :
These are avalanche diodes designed specifically to protect other semiconductor
devices from high-voltage transients. Their p-n junctions have a much larger cross-
sectional area than those of a normal diode, allowing them to conduct large currents to
ground without sustaining damage.
Varicap or varactor diodes :
These are used as voltage-controlled capacitors. These are important in PLL (phase-
locked loop) and FLL (frequency-locked loop) circuits, allowing tuning circuits, such
as those in television receivers, to lock quickly, replacing older designs that took a
long time to warm up and lock. A PLL is faster than a FLL, but prone to integer
harmonic locking (if one attempts to lock to a broadband signal). They also enabled
tunable oscillators in early discrete tuning of radios, where a cheap and stable, but
fixed-frequency, crystal oscillator provided the reference frequency for a voltage-
controlled oscillator.
Zener diodes :
Diodes that can be made to conduct backwards. This effect, called Zener breakdown,
occurs at a precisely defined voltage, allowing the diode to be used as a precision
voltage reference. In practical voltage reference circuits Zener and switching diodes
are connected in series and opposite directions to balance the temperature coefficient
to near zero. Some devices labeled as high-voltage Zener diodes are actually
avalanche diodes. Two (equivalent) Zeners in series and in reverse order, in the same
package, constitute a transient absorber (or Transorb, a registered trademark). They
are named for Dr. Clarence Melvin Zener of Southern Illinois University, inventor of
the device.
Other uses for semiconductor diodes include sensing temperature, and computing
analog logarithms numbering.
A standardized 1N-series numbering system was introduced in the US by EIA/JEDEC
(Joint Electron Device Engineering Council) about 1960. Among the most popular in

NV6501
this series were: 1N34A/1N270 (Germanium signal), IN914/1N4148 (Silicon signal)

and 1N4001-1N4007 (Silicon 1A power rectifier)
In optics, an equivalent device for the diode but with laser light would be the Optical
isolator, also known as an Optical Diode, that allows light to only pass in 1 direction.
It uses a Faraday rotator as the main component.
A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one direction
with far greater ease than in the other. The most common kind of diode in modern
circuit design is the semiconductor diode, although other diode technologies exist.
Semiconductor diodes are symbolized in schematic diagrams such as figure below.
The term “diode” is customarily reserved for small signal devices, I ≤ 1 A. The term
rectifier is used for power devices, I > 1 A.
Semiconductor diode schematic symbol: Arrows indicate the direction of electron

current flow.
When placed in a simple battery-lamp circuit, the diode will either allow or prevent
current through the lamp, depending on the polarity of the applied voltage. (Figure 20
below)
Diode operation: (a) Current flow is permitted the diode is forward biased. (b)
Current flow is prohibited; the diode is reversed biased.
Figure 20
When the polarity of the battery is such that electrons are allowed to flow through the
diode, the diode is said to be forward-biased. Conversely, when the battery is
“backward” and the diode blocks current, the diode is said to be reverse-biased. A
diode may be thought of as like a switch: “closed” when forward-biased and “open”
when reverse-biased.
Oddly enough, the direction of the diode symbol's “arrowhead” points against the
direction of electron flow. This is because the diode symbol was invented by
engineers, who predominantly use conventional flow notation in their schematics,
showing current as a flow of charge from the positive (+) side of the voltage source to
the negative (-). This convention holds true for all semiconductor symbols possessing
“arrowheads:” the arrow points in the permitted direction of conventional flow, and
against the permitted direction of electron flow.
Diode behavior is analogous to the behavior of a hydraulic device called a check
valve. A check valve allows fluid flow through it in only one direction as in figure 21
below.

NV6501
Hydraulic check valve analogy: (a) Electron current flow permitted. (b) Current
flow prohibited.
Figure 21
Check valves are essentially pressure-operated devices: they open and allow flow if
the pressure across them is of the correct “polarity” to open the gate (in the analogy
shown, greater fluid pressure on the right than on the left). If the pressure is of the
opposite “polarity,” the pressure difference across the check valve will close and hold
the gate so that no flow occurs.
Like check valves, diodes are essentially “pressure-” operated (voltage-operated)
devices. The essential difference between forward-bias and reverse-bias is the polarity
of the voltage dropped across the diode. Lets take a closer look at the simple battery-
diode-lamp circuit shown earlier, this time investigating voltage drops across the
various components in figure 22 below.
Diode circuit voltage measurements: (a) forward biased. (b) Reverse biased.
Figure 22
A forward-biased diode conducts current and drops a small voltage across it, leaving
most of the battery voltage dropped across the lamp. If the battery's polarity is
reversed, the diode becomes reverse-biased, and drops all of the battery's voltage
leaving none for the lamp. If we consider the diode to be a self-actuating switch
(closed in the forward-bias mode and open in the reverse-bias mode), this behavior
makes sense. The most substantial difference is that the diode drops a lot more
voltage when conducting than the average mechanical switch (0.7 volts versus tens of

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millivolts).
This forward-bias voltage drop exhibited by the diode is due to the action of the
depletion region formed by the P-N junction under the influence of an applied
voltage. If no voltage applied is across a semiconductor diode, a thin depletion region
exists around the region of the P-N junction, preventing current flow. (Figure 23
below (a)) The depletion region is almost devoid of available charge carriers, and acts
as an insulator:
Diode representations: PN-junction model, schematic symbol, physical part.

Figure 23
The schematic symbol of the diode is shown in figure 23 above (b) such that the
anode (pointing end) corresponds to the P-type semiconductor at (a). The cathode bar,
non-pointing end, at (b) corresponds to the N-type material at (a). Also note that the
cathode stripe on the physical part (c) corresponds to the cathode on the symbol.
If a reverse-biasing voltage is applied across the P-N junction, this depletion region
expands, further resisting any current through
Depletion region expands with reverse bias.

Figure 24

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Conversely, if a forward-biasing voltage is applied across the P-N junction, the

depletion region collapses becoming thinner. The diode becomes less resistive to
current through it. In order for a sustained current to go through the diode; though, the
depletion region must be fully collapsed by the applied voltage. This takes a certain
minimum voltage to accomplish, called the forward voltage as illustrated in figure 25.
Increasing forward bias from (a) to (b) decreases depletion region thickness.
Figure 25
For silicon diodes, the typical forward voltage is 0.7 volts, nominal. For germanium
diodes, the forward voltage is only 0.3 volts. The chemical constituency of the P-N
junction comprising the diode accounts for its nominal forward voltage figure, which
is why silicon and germanium diodes have such different forward voltages. Forward
voltage drop remains approximately constant for a wide range of diode currents,
meaning that diode voltage drop is not like that of a resistor or even a normal (closed)
switch. For most simplified circuit analysis, the voltage drop across a conducting
diode may be considered constant at the nominal figure and not related to the amount
of current.
Actually, forward voltage drop is more complex. An equation describes the exact
current through a diode, given the voltage dropped across the junction, the
temperature of the junction, and several physical constants. It is commonly known as
the diode equation:

NV6501
ID Is (eqVD /NKT -1)

Where ,
ID Diode current in amps
Is Saturation current in amps
(typically 1 10-12 amps)
e = Euler's constant (~2.718281828)
q = Charge of elctron (1.6 10 19 coulombs)
VD = Voltage applied across diode in Volts
N = "Nonideality" or "emission" coeffcient
(typically between 1 and 2)
K = Boltzmann's constant (1.38 10 33 )
T = Junction temperature in Kelvins
The term kT/q describes the voltage produced within the P-N junction due to the
action of temperature, and is called the thermal voltage, or Vt of the junction. At room
temperature, this is about 26 millivolts. Knowing this, and assuming a “non ideality”
coefficient of 1, we may simplify the diode equation and re-write it as such:
ID Is (e VD /0.026 -1)
Where ,
ID Diode current in amps
Is Saturation current in amps
(typically 1 10-12 amps)
e = Euler's constant (~2.718281828)
VD = Voltage applied across diode in Volts
You need not be familiar with the “diode equation” to analyze simple diode circuits.
Just understand that the voltage dropped across a current-conducting diode does
change with the amount of current going through it, but that this change is fairly small
over a wide range of currents. This is why many textbooks simply say the voltage
drop across a conducting, semiconductor diode remains constant at 0.7 volts for
silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium. However, some circuits intentionally make use
of the P-N junctions inherent exponential current/voltage relationship and thus can
only be understood in the context of this equation. Also, since temperature is a factor
in the diode equation, a forward-biased P-N junction may also be used as a
temperature-sensing device, and thus can only be understood if one has a conceptual
grasp on this mathematical relationship.
A reverse-biased diode prevents current from going through it, due to the expanded
depletion region. In actuality, a very small amount of current can and does go through
a reverse-biased diode, called the leakage current, but it can be ignored for most

NV6501
purposes. The ability of a diode to withstand reverse-bias voltages is limited, as it is

for any insulator. If the applied reverse-bias voltage becomes too great, the diode will
experience a condition known as breakdown (Figure 26 below), which is usually
destructive. A diode's maximum reverse-bias voltage rating is known as the Peak
Inverse Voltage, or PIV, and may be obtained from the manufacturer. Like forward
voltage, the PIV rating of a diode varies with temperature, except that PIV increases
with increased temperature and decreases as the diode becomes cooler--exactly
opposite that of forward voltage.
Diode curve: showing knee at 0.7 V forward bias for Si, and reverse breakdown.
Figure 26
Typically, the PIV rating of a generic “rectifier” diode is at least 50 volts at room
temperature. Diodes with PIV ratings in the many thousands of volts are available for
modest prices.

NV6501
Experiment 1
Objective:
Study of Forward Characteristics of Silicon diode.
Equipments Needed:
1. Patch cords
Circuit Diagram :
Circuit used to plot Forward Characteristics of Si diode is shown in figure 27.
Figure 27

NV6501
Procedure :
1. Before switch ‘On’ the supply Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW (counter
clockwise direction).
Figure 28
2. Connect Ammeter between TP4 and TP10, to measure diode current ID (mA).
3. Connect Voltmeter across TP3 and TP11, to measure diode voltage VD.
4. Switch ‘On’ the power supply.
5. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of diode voltage VD from 0
to 1V (0.83V) in steps and measure the corresponding values of diode current
ID in mA and note down in the Observation Table 1.
6. Plot a curve between diode voltage VD and diode current ID as shown in figure 3
(First quadrant) using suitable scale, with the help of Observation Table 1. This
curve is the required forward characteristics of Si diode.
7. Switch ‘Off’ the supply.

NV6501
Observation Table 1:
S. no. Diode Voltage (VD) Diode current ID (mA)

1. 0.0V
2. 0.1V
3. 0.2V
4. 0.3V
5. 0.4V
6. 0.5V
7. 0.6V
8. 0.7V
9. 0.8V
10. 0.9V
11. 1.0V

NV6501
Experiment 2
Objective:
Study of Reverse Characteristics of Germanium Diode.
Equipments Needed:
2. Patch cords
Circuit Diagram:
Circuit used to plot Reverse characteristics of Ge diode is shown in figure 29.
Figure 29

NV6501
Procedure :
1. Before switch ‘On’ the supply rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW (counter
clockwise direction).
Figure 30
5. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of diode voltage VD from 0
to maximum in steps and measure the corresponding values of diode current ID
in A and note down in the Observation Table 2.
(third quadrant) using suitable scale with the help of Observation Table 2. This
curve is the required reverse characteristics of Ge diode.

NV6501
S. no. Diode Voltage (VD) Diode current ID ( A)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

NV6501
Experiment 3
Objective:
Study of characteristics of Zener diode
1. Forward bias
2. Reverse bias
Equipments Needed :
1. Patch cords
Circuit Diagram :
Circuit used to plot different characteristics of Zener diode is shown in figure 31.
Figure 31

NV6501
Procedure:
To plot Forward Characteristics proceed as follows :
1. Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW (counter clockwise direction).
Figure 32
5. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of Zener voltage Vz from
zero to 1V in steps and measure the corresponding values of Zener current Iz in
mA & note down in the Observation Table 3.
6. Plot a curve between diode voltage Vz and diode current Iz as shown in figure 4
(First quadrant) using suitable scale, with the help of Observation Table 3. This
curve is the required Forward Characteristics of Zener diode.

NV6501
S. no. Diode Voltage (Vz) Diode current Iz (mA)

1. 0.0V
2. 0.lV
3. 0.2V
4. 0.3V
5. 0.4V
6. 0.5V
7. 0.6V
8. 0.7V
9. 0.8V
10 0.9V
11 11V

NV6501
To plot Reverse Characteristics of a Zener diode proceed as follows:
Figure 33
5. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of diode voltage VD from
zero to 6.8V in steps and measure the corresponding values of diode current Iz
in mA & note down in the Observation Table 4.
6. Plot a curve between diode voltage Vz and diode current Iz as shown in figure 4
(third quadrant) using suitable scale, with the help of Observation Table 4. This
curve is the required Reverse Characteristics of Zener diode.

NV6501
S. no. Diode Voltage (Vz) Diode current Iz (mA)

1. 0.0V
2. 1.0V
3. 2.0V
4. 3.0V
5. 4.0V
6. 5.0V
7. 6.0V
8. 7.0V

NV6501
Experiment 4
Objective:
Study of characteristics of Light Emitting Diode (LED)
1. Forward bias
2. Reverse bias
Equipments Needed :
1. Patch cords
Circuit Diagram :
Circuit used to plot different characteristics of Light Emitting Diode (LED) is shown
in Figure 34.
Figure 34

NV6501
Procedure :
To plot Forward Characteristics proceed as follows :
Figure 35
5. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of LED voltage VD from
zero to maximum in steps and measure the corresponding values of LED current
ID in mA & note down in the Observation Table 5.
(first quadrant) using suitable scale, with the help of Observation Table 5. This
curve is the required Forward Characteristics of Light Emitting Diode.

NV6501
S. no. Diode Voltage(VD) Diode current ID (mA)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

NV6501
To plot Reverse Characteristics proceed as follows :
Figure 35
5. Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of diode voltage VD from
zero to maximum in steps and measure the corresponding values of diode
current ID in an Observation Table 6.
6. Plot a curve between diode voltage VD and diode current 1D as shown in figure
6 (third quadrant) using suitable scale, with the help of Observation Table 6.
This curve is the required Reverse Characteristics of Light Emitting Diode.

NV6501
S. no. Diode Voltage(VD) Diode current ID (µA)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

NV6501
Warranty
1) We guarantee the product against all manufacturing defects for 24 months from
the date of sale by us or through our dealers. Consumables like dry cell etc. are
not covered under warranty.
2) The guarantee will become void, if
a) The product is not operated as per the instruction given in the learning
material.
b) The agreed payment terms and other conditions of sale are not followed.
c) The customer resells the instrument to another party.
d) Any attempt is made to service and modify the instrument.
3) The non-working of the product is to be communicated to us immediately giving
full details of the complaints and defects noticed specifically mentioning the
type, serial number of the product and date of purchase etc.
4) The repair work will be carried out, provided the product is dispatched securely
packed and insured. The transportation charges shall be borne by the customer.
List of Accessories
1. 2mm Patch Cords 8” ………………………………………………………10 Nos.

2. Learning Material CD ……………………………………………………..1 No.
3. Mains Cord…………………………………………………………………1 No.

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Diode Characteristics Trainer

141-B, Electronic Complex,

Diode Characteristics Trainer

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 2

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 3

A complete system to study the Diode Characteristics

Forward and Reverse Characteristics can be performed on this trainer kit

A LCD for displaying voltage and current both

Different test points are provided

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 4

DC power supply : +12V

Mains Supply : 230V AC ±10%, 50Hz

Zener Diode : 6.8V

Dimensions (mm) : W450 × H113 × D280

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 5

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 6

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 7

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 8

General Theory of Diode and Applications:

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 9

Diode voltage-current curve, U-I curve

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 10

The ac represents a source of AC voltage. It can be a transformer or just ac sine-wave

Voltage across RLoad in

Full-wave bridge rectifier Voltage across RLoad in Figure

Full-wave bridge with RC filter

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 11

Power-supply ripple calculation

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 12

Bridge rectifier circuit

A series of pulses' rectifier

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 13

Diode OR gate, battery backup.

Diode clamps (stabilizatory poziomu) :

Diode voltage clamp

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 14

circuits are easily destroyed by static electricity.

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 15

Examples of conductors : Examples of insulators: Examples of Semiconductors:

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 16

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 17

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 18

I–V characteristics of a P-N junction diode

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 19

Shockley diode equation :

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 20

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 21

Constant current diodes :

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 22

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 23

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 24

this series were: 1N34A/1N270 (Germanium signal), IN914/1N4148 (Silicon signal)

Semiconductor diode schematic symbol: Arrows indicate the direction of electron

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 25

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 26

Diode representations: PN-junction model, schematic symbol, physical part.

Depletion region expands with reverse bias.

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 27

Conversely, if a forward-biasing voltage is applied across the P-N junction, the