Experiment No.

1
SIEVE ANALYSIS
Objective(s):
The activity aims to introduce to the student the method of conducting a mechanical grain size analysis
of a soil and presenting the resulting data.
Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs):
The students shall be able to:
 Determine the grain size distribution of the soil.
 Determine the soil classification of the sample based from USCS method.

Discussion:

A grain size analysis is performed in the laboratory for the purpose of determining the grain size distribution of
the soil. In reporting the results of this test, the common practice is to express the total weight finer than a given
size, as a percentage of the total weight of the soil. The most direct method for separating the soil particles into
various size fractions is by the use of sieve.

The results of a given grain size analysis are usually presented in the form of grain size distribution curve. The
percentage of material finer than a given size, %P, is plotted as the ordinate in a natural scale and the
corresponding particle diameter, D in mm, as the abscissa in a logarithmic scale. The slope of the curve is
indicative of the grading. The more uniform the particle size; the steeper is the slope of the curve. A vertical line
represents a soil whose particles are all of the same size. Well-graded soils or those whose particles distributed
from coarse to fine have S-shaped curves that extend several cycles of the logarithmic scale. The advantage of
plotting a semi-log scale is that materials of equal uniformity are represented by curves of identical shape
whether the soil is fine-grained. The curve is also used to interpolate values of %P (percent finer) corresponding
to sizes different from the sieve openings.

The Unified Soil Classification System is a soil classification scheme to determine the group name of the soil to
further determine its engineering properties. This is useful in correlating the behavior of the soil based from its
group description.

Resources:

1. Set of Standard Sieves.

2. Oven with temperature control.
3. Balance.
4. Pans.
5. Pair of tongs.
6. Manual or Mechanical Sieve Shaker.
7. Mortar and Pestle.

Procedure:

Sieve Analysis
1. Each group will obtain exactly 500g of oven-dry soil from the bag of stock material. Use sampling or
sampling splitter.
2. If the samples contain appreciable gravel, very few fines or if at the discretion of the instructor, washing
is to be omitted. Otherwise place the test sample on the no. 200 sieve and wash the material through the
sieve using the tap water until the water is clear.
 3. Carefully pour the residue, using the back-washing, into a large weighed dish and let it sit for a short
period of time until the top of the suspension becomes clear. Then, place the dish and remaining soil-
water suspension in the oven for drying.
4. On the following day, weigh the oven-dry residue. (Omit this step if you do not wash). Then run your
sample through a stack of sieves from top down.
5. Place the stacks of sieves in a mechanical sieves shaker (if available) and sieve for 5 to 10 minutes until
the top few sieves can be removed from the stack. If there is no mechanical shaker, shake by hand for
about 10 minutes. Do not shake in a defined pattern.
6. Remove the stack of sieves from the shaker and obtain the weight of material remaining on each sieve.
Sum these weights and compare with original. Loss of weights should not exceed 2%, otherwise repeat
the sieve test.
7. Compute the percent retained on each sieve by dividing the weight on each sieve to the original sample
weight Ws.
8. Compute the percent passing or percent finer by starting with 100 percent and subtracting the percent
retained on each sieve as a cumulative procedure.
9. Prepare a logarithmic log of percent finer versus grain size.
Note:
• If less than 12% of the soil sample passes the number 200 sieve, compute Cc and Cu and show in
the logarithmic graph.
• If more than 12% of the soil sample passes the number 200 sieve, conduct a hydrometer analysis.

Calculation:
Cum. % retained = Total mass retained from largest sieve to current sieve/ Total mass of sample
% finer = 100% - Cum. Mass retained

Soil Classification using USCS Method

Determine the %gravel, % sand, %silt and clay of the sample. Determine the value of the uniformity
coefficient, Cu and coefficient of concavity, CC.

D 60
C u=
D 10
2
( D30 )
C c=
D60 xD10

Course: Experiment No.:

Group No.: Section:
Group Leader: Date Performed:
Group Members: Date Submitted:
1. Instructor:
2.
3.
4.

Data and Results:

Sieve Analysis of Coarse-grained Soil

Opening Size Cumulative Mass % Passing
Sieve No. Mass Retained (g) Mass Passing (g)
(mm) Retained (g) (%)

Total

% Gravel: ___________ Cu: ___________

% Sand: ___________ Cc: ___________
% Silt & Clay: ___________

Particle Size Distribution Curve

Conclusion: (PER MEMBER)

Assessment (Rubric for Laboratory Performance):
BEGINNER ACCEPTABLE PROFICIENT
CRITERIA SCORE
1 2 3
I. Laboratory Skills
Members
Members do not Members always
Manipulative occasionally
demonstrate demonstrate needed
Skills demonstrate
needed skills. skills.
needed skills
Members are able
Members are Members are able to set-
Experimental to set-up the
unable to set-up up the material with
Set-up materials with
the materials. minimum supervision.
supervision.
Members
Members do not
occasionally Members always
demonstrate
Process Skills demonstrate demonstrate targeted
targeted process
targeted process process skills.
skills.
skills.
Members do not Members follow
Safety Members follow safety
follow safety safety precautions
Precautions precautions at all times.
precautions. most of the time.
II. Work Habits
Time
Members do not Members finish on Members finish ahead of
Management /
finish on time with time with time with complete data
Conduct of
incomplete data. incomplete data. and time to revise data.
Experiment
Members do not Members have
know their tasks defined Members are on tasks
and have no responsibilities and have defined
Cooperative and defined most of the time. responsibilities at all
Teamwork responsibilities. Group conflicts are times. Group conflicts are
Group conflicts cooperatively cooperatively managed at
have to be settled managed most of all times.
by the teacher. the time.
Clean and orderly
Clean and orderly
Messy workplace workplace with
Neatness and workplace at all times
during and after occasional mess
Orderliness during and after the
the experiment. during and after the
experiment.
experiment.
Members require
Members require Members do not need to
Ability to do occasional
supervision by the be supervised by the
independent work supervision by the
teacher. teacher.
teacher.
Other Comments/Observations: Total Score

References
Murthy, V.N.S. (2011). Textbook of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering . Singapore: Alken Company

American Society for Testing and Materials (1998). Standard Test Method for Particle Size Analysis of Soils (D-
422). Pennsylvania: ASTM International
Experiment No. 2
DETERMINATION OF WATER CONTENT, UNIT WEIGHT, VOID RATIO
AND DEGREE OF SATURATION OF SOIL
Objective(s):
To introduce to the student the procedure in determining the weight-volume characteristics of the soil.
Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs):
The students shall be able to:
• Connect the relationship of water content, unit weight, void ratio and degree of saturation.
• Describe methods in determining water content, unit weight, void ratio and degree of saturation.

Discussion:

The determination of water content, unit weight and void ratio is an important requirement in laboratory tests and
is part of the test included in more elaborate tests. Water content is an important measure in the compaction of
soil. In order that correct water content is obtained from a soil sample, several samples at different points must
be taken. They are then mixed and the water content is then obtained from this soil sample.

Various methodologies have been devised to determine the unit weight of the soil in the field such as calibrated
bucket method, nuclear method to name a few. For determination of the unit weight in a laboratory setting,
paraffin wax can be used in determining the unit weight. The paraffin coating applied on the soil will allow
determination of its volume as it is submerged in water.

The specific gravity of the solid grains of the soil is an engineering parameter which is dependent on the
mineralogy of the soil and the structure of its solid grains. Upon determination of the specific gravity, the void
ratio and degree of saturation of the soil can then be determined mathematically.

Resources:

1. Tin cup
2. Triple-beam Balance
3. Oven
4. Paraffin wax
5. Graduated Cylinder
6. Pycnometer

Procedure:

Note: For this experiment, coarse-grained soil sample is to be utilized to expedite the oven-drying of the sample.

Water Content Determination

1. Weigh a tin cup including its cover; identify the cover and its lid. Determine the weight of the tin cup.
2. Place a representative sample of wet soil in the cup. Determine the weight of wet soil and tin cup.
3. Place the sample in the oven for at least 3 hours.
4. When the sample has dried to constant weight, obtain the weight of cup and dry soil
5. Compute the water content. The difference between weight of wet soil plus cup and weight of dry soil
plus cup is the weight of water (Ww). Also compute the weight of dry soil (W s).
6. To determine the water content ().
W
ω= w x 100 %
Ws

7. Repeat until three (3) trials are achieved. Determine the average moisture content.

Unit Weight Determination

 1. Trim a sample of soil to about 1 ½ inches diameter and 2 to 3 inches long. Surface should be smooth
and rounded. Weigh to up to the nearest 0.1 gram.
2. Cover with a thin coating of paraffin and weigh again. Compute the volume of paraffin from weight of
paraffin. The specific gravity of paraffin is about 0.9
3. Immerse the coated sample in water in the graduated cylinder and determine its displacement. The
volume of the sample is the volume of the water displaced minus the volume of the paraffin.
4. Compute the unit weight in grams/cu. cm.

Calculations:
• The volume of the paraffin is equal to the weight of paraffin used to coat sample divided by the density of
paraffin. Specific gravity of paraffin is 0.90
Wt. of paraffin = Wt. Soil coated with paraffin – Wt. of soil uncoated with paraffin
• The volume of the paraffin—coated sample is equal to the weight in air minus the weight in water,
(express the weight in gm)
Wt . of soil
• Wet density of soil = g/cc or kg/m3
Vol . of soil

Specific Gravity Determination:

Calibration of Pycnometer
1. Transfer carefully the 25 gm sample to the calibrated bottle and add distilled water until about ½ full.
Care must be exercised so as not to lose any of the soil in the transfer.
2. Expel the entrapped air by boiling gently for at least 10 minutes. Roll the bottle occasionally to facilitate
the removal of air.
3. Cool the sample to room temperature or to a temperature within the range of the calibration curve of the
bottle used.

Determination of Specific Gravity

1. Fill the bottle with distilled water to the calibration mark as discussed in step 2 from calibration of bottle.
2. Dry the outside of the bottle, as in step 3, pycnometer calibration.
3. Weigh the bottle with water and soil, and record as W b.
4. Read and record the temperature of the contents to 0.1 °C, as in step 5, pycnometer calibration.
5. Repeat procedure for at least 3 trials.

Note: An alternative heating device that can be used is an electric plate stove with wire gauze.

Gt (W s )
Gs =
W s +W a −W b

Where:

Gs – Specific gravity
Gt – Specific gravity of distilled water at the temperature when W b was obtained
Ws – Weight of oven-dried sample
Wa – weight of bottle + water (from calibration curve)
Wb – weight of bottle + soil and water
Determination of Void Ratio and Degree of Saturation:

The void ratio can be determined from the formula shown below:

G s (1+ω)γ w
e= −1
γm

The degree of saturation can be determined from the formula shown below:

S=Gs ω/e

Course: Experiment No.:

Group No.: Section:
Group Leader: Date Performed:
Group Members: Date Submitted:
1. Instructor:
2.
3.
4.

Data and Results:

Moisture Content Determination

Description Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
Wt of tin cup (Wc)
Wt. of tin cup + Wet Soil (Wc+ws)
Wt. of tin cup and dry soil (Wc+ds)
Wt. of water (Ww)
Wt. of dry soil (Wds)
Water Content ()
Average

Unit Weight Determination

Description Description
Wt. of soil (Ws) Wt. of paraffin (Wp)
Wt. of soil and paraffin Volume of paraffin (Vp)
(Ws+p)
Volume of soil+paraffin Volume of soil (Vs)
(Vs+p)
Unit weight ()

Specific Gravity Determination

Description Description
SG of distilled water (Gt) Wt. of bottle + water (Wa)
Wt. of oven-dried sample Weight of bottle + soil +
(Ws) water (Wb)
Specific gravity of soil (Gs)

Determination of Void Ratio and Degree of Saturation

Void ratio
Degree of Saturation

Conclusion: (PER MEMBER)

Assessment (Rubric for Laboratory Performance):

BEGINNER ACCEPTABLE PROFICIENT
CRITERIA SCORE
1 2 3
I. Laboratory Skills
Members
Members do not Members always
Manipulative occasionally
demonstrate demonstrate needed
Skills demonstrate
needed skills. skills.
needed skills
 Members are able
Members are Members are able to set-
Experimental to set-up the
unable to set-up up the material with
Set-up materials with
the materials. minimum supervision.
supervision.
Members
Members do not
occasionally Members always
demonstrate
Process Skills demonstrate demonstrate targeted
targeted process
targeted process process skills.
skills.
skills.
Members do not Members follow
Safety Members follow safety
follow safety safety precautions
Precautions precautions at all times.
precautions. most of the time.
II. Work Habits
Time
Members do not Members finish on Members finish ahead of
Management /
finish on time with time with time with complete data
Conduct of
incomplete data. incomplete data. and time to revise data.
Experiment
Members do not Members have
know their tasks defined Members are on tasks
and have no responsibilities and have defined
Cooperative and defined most of the time. responsibilities at all
Teamwork responsibilities. Group conflicts are times. Group conflicts are
Group conflicts cooperatively cooperatively managed at
have to be settled managed most of all times.
by the teacher. the time.
Clean and orderly
Clean and orderly
Messy workplace workplace with
Neatness and workplace at all times
during and after occasional mess
Orderliness during and after the
the experiment. during and after
experiment.
the experiment.
Members require
Ability to do Members require Members do not need to
occasional
independent supervision by be supervised by the
supervision by the
work the teacher. teacher.
teacher.
Other Comments/Observations: Total Score

References
Murthy, V.N.S. (2011). Textbook of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering . Singapore: Alken Company

American Society for Testing and Materials (2000). Standard Test Method for Determination of Water Content
of Soil by Direct Heating Method (D-4959) . Pennsylvania: ASTM International

American Society for Testing and Materials (2002). Standard Test Methods for Determination of Specific Gravity of Soil
Solids by Water Pycnometer (D-854). Pennsylvania: ASTM International
Experiment No. 3
CONSISTENCY LIMITS OF THE SOIL
1. Objective(s):
The activity aims to impart how the moisture content influences the behavior of fine-grained soils.
2. Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs):
The students shall be able to:
 Understand the concept of Atterberg limits and how it influences the behavior of the soil.
 Determine the liquid limit, plastic limit and shrinkage limit of the given soil sample.
 Describe the relationship of liquid limit and plastic limit in soil identification.

3. Discussion:
The liquid limit and plastic limit are used internationally for soil identification, soil classification and for strength
co-relation. It is also helpful in determining consolidation and settlement of soil. The liquid limit is arbitrarily
defined as the moisture content at which a soil pat placed in a brass cup cut with a standard groove and dropped
from a height of 1cm will undergo a groove closure of 12.7mm after25 drops.

Plastic limit is the moisture content at which soil threads start to crumble when rolled to 3mm diameter threads.
The difference of the plastic limit and liquid limit is the plasticity index. This is the range of water content wherein
the soil will act like a plastic.

The shrinkage limit is the moisture content wherein the volume of the soil will cease to reduce in relation to
reduction of moisture content. Shrinkage limit is important in earthworks for predicting the shrinkage and swelling
potential of soil.

4. Resources:

1. Liquid limit device with groove tool

2. Tin can
3. Spatula
4. Triple beam balance
5. Soil oven, pan
6. Shrinkage dish
7. Paraffin wax with sewing thread
8. Graduated Cylinder

5. Procedure:

Liquid Limit Test

1. Prepare at least 250g of representative air dry soil sample passing the no. 40 sieve. Pulverize this soil
sample. Be sure to break all lumps to elemental particles.
2. Prepare at least 3 moisture tin cans. Mix the prepared sample with a small amount of water. Mix the
sample of soil thoroughly until it becomes uniform and consistent in appearance (no lumps). A major
source of error is poor mixing.
3. On the liquid limit device cup, place an amount of soil. Smooth the pat surface. Using the grooving tool,
cut a groove at the middle.
4. Fasten the brass cup to the hinge of the liquid limit device.
5. Using the 1cm. block at the end of the grooving tool, adjust the height of the fall to exactly 1 centimeter.
Height of fall is very critical and as little as 0.1cm can affect the liquid limit by several percent.
6. Prepare 4 different consistencies of soil based on the number of blows in the liquid limit device.This is
done carefully by adding water to the soil.

7. Mix the soil sample until the consistency would require 25-35 blows to close the groove for about 12.5
mm. Take moisture content near the groove using 30g of soil to determine the moisture content by
placing in the oven. Keep the temperature at 105 oC.
 8. Add additional water to test the remaining consistencies of soil. Repeat procedure 7.
9. Draw the flow curve wherein the data is recorded with the water content in the domain and the log N in
the abscissa. The water content that would require 25 blows to close the groove is the liquid limit of the
sample.

Plastic Limit Test

1. Take a sample of about 100 grams.
2. Start rolling the soil between the finger and the glass plate with adequate pressure to form a soil thread
approximately 3mm with 80-90 strokes per minute. When the diameter of the threads of soil becomes
3mm, break the threads in smaller pieces, reform into a ball and re-roll. Continue this re-balling and re-
rolling until threads crumble under pressure and soil can no longer be rolled into threads.
3. When the threads crumbles at a diameter greater than 3mm, this is satisfactory to define the plastic limit.
4. Place the crumbled soil in a tin can until a weight of about 30grams is achieved. Do this until two (2)
samples are achieved. Place it in an oven to oven dry. Maintain the temperature at 105 oC.
5. After determining the moisture content, determine its average. The result is the plastic limit of the soil.

Shinkage Limit Test

1. Weigh the shrinkage dish (msd). Fill the shrinkage dish with water and weigh again (m sd+water). Determine
the volume (Vi) by getting the difference of msd+water and msd and divide it by the density of water.

( msd+water −m sd )
V i=
ρw

2. Grease the inside surface of the shrinkage dish. Place a small portion of the soil pat and carefully tap the
dish to allow the soil pat to flow at the edges. Repeat again until the whole shrinkage dish is filled. Strike
of the excess soil using a straight edge. Record the mass of the soil and dish (m wet+sd).

m wet =m wet+sd −msd

3. Allow the soil to dry into the air until its color turns from dark to light. Oven dry the sample to the oven
kept at 105 oC. Record the mass of the soil and shrinkage dish (m dry+sd). Determine the weight of the dry
soil (mdry). Determine its moisture content.

m dry =m dry+ sd −m sd

4. Securely tie the soil pat in a sewing thread. Immerse the soil in molten wax. Allow the wax coating to
cool. Determine the mass of the soil with wax (m dry+wax). Determine the mass of the wax (mwax). Determine
its volume by dividing the mass with the density of the wax. Density of wax is about 900 kg/m 3.

m wax =mdry +wax −m dry

m wax
V wax =
ρwax

5. Immerse the coated sample in water in the graduated cylinder and determine its displacement. The
displacement represents the volume of dry soil with paraffin wax (V dry+wax).The volume of the dry sample
(Vdry but is expressed as Vf in the formula) is the volume of the water displaced (V dry+wax) minus the volume
of the paraffin (Vwax).
 V f =V dry +wax −V wax

6. Calculate the shrinkage limit of the soil using the formula:

mwet −mdry V −V f
SL= (100 )− i ρ (100)
mdry mdry w

Course: Experiment No.:

Group No.: Section:
Group Leader: Date Performed:
Group Members: Date Submitted:
1. Instructor:
2.
3.
4.

6. Data and Results:

Determination of the Liquid Limit

Description Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4
No. of Blows
Wt of tin cup (mc)
Wt. of tin cup + wet Soil
(mc+wet)
Wt. of tin cup and dry soil
(mc+dry)
Wt. of water (mw)
Wt. of dry soil (mdry)
Water Content ()
Liquid Limit

Flow Curve

Determination of the Plastic Limit

Description Sample 1 Sample 2
Wt of tin cup (mc)
Wt. of tin cup + wet Soil (mc+wet)
Wt. of tin cup and dry soil (mc+dry)
Wt. of water (mw)
Wt. of dry soil (mdry)
Water Content ()
Plastic Limit (Average)

Determination of the Shrinkage Limit

Description Data Description Data
Volume of Shrinkage Dish Volume of Wax
Weight of shrinkage dish Weight of dry soil and wax
 (msd) (mdry+wax)
Weight of shrinkage dish and
Volume of wax (Vwax)
water (msd+water)
Volume of shrinkage dish (Vi) Volume of Dry Soil
Volume of dry soil with wax
Water Content
(Vdry+wax)
Weight of shrinkage dish
Volume of dry soil (Vf)
(msd)
Weight of shrinkage dish and
Shrinkage Limit
wet soil (msd+wet)
Weight of wet soil (mwet) Volume of wet soil (Vi)
Weight of shrinkage dish
Volume of dry soil (Vf)
anddry soil (msd+dry)
Weight of dry soil (mdry) Weight of wet soil (mwet)
Weight of water (mw) Weight of dry soil (mdry)
Water Content () Shrinkage Limit (SL)

7. Conclusion: (PER MEMBER)

Assessment (Rubric for Laboratory Performance):

BEGINNER ACCEPTABLE PROFICIENT
CRITERIA SCORE
1 2 3
I. Laboratory Skills
Manipulative Skills Members do not Members Members always
demonstrate occasionally demonstrate needed
needed skills. demonstrate skills.
 needed skills
Members are able
Members are Members are able to set-
Experimental to set-up the
unable to set-up up the material with
Set-up materials with
the materials. minimum supervision.
supervision.
Members
Members do not
occasionally Members always
demonstrate
Process Skills demonstrate demonstrate targeted
targeted process
targeted process process skills.
skills.
skills.
Members do not Members follow
Safety Members follow safety
follow safety safety precautions
Precautions precautions at all times.
precautions. most of the time.
II. Work Habits
Time
Members do not Members finish on Members finish ahead of
Management /
finish on time with time with time with complete data
Conduct of
incomplete data. incomplete data. and time to revise data.
Experiment
Members do not Members have
know their tasks defined Members are on tasks
and have no responsibilities and have defined
Cooperative and defined most of the time. responsibilities at all
Teamwork responsibilities. Group conflicts are times. Group conflicts are
Group conflicts cooperatively cooperatively managed at
have to be settled managed most of all times.
by the teacher. the time.
Clean and orderly
Clean and orderly
Messy workplace workplace with
Neatness and workplace at all times
during and after occasional mess
Orderliness during and after the
the experiment. during and after the
experiment.
experiment.
Members require
Members require Members do not need to
Ability to do occasional
supervision by the be supervised by the
independent work supervision by the
teacher. teacher.
teacher.
Other Comments/Observations: Total Score

References
Murthy, V.N.S. (2011). Textbook of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering . Singapore: Alken Company

American Society for Testing and Materials (2000). Standard Test Methods for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit and
Plasticity Index of Soils (D-4318). Pennsylvania: ASTM International

American Society for Testing and Materials (2002). Standard Test Methods for Shrinkage Factors of Soils by the Wax
Method (D-4943). Pennsylvania: ASTM International
Experiment No. 4
PERMEABILITY EXPERIMENT
Objective(s):
The activity aims to introduce to the student the method of conducting an experiment to determine the
coefficient of permeability of a given soil sample by variable head permeability test.
Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs):
The students shall be able to:
 Determine the coefficient of permeability by constant head permeability test; and
 Determine the coefficient of permeability by variable head permeability test.
Discussion:

Permeability is defined as the property of porous material which permits the passage or seepage of water
through its interconnected voids. The coefficient of permeability is finding out following method.
a) Laboratory method:
i. Variable head test.
ii. Constant head test.
b) Field method:
i. Pumping out test.
ii. Pumping in test.
c) Indirect test:
i. Computation from grain size or specific surface.
ii. Horizontal capillarity test.
iii. Consolidation test data.

The derivation of the coefficient of permeability is based on the assumption of the validity of the Darcy’s law to
the flow of water in soil. The term coefficient of permeability implies the velocity of flow of water through the soil
under unit hydraulic gradient, and consequently has the same units as that of velocity.

A. Variable head test: The variable head test is used for fine grained soils like silts and silty clays.

For the Variable head test, the following formula is applicable:

aL h
k =2.203 log 10 ( 1 )
At h2
Where,
k = Coefficient of permeability at T ℃ (cm/sec).
a = Cross Sectional area of stand pipe (cm^2)
L = Length of soil specimen (cm)
A = Cross-sectional area of soil sample inside the mould (cm^2)
t = (t1 – t2) = Time interval for the head to fall from h1 to h2
 h1 = Initial head of water at time t1 in the pipe, measured above the outlet
h2 = Final head of water at time t2 in the pipe, measured above the outlet

B. Constant head test: The Constant head test is suitable for coarse grained soils like sands, sandy silts.

For the Constant head test, the following formula is applicable:

Q
q= =k i A
t
Q Q L 1
k= =
ti A t h A
Where,
k = Coefficient of permeability at T ℃ (cm/sec)
L = Length of soil specimen (cm)
A = Total cross-sectional area of soil sample (cm^2)
i = hydraulic gradients
Q = Quantity of water collected in measuring jar
t = total time required for collecting ‘Q’ quantity of water
h = Difference in the water levels of the overhead and bottom tank.

Resources:

a) Special:
 1. Jodhpur permeameter frame consisting of sand pipe graduated scale, rubber tubing
connected to permeameter mould.
2. Permeameter mould.
3. Accessories of permeameter mould including the cover, base, detachable collar, porous stones,
dummy plate etc.
4. Round filter paper.
5. Dynamic compaction device.
b) General:
1. Stop watch.
2. De-aired water.
3. IS 4.75 mm sieve
4. Grease.

Procedure:

a) Preparation of remoulded soil specimen:

i. Weight the required quantity of oven dried soil sample. Evenly sprinkle the calculated quantity
of water corresponding to the OMC. Mix the soil sample thoroughly.
ii. Clean the mould and apply a small portion of grease inside the mould and around the porous
stones in the base plate. Weight the mould and attach the collar to it. Fix the mould on the
compaction base plate. Keep the apparatus on solid base.
iii. The soil sample is placed inside the mould, and is compacted by the standard Proctor
compaction tools, to achieve a dry density equal to the pre- determine3d MDD. Weight the
mould along with the compacted soil.
iv. Saturate the porous stones. Place the filter papers on both ends of the soil specimen in the
mould. Attach the mould with the drainage base and cap having saturated porous stones.

b) Saturation of soil specimen:

i. Connect the water reservoir to the outlet at the bottom of the mould and allow the water to flow in the
soil. Wait till the water has been able to travel up and saturate the sample. Allow about 1 cm depth of free water
to collect on the top of the sample.
ii. Fill the remaining portion of cylinder with de-aired water without disturbing the surface of soil.
iii. Fix the cover plate over the collar and tighten the nuts in the rods.

c) Constant head test:

i. Place the mould assembly in the bottom tank and fill the bottom tank with water up to the outlet.
ii. Connect the outlet tube with constant head tank to the inlet nozzle of the permeameter, after
removing the air in flexible rubber tubing connecting the tube.
iii. Adjust the hydraulic head by either adjusting the relative height of the permeameter mould and
constant head tank or by rising or lowering the air intake tube with in the head tank
iv. Start the stop watch and at the same time put a bucket under the outlet of the bottom tank, run the
test for same convenient time interval and measure.
v. Repeat the test twice more, under the same head and for the same time interval.

d) Variable head permeability test method:

i. Disconnect the water reservoir from the outlet at the bottom and connect the stand pipe to the inlet at
the top plate.
ii. Fill the stand pipe with water. Open the stop cock at the top and allow water to flow out so that all
the air in the cylinder is removed.
iii. Fix the height h1 and h2 on the stand pipe from the centre of the outlet such that (h1 – h2) is about
30 cm to 40 cm.
iv. When all the air has escaped, close the stop clock and allow the water from the pipe to flow through
the soil and establish a steady flow.
v. Record the time interval, t, for the head to drop from h1 to h2.
vi. Take about five such observations by changing the values of h1 and h2.
vii. Measure the temperature of water.

PRECAUTIONS:
i. All possible leakage of joints must be eliminated.
ii. Porous stones must be saturated before being put to use.
iii. De-aired and distilled water should be used to prevent choking of flowing water.
iv. Soil sample must be carefully saturated before taking the observations.
v. Use of high heads, which result in turbulent flows, should be avoided.

Course: Experiment No.:

Group No.: Section:
Group Leader: Date Performed:
Group Members: Date Submitted:
1. Instructor:
2.
3.
4.

Data and Results:

Observation and Calculation Table for Constant Head Permeability Test:

S No. Observation 1 2 3
1 Diameter of stand pipe (cm) “d” 1.0 1.1 1.2
2 c/s area of stand pipe “a=pi.d^2/4”
3 Diameter of cylindrical soil sample “D”
4 c/s area of soil specimen “a=pi.D^2/4”
5 Height of soil specimen, L
6 Hydraulic head “h” (cm)
7 Time interval “t” (sec)
Coefficient of permeability (cm/sec)
Q L 1
8 k=
t h A

Average Coefficient of permeability (cm/sec) =

Observation and Calculation Table for Following Head Permeability Test:

Table 1:
S No. Observation 1 2 3
1 Diameter of stand pipe (cm) “d” 1.0 1.1 1.2
2 c/s area of stand pipe “a=pi.d^2/4”
3 Diameter of cylindrical soil sample “D”
4 c/s area of soil specimen “a=pi.D^2/4”
5 Height of soil specimen, L
Table 2:
S No. Observation 1 2 3
1 Diameter of stand pipe (cm) “d” 1.0 1.1 1.2
2 c/s area of stand pipe “a=pi.d^2/4”
3 Diameter of cylindrical soil sample “D”
4 c/s area of soil specimen “a=pi.D^2/4”
5 Height of soil specimen, L

Conclusion: (PER MEMBER)

Assessment (Rubric for Laboratory Performance):

 BEGINNER ACCEPTABLE PROFICIENT
CRITERIA SCORE
1 2 3
I. Laboratory Skills
Members
Members do not Members always
Manipulative occasionally
demonstrate demonstrate needed
Skills demonstrate
needed skills. skills.
needed skills
Members are able
Members are Members are able to set-
Experimental to set-up the
unable to set-up up the material with
Set-up materials with
the materials. minimum supervision.
supervision.
Members
Members do not
occasionally Members always
demonstrate
Process Skills demonstrate demonstrate targeted
targeted process
targeted process process skills.
skills.
skills.
Members do not Members follow
Safety Members follow safety
follow safety safety precautions
Precautions precautions at all times.
precautions. most of the time.
II. Work Habits
Time
Members do not Members finish on Members finish ahead of
Management /
finish on time with time with time with complete data
Conduct of
incomplete data. incomplete data. and time to revise data.
Experiment
Members do not
Members have
know their tasks
defined Members are on tasks
and have no responsibilities and have defined
Cooperative and defined most of the time. responsibilities at all
Teamwork responsibilities.
Group conflicts are times. Group conflicts
Group conflicts
cooperatively are cooperatively
have to be settled
managed most of managed at all times.
by the teacher.
the time.
Clean and orderly
Clean and orderly
Messy workplace workplace with
Neatness and workplace at all times
during and after occasional mess
Orderliness during and after the
the experiment. during and after
experiment.
the experiment.
Members require
Members require Members do not need to
Ability to do occasional
supervision by the be supervised by the
independent work supervision by the
teacher. teacher.
teacher.
Other Comments/Observations: Total Score

References
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi. “Wireless Research lab.”, Civil Engineering, Soil Mechanics,
www.vlab.co.in/broad-area-civil-engineering

Experiment No. 5
 TRIAXIAL TEST AND DIRECT SHEAR TEST
Objective(s):
The activity aims to introduce to the student the method of conducting an experiment to find the shear of
the soil.
Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs):
The students shall be able to:
 Determine the shear of the soil by Undrained Triaxial Test; and
 Determine the shear strength parameters of the given soil sample by Direct Shear Test.
Discussion:

TRIAXIAL TEST
Triaxial test is more reliable because we can measure both drained and untrained shear strength.

Generally, 1.4” diameter (3” tall) or 2.8” diameter (6” tall) specimen is used. Specimen is
encased by a thin rubber membrane and set into a plastic cylindrical chamber. Cell pressure is
applied in the chamber (which represents σ3’) by pressurizing the cell fluid (generally water).

Vertical stress is increased by loading the specimen (by raising the platen in strain controlled
test and by adding loads directly in stress controlled test, but strain controlled test is more
common) until shear failure occurs. Total vertical stress, which is σ1’ is equal to the sum of σ3’
and deviator stress (σd). Measurement of σd, axial deformation, pore pressure, and sample
volume change are recorded.
 Depending on the nature of loading and drainage condition, triaxial tests are conducted in three
different ways.

i. UU Triaxial test
ii. CU Triaxial test
iii. CD Triaxial test

APPLICATION:
UU triaxial test gives shear strength of soil at different confining stresses. Shear strength is
important in all types of geotechnical designs and analyses.

DIRECT SHEAR TEST

Shear strength of a soil is the maximum resistance to shearing stress at failure on the failure plane.

Shear strength is composed of:

i. Internal friction which is the resistance due to friction between individual

particles at their contact points and interlocking of particles. This interlocking
strength is indicated through parameter φ.
ii. Cohesion which resistance due to inter-particle force which tend hold the particles
together in a soil mass. The indicative parameter is called Cohesion intercept (c).
Coulomb has represented the shear strength of soil by the equation:

Where,
τ f =shear strengthof soil=shear stress at failure
c=cohesionintercepts
σ n=total normal stress on the failure plane
φ=angle of internal friction∨shearing resistance

The graphical representation of the above equation gives a straight line called Failure envelope.
The parameters c and are not constant for a given type of soil but depends in its degree of
saturation, drainage conditions and the condition of laboratory testing.

In direct shear test, the sample is sheared along the horizontal plane. This indicates that the
failure plane is horizontal. The normal stress, on this plane is the external vertical load
divided by the corrected area of the soil sample. The shear stress at failure is the external
lateral load divided by the corrected of soil sample.

APPLICATION:

The purpose of direct shear test is to get the ultimate shear resistance, peak shear resistance,
cohesion, angle of shearing resistance and stress-strain characteristics of the soils.

Shear parameters are used in the design of earthen dams and embankments. These are used in
calculating the bearing capacity of soil-foundation systems. These parameters help in
estimating the earth pressures behind the retaining walls. The values of these parameters
are also used in checking the stability to natural slopes, cuts and fills.
Resources:

TRIAXIAL TEST

a) Special:
i. A constant rate of strain compression machine of which the following is a brief
description of one is in common use.

A loading frame in which the load is applied by yoke acting through an

elastic dynamometer, more commonly called a proving ring which
used to measure the load. The frame is operated at a constant rate by
a geared screw jack. It is preferable for the machine to be motor
driven, by a small electric motor.
A hydraulic pressure apparatus including an air compressor and
water reservoir in which air under pressure acting on the water raises
it to the required pressure, together with the necessary control valves
and pressure dials.
ii. A triaxial cell to take 3.8 cm dia and 7.6 cm long samples, in which the sample
can be subjected to an all-round hydrostatic pressure, together with a vertical
compression load acting through a piston. The vertical load from the piston
acts on a pressure cap. The cell is usually designed with a non-ferrous metal
top and base connected by tension rods and with walls formed of Perspex.
b) Special:

i. 3.8 cm (1.5 inch) internal diameter 12.5 cm (5 inches) long sample tubes.
ii. Rubber ring.
iii. An open ended cylindrical section former, 3.8 cm inside dia, fitted with a small
rubber tube in its side.
iv. Stop clock.

v. Moisture content test apparatus.

vi. A balance of 250 gm capacity and accurate to 0.01 gm.

DIRECT SHEAR TEST

a) Special:

i. Shear test frame housing the motor, loading yoke, etc.

ii. Shear box of internal dimension 60 mm x 60 mm x 25 mm.

iii. Water jacket for shear box.

iv. Metallic Grid plates.

 v. Base plate

vi. Porous stones

vii. Loading pad.

viii. Proving ring of capacity 200 Kgf.

ix. Slotted weights to impart appropriate normal stress on soil sample.

b) General:

i. Balance of capacity 1 Kg and sensitivity 0.1 gms.

ii. Scale.

iii. Dial Gauge of sensitivity 0.01 mm

Procedure:
TRIAXIAL TEST
i. The sample is placed in the compression machine and a pressure plate is placed on
the top. Care must be taken to prevent any part of the machine or cell from jogging the
sample while it is being setup, for example, by knocking against this bottom of the
loading piston. The probable strength of the sample is estimated and a suitable proving
ring selected and fitted to the machine.
ii. The cell must be properly set up and uniformly clamped down to prevent leakage of
pressure during the test, making sure first that the sample is properly sealed with its
end caps and rings (rubber) in position and that the sealing rings for the cell are also
correctly placed.

iii. When the sample is setup water is admitted and the cell is fitted under water escapes
from the beed valve, at the top, which is closed. If the sample is to be tested at zero
lateral pressure water is not required.
iv. The air pressure in the reservoir is then increased to raise the hydrostatic pressure in
the required amount. The pressure gauge must be watched during the test and any
necessary adjustments must be made to keep the pressure constant.
v. The handle wheel of the screw jack is rotated until the underside of the hemispherical
seating of the proving ring, through which the loading is applied, just touches the cell
piston.
vi. The piston is then removed down by handle until it is just in touch with the pressure
 plate on the top of the sample, and the proving ring seating is again brought into
contact for the begging of the test.

DIRECT SHEAR TEST

i. Prepare a soil specimen of size 60 mm * 60mm* 25 mm either from undisturbed

soil sample or from compacted or remoulded sample. Soil specimen may also be
directly prepared in the box by compaction.
ii. Fix the upper part of the box to the lower box by fixing screws. Attach the base plate
to the lower part.
iii. Place the porous stone in the box.
iv. Transfer the soil specimen prepared into the box.
v. Place the upper grid, porous stone, and loading pad in the order on soil specimen.
vi. Place the box inside the container and mount it on loading frame.
vii. Bring the upper half of the box in contact with the proving ring assembly. Contact is
observed by the slight movement of proving ring dial gauge needle.
viii. Mount the loading yoke on the ball placed on the loading pad.
ix. Put the weight on the loading yoke to apply a given value of normal stress intensity.
Add the weight of the yoke also in the estimation of normal stress intensity.
x. Remove the fixing screws from the box and raise slightly the upper box with the help
of the spacing screws. Remove the spacing screws also.
xi. Adjust the entire dial gauge to read zero.
xii. Shear load is applied at constant rate of strain.
xiii. Record the readings of proving ring and dial readings at a fixed interval.
xiv. Continue the observations till the specimen fails.
xv. Repeat the test on the identical specimen under increasing normal stress and
record the corresponding reading.

PRECAUTIONS:

i. Before starting the test, the upper half of the box should be brought in proper
contact with the proving ring.
ii. Before subjecting the specimen to shear, the fixing screws should take out.
iii. Spacing screws should also be removed before shearing the specimen.
iv. No vibrations should be transmitted to the specimen during the test.
v. Do not forget to add the self weight of the loading yoke in the vertical loads.

Course: Experiment No.:

Group No.: Section:
Group Leader: Date Performed:
Group Members: Date Submitted:
1. Instructor:
2.
3.
4.

Data and Results:

Observation and Calculation Table: (TRIAXIAL TEST)

The machine is set in motion (or if hand operated the hand wheel is turned at a constant rate)
to give a rate of strain 2% per minute. The strain dial gauge reading is then taken and the
corresponding proving ring reading is taken the corresponding proving ring chart. The load
applied is known. The experiment is stopped at the strain dial gauge reading for 15% length of
the sample or 15% strain.

i. Size of specimen :
ii. Length :
iii. Proving ring constant :
iv. Diameter : 3.81 cm
v. Initial area L:
vi. Initial Volume :
vii. Strain dial least count (const) :

Sampl Wet bulk Cell Compressi Strain Moisture Shear Angle of

e No. density pressur e ve stress at at content strength shearing
gm/cc kg/cm2 failure failure (kg/cm2) resistance
1
2
3
Cell pressure Strain dial Proving ring Load on Corrected Deviator stress
kg/cm2 reading sample kg area cm2
0
50
100
150
200
0.5
250
300
350
400
450

0
50
100
 150
200
250
300
350
0.5 400
450

0
50
100
150
0.5 200
250
300
350
400
450
Observation and Calculation Table: (DIRECT SHEAR TEST)
1. Size of Soil Sample = Internal Dimensions of the Box
2. Weight of yoke, w1=0.775kg
3. Weight of Loading pad, w2=0.620kg
4. Lever Ratio = 1:5
5. Proving ring Number =
6. Proving ring Constant (K): 1 Division = ________ kg
7. Rate of strain for Horizontal Shear = 1.25 mm/min

Load on yoke (w) (kg)

Normal load on soil sample (N)
Normal stress
Proving ring division at failure
Shear force at failure
Shear resistance at failure

Conclusion: (PER MEMBER)

Assessment (Rubric for Laboratory Performance):
BEGINNER ACCEPTABLE PROFICIENT
CRITERIA SCORE
1 2 3
I. Laboratory Skills
Manipulative Members do not Members Members always
Skills demonstrate occasionally demonstrate needed
 demonstrate
needed skills. skills.
needed skills
Members are able
Members are Members are able to set-
Experimental to set-up the
unable to set-up up the material with
Set-up materials with
the materials. minimum supervision.
supervision.
Members
Members do not
occasionally Members always
demonstrate
Process Skills demonstrate demonstrate targeted
targeted process
targeted process process skills.
skills.
skills.
Members do not Members follow
Safety Members follow safety
follow safety safety precautions
Precautions precautions at all times.
precautions. most of the time.
II. Work Habits
Time
Members do not Members finish on Members finish ahead of
Management /
finish on time with time with time with complete data
Conduct of
incomplete data. incomplete data. and time to revise data.
Experiment
Members do not Members have
know their tasksdefined Members are on tasks
and have no responsibilities and have defined
Cooperative and defined most of the time. responsibilities at all
Teamwork responsibilities.
Group conflicts are times. Group conflicts
Group conflicts cooperatively are cooperatively
have to be settled
managed most of managed at all times.
by the teacher. the time.
Clean and orderly
Clean and orderly
Messy workplace workplace with
Neatness and workplace at all times
during and after occasional mess
Orderliness during and after the
the experiment. during and after
experiment.
the experiment.
Members require
Members require Members do not need to
Ability to do occasional
supervision by the be supervised by the
independent work supervision by the
teacher. teacher.
teacher.
Other Comments/Observations: Total Score

References
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi. “Wireless Research lab.”, Civil Engineering, Soil Mechanics,
www.vlab.co.in/broad-area-civil-engineering

Experiment No. 6
COMPACTION TEST
Objective(s):
The activity aims to introduce the concept of compaction and the relationship of moisture content to
the dry unit weight of the soil.
Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs):
The students shall be able to:
  Connect the significance of compaction test in other properties of soil.
 Determine the relative density of soils by compaction test.
 Describe the use of water in relation to the dry density of the soil.

Discussion:

Soil Compaction is generally the cheapest method of improving the engineering properties of the soil. In
compaction, the soil solids are forced to a tighter state in order to achieve a higher unit weight and reduce the
air voids.

The process of compaction is better understood by comprehension of the behavior of a soil mass under
compaction. In a dry condition, the frictional resistance of the soil would resist granular rearrangement;
therefore, the compacting force is not quite effective. Introduction of a lubricant such as a predetermined
amount of water is mixed, would then be absorbed by soil particles, forming minutely thin and coherent water
films around the particles. In this condition, the soil particles will readily move closer together under the
compacting pressure due to the lubricating effect of water and reduced frictional resistance. When a certain
amount of water, called the optimum, has been added, the compacting force completely overcomes the
frictional resistance and maximum density of the soil mass is attained.

Resources:

1. Compaction mold and hammer

2. Moisture sprayer
3. No. 4 sieve
4. Rubbed tipped pestle
5. Scoop
6. Spatula
7. Large mixing pan
8. Balance
9. Drying oven

Procedure:

1. Weigh the empty mold.

2. Obtain a 6 lb. representative specimen of the soil sample to be tested. Break sample with the use of
rubber pestle and pass through No. 4 sieve.
3. Form a 2 to 3-inch layer using the soil passing though No. 4 sieve.
4. Press soil until it is smooth and compact it with a specific number of evenly distributed blows of the
hammer, using a one-foot drop. Rotate the hammer to ensure a uniform distribution of blows.
5. Repeat the same procedure for the second and third layers seeing to it that a uniform distribution of
blows.
6. After compaction of the third layer, the soil should be slightly above the top rim of the mold.
7. Remove the collar and trim off the soil from the top of the mold. Start trimming along the center and
work towards end of the mold.

8. After the soil has been made even with the top of the mold and all base soil cleaned from the outside,
weigh the cylinder sample.
9. Remove the soil from cylinder and obtain a representative sample of 50gm for a water content
determination. The water content sample should be made up with specimens from the top, middle and
bottom of the compacted soil.
 10. Break up by hand then removed from the cylinder and remix with the original sample and raise its
water content by 3% by adding water to the sample with sprayer. Mix the soil thoroughly. By weighing
the sprayer before and after the spraying, the amount of water added is known.
11. Keep repeating the procedures for 5 to six times until soil is sticky. Use 3% approximate water
content.
12. Compute dry density of each sample and plot the compaction curve. Determine the Optimum Moisture
Content of the sample.

Course: Experiment No.:

Group No.: Section:
Group Leader: Date Performed:
Group Members: Date Submitted:
1. Instructor:
2.
3.
4.

Data and Results:

Determination of Optimum Moisture Content

Description Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5
Weight of mold (Wm)
Weight of mold + compacted soil (Wm+s)
Weight of compacted soil (Ws)
Volume of Mold
Wet Unit Weight (wet)
Wt of tin cup (Wc)
Wt. of tin cup + Wet Soil (Wc+ws)
Wt. of tin cup and dry soil (Wc+dc)
Wt. of water (Ww)
Wt. of dry soil (Wds)
Water Content ()
Dry Unit Weight (dry)
Optimum Moisture Content (OMC)

COMPACTION CURVE
Conclusion:

References
Murthy, V.N.S. (2011). Textbook of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering . Singapore: Alken Company

American Society for Testing and Materials (2000). Standard Test Method for Laboratory Compaction
Characteristics using Modified Effort (D-1557) . Pennsylvania: ASTM International