Chapter No.

UNDERSTANDING CRIMINOLOGY
What is Criminology?

Criminology” is derived from the Latin word ‘crimen’ which means “accusation”, and the
transliterated Greek word ‘logia’ which denotes “the study of,” therefore the study of crime.

Criminology is the branch of sociology. It is the scientific study of crime, including its
causes, responses by law enforcement, and methods of prevention. It is a sub-group of
sociology, which is the scientific study of social behavior.
Criminology is the integrated, multidisciplinary study of the causes, predictions, and
control of crime and other harmful behaviour constituting a breach of societal norms at a local,
national, or international level. There are many fields of study that are used in the field of
criminology, including biology, statistics, psychology, psychiatry, economics, and anthropology.
Criminology focuses on:
 Frequency of crimes
 Location of crimes
 Causes of crimes
 Types of crimes
 Social and individual consequences of crimes
 Social reactions to crime
 Individual reactions to crime
 Governmental reactions to crime
Scope of Criminology:
Criminology is the scientific study of social crimes, criminals and criminal behavior, crime
regulations and crime prevention methodology. The field of study known as criminology involves
the studying of crime as a phenomenon on an individual as well as at a social level.
Approaching from a socio-scientific point of view, Criminology involves the study of various
forms of crime, the reasons working behind an incidence of crime, and its consequences. In
other words, it examines society’s response to crime and prevention of crime. It is the scientific
investigation of crime through analysis of evidence. Criminology includes the examination of
evidence, hereditary and psychological causes of crime, various modes of investigation and
conviction and the efficiencies of differing styles of punishment, rehabilitation and corrections.
Criminology involves studying all these aspects associated with crime in general.
Criminology is the study of factors of criminality. In other sense, it is evaluating the
circumstances that provoked to do the crime and preventing/regulating future chances to do
such crime. Criminology being an interdisciplinary subject, it derives its theory from the fields of
sociology, psychology and law. Causes of crime and methods of preventing crime are the two
most important aspects of the study of criminology. Other areas of interest in this field of study
are - Crime Statistics, Criminal Behavior, Penology, evaluation of criminal justice agencies,
Sociology of Law, Criminal careers and desistance.
A person professionally qualified in the subject of criminology is called a criminologist.
The primary task of criminologists is to determine the reasons why people get into committing
illegal activities. With the increasing numbers of crime and rapid diversification in the nature of it,
criminology is gaining importance in today’s society. So if you are interested in the study of
criminology or criminal justice, then you can become a criminologist. Criminologists often focus
on specific types of crimes. Some work with murders, some with armed robbery, others with
vandalism, some with rape, others with serial crimes of different sorts. They study as many
cases as possible, and use the results to formulate theories which can in turn be useful in
preventing crimes in the future. Professional may alternatively specialize in crime prevention,
crime scene investigation, criminal litigation, corrections, rehabilitation, or the privatization of
prisons.
The responsibilities and requirements differ drastically from one job to another. There
are criminology administration jobs that require organization skills, as well as court reporter jobs
that require excellent writing skills and knowledge of the justice system. Criminologists and
investigators need certain specialized skills, such as keen observation and logical thinking skills.
All jobs in the field of criminology require absolute trust in the legal system, as well as integrity in
upholding truth and justice.
A criminologist, like a psychologist, must be interested in human nature and behavior.
One who is interested in this career must have creativity, analytical thinking capacity, problem
solving ability, public speaking skill and ability to convince people. A criminologist must be able
to express ideas and concepts clearly, both in writing and verbally. A criminologist may need to
address large groups of people and demonstrate good public speaking skills as well.
Criminologist working in prisons, law firms etc. must be able to read the mind of the
person and counsel them. Strong research and analysis skills are vital as so much of the job
involves data collection and interpretation. Such a professional must be computer literate and
proficient in computer and Internet use, especially research related to criminology. This
professional must be dedicated to the profession of criminology and its goals of improving the
criminal rehabilitation system and preventing crime.
Importance of Criminology
The need for study of criminal science (which includes criminology, penology, and
criminal law) essentially emanates out of the psychological apprehension about insecurity of life,
liberty and property of the people. It is the lust for wealth, satisfaction of baser urges, hatred or
suspicion for one another that tends people to follow criminal behaviour and leads them to
commit crime.
The science of criminology therefore, aims at taking up case to case study of different
crimes and suggests measures so as to infuse the feeling of mutual confidence, respect and co-
operation among the offenders.
The criminal law has been adequately modified to adapt itself to the modem reformative
policies. Liberalisation of punishment for affording greater opportunities for rehabilitation of
offenders through intensive after-care programmes has been accepted as the ultimate object of
penal justice. Some of the significant attributes of criminology are noted below:
 The most significant aspect of criminology is its concern for crime and criminals. It
presupposes the study of criminal with basic assumption that no one is born criminal. It
treats reformation as the ultimate object of punishment while individualisation the
method of it. Most criminologists and penologists generally agree that every criminal is
corrigible if offered adequate opportunities through treatment methods.
 As Donald Taft rightly puts it, the study of criminology also offers a background for
profession and an opportunity for social workers. The police, the lawyers, attorneys,
judges, jurors, probation officers, detectives and other specialists such as psychologists,
psychiatrists and sociologists, etc., need perfect knowledge of criminology and
 administrative machinery for criminal justice system for their professional pursuits.
 Criminology also seeks to create conditions conducive to social solidarity inasmuch as it
tries to point out what behaviours are obnoxious and anti-social. It tries to convince the
offenders through punitive sanction that anti-social conduct on their part is bound to
entail them punishment, misery, misfortune and dis-repute in society.
 It is further to be noted that with the advance of scientific knowledge and technology the
complexities of life have also considerably multiplied. This has led to an enormous
increase in crime rate and many new crimes which were hitherto altogether unknown,
have emerged. Thus, thefts of automobiles, shop-lifting, smuggling, cheating, financial
scams, bank robberies, scandals, terrorist activities etc., have become too common
these days.
Again, white collar crimes have attracted the attention of criminologists in recent years.
This in turn, has led criminal law administrators to devise new methods and techniques to tackle
these problems through intensive scientific researches. The modern computer related crimes
have thrown new challenges before criminal law administrators throughout the world.
Besides internet gambling, on-line pornography, the menace of drug-trafficking through
computer-shopping and illegal downloading of money in transit is some of the cyber-crimes
which are coming to light in recent years. Thus, modem criminologists keep themselves
acquainted with the new criminological developments and work out strategies to tackle these
intricate problems for the protection of society.

CRIMINOLOGY AND CRIMINAL LAW OF PAKISTAN

Criminal law deals with behavior that is or can be construed as an offense against the
public, society, or the state even if the immediate victim is an individual. Examples are murder,
assault, theft, and drunken driving.
The mankind showed interest in crime in every era of its history. Such interest emerged
depending on the situation in the form of such feelings as fear, revenge, mercy or support.
Criminology is of great importance since it is a discipline that deals with all aspects of crime.
The primary reason that pushes people to make research on crime and criminals is the
feeling of learning in their nature. Another reason behind people’s curiosity is to protect
themselves from such negative situation that they may encounter in the future. Besides, interest
in crime is not only personal, but also bears a social qualification. It is also claimed that the
society having interest in crime is beneficial in terms of raising social awareness. Indeed, the
society checks whether the rules of criminal law are obeyed or not by having interest in crime.
As a result, seeing that criminals are effectively punished and it raises community’s confidence
in the state and the judiciary system, whereas such factors as failure to effectively fight against
crime, failure of the judiciary system to work well and remissions of punishment cause people
lose their belief in the state of law and the judiciary system.
Crimes cost much to the Pakistani society. Indeed, besides the damage given by the
commitment of a crime, costs incurred by the society because of the police forces, the judiciary
system and the cost for catching and punishing criminals are extremely high. Besides, feeling of
insecurity arising in the Pakistani society because of crime is more important than the
substantial damages directly caused by crime, because it is extremely difficult to determine in
advance the damage which can be caused by disbelief in the police and the judicial system of
the Pakistan. Indeed, due to the developing communication network, instant appearing of
crimes in the media may sometimes gain an international dimension, causing domestic and
foreign companies to cease their investments and tourists not to go to such places because of
security of life and property. Therefore, keeping in view the current situation of Pakistan where
terrorism and other heinous crimes are very common, the science of criminology is very
important for the Pakistani society.
Criminal Law is an extreme field of practice covering all those aspects that entail crime
as its factor. Every act or omission that violates a command, derives its force from legislature or
from authority either political or religious that has absolute sway over the matters of state is
considered to be a crime. This is the reason that state stands as a prosecutor against the
alleged culprit. The main intention of criminal law is to maintain the sway of state in all matters
involving acts or omissions: no act or omission that challenges the sway of the state can be
allowed by the criminal law of the state.
Pakistan has a very detailed criminal law that is though outdated to some extent but it
tends to cover all aspects that do constitute a crime. To understand the criminal law in Pakistan
one needs to understand the socio cultural phenomena of this country also. Most of the criminal
law that has been prevailing in Pakistan was introduced by the British Empire when India was a
colony and Pakistan was part of it. Even then a care was taken to understand the social
conditions and criminal law was tried to be conditioned according to the cultural circumstances
of the colony. This is the reason that it was willfully accepted by India and Pakistan both after
their freedom from British Empire. Code of Criminal Procedure (V of 1898) that was
implemented in colony is still largely the prescribed criminal procedure followed by the courts in
Pakistan. Similarly the Penal Code (XLV of 1860) that was introduced in colony is still largely
followed in shape of Pakistan Penal Code.
DEVIANCE
Deviance is any behavior that violates social norms, and is usually of sufficient severity
to warrant disapproval from the majority of society. Deviance can be criminal or non‐criminal.
People who engage in deviant behavior are referred to as deviants. The concept of deviance is
complex because norms vary considerably across groups, times, and places. In other words,
what one group may consider acceptable, another may consider deviant.
Deviance is defined by its social context. To understand why some acts are deviant and
some are not, it is necessary to understand what the context is, what the existing rules are, and
how these rules came to be established. If the rules change, what counts as deviant also
changes. As rules and norms vary across cultures and time, it makes sense that notions of
deviance also change.
Although deviance is normal in this regard, it remains true that some people are more
likely than others to commit it. It is also true that some locations within a given society have
higher rates of deviance than other locations; for example, U.S. cities have higher rates of
violent crime than do rural areas. Still, Durkheim’s monastery example raises an important point
about the relativity of deviance: whether a behavior is considered deviant depends on the
circumstances in which the behavior occurs and not on the behavior itself. Although talking
might be considered deviant in a monastery, it would certainly be considered very normal
elsewhere. If an assailant, say a young male, murders someone, he faces arrest, prosecution,
and, in many states, possible execution. Yet if a soldier kills someone in wartime, he may be
considered a hero. Killing occurs in either situation, but the context and reasons for the killing
determine whether the killer is punished or given a medal.
Whether a behavior is considered deviant depends on the circumstances under which it
occurs. Considerations of certain behaviors as deviant also vary from one society to another
and from one era to another within a given society.
Norms can be explicit (in the form of rules and laws) or implicit (through beliefs, shared
meanings and understandings of how things are). Social order is maintained when individuals
conform to these shared norms. Deviancy occurs when people step outside these rules or
norms.

VICE, SIN AND EVIL

Vice
Vice refers to the activities that are made illegal because they offend the moral
standards of the community banning them. In plain words, vice is simply violation of morality. A
vice is a moral failing or a bad habit. Traditional examples of vice include drinking alcohol,
smoking tobacco, gambling in card games, pornography, and prostitution. Vices are usually
associated with a transgression in a person's character or temperament rather than their
morality. Synonyms for vice include fault, sin, depravity, iniquity, wickedness, and corruption.
Evil
Evil, in a general sense, is the opposite or absence of good. Evil can denote profound
immorality, but typically not without some basis in the understanding of the human condition,
where strife and suffering are the true roots of evil.
It can be an extremely broad concept, although in everyday usage is often used more
narrowly to talk about profound wickedness. It is generally seen as taking multiple possible
forms, such as the form of personal moral evil commonly associated with the word, or
impersonal natural evil (as in the case of natural disasters or illnesses), and in religious thought,
the form of the demonic or supernatural/eternal
Evil in the broad sense has been divided into two categories: natural evil and moral evil.
Natural evils are bad states of affairs which do not result from the intentions or negligence of
moral agents. Hurricanes and toothaches are examples of natural evils. By contrast, moral evils
do result from the intentions or negligence of moral agents. Murder and lying are examples of
moral evils.
Evil in the broad sense, which includes all natural and moral evils, tends to be the sort of
evil referenced in theological contexts, such as in discussions of the problem of evil. The
problem of evil is the problem of accounting for evil in a world created by an all-powerful, all-
knowing, all-good God. It seems that if the creator has these attributes, there would be no evil in
the world. But there is evil in the world. Thus, there is reason to believe that an all-powerful, all-
knowing, all-good creator does not exist.
NORMS AND VALUES
Values are general guidelines, while norms are specific guidelines. Values are general
standards, which decide what is good and what is bad. Norms are rules and expectations that
specify how people should and should not behave in various social situations.
Both terms norms and values are at many times used interchangeably in our day-to-day
discourse. But social scientists use them in a specific sense. Social norms are standards, rules,
guides and expectations for actual behaviour, whereas values are abstract conceptions of what
is important and worthwhile. Honesty is a general value; the expectation that students will not
cheat or use such material forbidden by the codes in the examinations is a norm.
Values are general guidelines, while norms are specific guidelines. Values are general
standards, which decide what is good and what is bad. Norms are rules and expectations that
specify how people should and should not behave in various social situations. To conform to a
particular value of a society, there can be many norms. Norms link values with actual norms. In
brief, values are ends while norms are means to achieve these ends. Sometimes, the values
and norms of a society conflict with each other. The change in one element of material culture
(mechanization of agriculture) may sometimes conflict with the associated aspect of non-
material culture (system of joint family or collective living).
To conform to a particular value of a society, there can be many norms. Norms link
values with actual norms. In brief, values are ends while norms are means to achieve these
ends. Sometimes, the values and norms of a society conflict with each other. The change in one
element of material culture (mechanisation of agriculture) may sometimes conflict with the
associated aspect of non-material culture (system of joint family or collective living).

Though there is a difference between norms and values, still, there is often a direct
relationship between values, norms, and sanctions of a society. For example, if a society highly
values the institution of marriage, it may have norms and strict sanctions which prohibit the act
of adultery and allow divorce only in hard cases.