FORMAL AND INFORMAL LANGUAGE

Formal academic writing is quite different from informal spoken English. The differences can best be seen from a
number of examples. In general, informal spoken English contains a number of colloquialisms (conversational
expressions) that are inappropriate for formal written English. It is important not to mix the styles.
Formal language will not normally contain the following:
Contractions (it didn’t, they’ve)
Hesitation Fillers (er, um, well)
Personal pronouns are sometimes used, but are often avoided by means of a modal verb ( could, might etc.), an
impersonal word such as it or there, or a verb in the passive voice.
EXERCISE 1
The following sentences are mixed formal and informal. Write F (formal) or I (informal) in the brackets after each
sentence.
1. The project will be completed next year. [ ]
2. I showed that his arguments didn’t hold water. [ ]
3. I wonder why he put up with those terrible conditions for so long. [ ]
4. Five more tests will be necessary before the experiment can be concluded. [ ]
5. It is possible to consider the results from a different viewpoint. [ ]
6. It has been proved that the arguments so far are without foundation. [ ]
7. He’ll have to do another five tests before he can stop the experiment. [ ]
8. It is not clear why such terrible conditions were tolerated for so long. [ ]
9. There are a number of reasons why the questionnaire should be revised. [ ]
10. We’ll finish the job next year. [ ]
EXERCISE 2
Insert formal expression which correspond to the ones in brackets.
1. I ________ to ________ you that our prices have ________. (sorry - tell - gone up)
2. This is ________ to ________ ________ that costs have risen. (because)
3. Unfortunately, I have to ________ you that I ________ not ________ ________ to ________ the meeting. (tell - can’t
- come to)
4. ________ ________ ________ some brochures describing our products. (Here [in this letter] are)
5. We have ________ ________ to increase our prices. (had)
6. You are 90 days past due on invoice #2792, please ________ ________ ________ as soon as possible. (pay
up)
7. Please write ________ ________ ________ any ________ (if you’ve got - questions)
8. Your account is ________ . (in the red)

Informal Language vs. Formal Language

So, when do you use informal language and when do you use formal language?  This is a difficult question.  There
are many situations where both are completely acceptable.  Also, as a language learner, people will understand if you
make a few mistakes with formal and informal language.  There are some guidelines though:
1) Start using formal language first.  It is always the safest.
2) Do more listening when you first meet someone.  Listen for the words the person you are talking to uses.  Try to use
those same words.
3) Don’t be afraid to ask about a word.  One of the best ways to learn is by asking questions

Let’s take a short quiz.

1) You are meeting your host parents in America for the first time.  What is the best way to greet them?
A) Hey, what’s up?
B) It is a pleasure to meet you.
C) Hello, nice to meet you.
2) You are meeting your best friend from Australia for dinner.  You haven’t seen each other for awhile.  What is the best
way to greet them?
A) Long time no see.  What’s up?
B) I haven’t seen you for such a long time.  It’s a pleasure to see you again.
C) Hi.
3) Boss: Hey Carlos, can ya (you) help me for a sec?
Carlos: Yes, what do you need?
Boss: Can ya fax this to ABC company ASAP.
What should Carlos say next?

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 A) Yes sir.  I’ll be happy to do that right away for you.
B) Sure, no prob.
C) My pleasure.  I’d love to fax that report.

Tips for making your writing more formal

Do
 Make your writing clear and to the point.
 Try linking ideas with:
In addition
Nevertheless
On the other hand
By contrast
Although
Alternatively
 Include some complex sentences in your writing. Try using semi-colons if you feel confident about using them
correctly.
 It's good to use figurative language if you think it fits in with the purpose and audience of the task. Metaphors
and similes work well in speeches.
Don't
 Don't use 'Well' or 'You know' or 'Anyway' or 'Like I just said' or any phrase that sounds like you are having a
friendly chat.
 Avoid using: 'And', 'But', 'Because' or 'So' at the beginning of a sentence.
 Keep exclamation marks to a minimum!!!
 Words like 'nice' and 'a lot' have no power. Try to think of more descriptive words eg 'delicious' or 'endless'.
 Clichés are colourful phrases that people use all the time in speech. So often, in fact, that they seem worn out and
boring in writing. Avoid phrases such as 'pretty as a picture', 'big as a house', 'skinny as a rake'.

Tips to make your informal writing more effective

1. Address the reader directly:
"Dear reader, I'm really glad you've found the time to open this letter."
2. It's okay sometimes to use the kind of words that are more usual in speech than writing:
"You don't have to put up with bullying. We'll stick together and make it stop."
3. Contractions sound more natural in certain types of writing eg a talk to fellow students:
"It's good to know that we're all going to work together on this."
A word of caution, however!
 Don't baffle your reader with too much slang.
 Never swear.
 Think carefully about structure - informal writing is different to speech and needs carefully planned paragraphs to
keep it clear and easy to read.
The following exercises are designed to help with formal style (or register), like that used in academic writing

EXERCISE 1
1. The two sentences below both use formal language to give us the same information. Which sentence do you
think is best and why?
a) The bomb broke the windows of nearby buildings.
b) The blast shattered the windows of nearby buildings.
2. Which of the following should NOT use formal language?
a) Advice to a close friend
b) A letter to the local paper
c) A speech to teachers or parents
d) A newspaper article aimed at adults
3. Which of the following would you NOT write using informal language?
a) A letter to a friend
b) An essay about a Shakespeare play
c) A talk aimed at students your own age or younger
d) A diary entry
e) A story written from the point of view of a character (in the first person)

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EXERCISE 2
Here is a letter to a newspaper explaining why teenagers should be allowed to vote in the election. The ideas are
good, but the writing is too informal. Rewrite the letter using formal language. Read the list below for notes.
Hi there.(1)
Well (2), I think that teenagers have just as much right to vote in an election as someone who's (3) as old as the hills! (4)
They live in the country too, you know! (5)! And (6) they're (7) the future! (8) So they're (9) bound to care about what's
(10) going to happen to the country they live in when they're grown-up. But (11) some people think that teenagers are
away with the fairies (12) when it comes to important things like voting. But (13) not all of us are. And anyway you know
some grown ups are like that too (14). So (15) I think teenagers should be given a chance.
Cheers, (16)
Andrew

Compare these pairs of verbs:

Informal More formal
He checked up on his accountant. He investigated his accountant.
They put up with their neighbours. They tolerated their neighbours.
She caught on very quickly. She understood very quickly.
She made up for it with an early night. She compensated for it with an early night.
He went down with a fever. He contracted a fever.
The cost of living went up. The cost of living increased.
In formal writing, we use single verbs. This is an important element in achieving the correct style in academic writing. An
essay with good ideas might well be marked down if the style is inappropriately informal.

Task 1
Use the verbs below to complete the sentences. Remember to change the verb into the correct tense.
postpone establish fluctuate investigate
reduce deceive maintain acquire
1. The research team tried to find out the truth.
2. The project managed to get hold of a new scanner.
3. His discovery enabled school heads to cut down on the time lost between classes.
4. When the team looked looking into the problem, they found that it was much more complex than they had first
thought.
5. The levels go up and down as a result of the pressure changes.
6. The government put off a decision until they had heard the report.
7. The inspector was taken in by the apparent calm in the building.
8. The solicitor made out that his client was unfairly accused.
Task 2
Replace the informal verbs in italics with more formal verbs.
1. The business was built up over a number of years.
2. Smith (1991) found out that the bank had surprising rules when it came to new customers.
3. Their request for further funding was turned down.
4. The situation was made worse by the high levels of lead in the sample.
5. They have been asked to come up with a solution to the problem.
6. The research team forget to check the acid levels.
7. The team said that there figures were accurate.
8. Dr Liu will meet with a lot of opposition when she makes her proposal.

Task 3
The sentences below are grammatically accurate but the style Is inappropriate. Re-write these sentences in a more
academic style making any changes you need to.
1. The planners reviewed the report and said that it was great.
2. It's obvious that the work environment is going to get a lot worse.
3. The Chinese economy would like to look after itself, but it's also affected by things that happen outside the
country.
4. Their historical approach to economics is just not the right way to go about it.
5. Personally, I think that economic stability depends upon social cohesion.
6. The research team said that their techniques were ok but needed to be further refined.
7. It was clear that the team had done a lot and were satisfied with what they'd done.
8. They worked together on the project for 10 years.
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 Using single word verbs instead of multi-word verbs is not the only way to achieve a more academic style. Here
are some further points that you may find useful. In academic writing, you often find that actions, processes and events
are written in the form of a noun. This produces a more formal style. For example:
The compound was discovered …. à The discovery of the compound was….
They invaded the island and ….. à The invasion of the island was …..
He achieved his goal and …... à The achievement of his goal was…….
Avoid addressing the reader with the general you. This is informal and inappropriate. Look at this example:
As soon as you start to look carefully at children's home, you frequently find evidence of abuse.
The sentence can be rephrased in different ways to avoid the use of you.
Evidence of child abuse becomes apparent once careful investigative work is carried out.
Careful investigation frequently leads to the discovery of child abuse.
Do not use contractions in essays. They are inappropriate in academic work. For example:
can't won't shouldn't haven't hasn't couldn't
State meaning very clearly. The reader can read the essay but not the mind of the writer so do not use  etc and
expressions like and so on. Use clear explanations and to make a coherent argument. The use of expressions
like etc suggest a woolly and rather careless mind that cannot really be bothered to complete a sentence or an idea.
The invasion of the island resulted in misery, starvation, destitution etc.
Make sure every sentence makes sense. It is helpful to ask a friend or relative to read your draft essay to ensure
that it is clear. Avoid ambiguous or confusing sentences. This proposal creates a way for raising awareness in the UK
of effective approaches to combat poverty practised by overseas partners. We can take a guess at what the writer is
trying to say, but there is no doubt that the sentence is unclear.
Do not overstate the argument that is being made in the essay by using expressions like this:
It is obvious that ...
It is clear that ...
The evidence proves ...
Anybody can clearly see that ...
Always comment upon your own conclusions in a quietly confident manner, without attempting to claim too much.
If a writer tries to claim that the study proves something, you might find a later researcher taking great pleasure
in disproving the findings! Instead, use a less strident and a more detached academic tone. This is called hedging.
Subsequent research may suggest other theories or produce results that conflict with your own, but by describing your
findings as we have done below, your work can be seen as a further step in the academic road rather than a barrier that
other people can knock down.
The data reflect the fact that ... (note: the word data is strictly speaking plural but often used as an uncountable or
mass noun)
These findings support this writer's view that ...
The results suggest that ...
The chart supports the theory that ...
Avoid the use of expressions such as I think/I believe unless your own views have been specifically asked for, and
use expression like these:
It is believed...
Many researchers have noted...
Some writers have stated..
The research suggests...
The evidence indicates...
Use link words and expressions (however, nevertheless, as a result, in contrast, despite this) as well as link words
like firstly, secondly ………… finally quite regularly throughout your writing as these help to guide the reader
The passive form is often avoided in other written texts but you will probably use more examples of the passive
form in academic writing as these tend to sound more detached and formal.
Active: They often found evidence of child abuse in rural areas.
Passive: Evidence of child abuse was often found in rural areas.
Active: The researchers have proposed a variety of solutions.
Passive: A variety of solutions have been proposed.

MULTI-WORD VERBS
Task 1
Consider this passage and then re-write it making changes where necessary.
Coal is expected to continue to account for almost 27% of the world's energy needs. However, awareness of
pressures on the environment is building up and people have caught on to the need to achieve sustainable development in
energy resources. The way in which the resource is extracted, transported and used is now seen as critical.
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 A wide range of pollution control devices and practices have been set up at most modern mines and significant
resources are spent on coming up with new ways to rehabilitate mined land. In addition, programmes are currently being
dreamed up which will be able to lead to efficiencies and reduce emissions of greenhouse gases during coal consumption.
Such measures are helping coal to keep up its status as a major supplier of the world's energy needs.
The coal industry has been got at by its critics as a significant contributor to greenhouse warming. However, the
greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon involving the global surface temperature going up due to the presence of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth's average temperature would be 33-35
degrees Celsius lower. Life on Earth, as we know it today, would not be possible. Nevertheless, despite its historic value,
greenhouse warming and rising temperatures are issues that the world's population need to urgently deal with.

Task 2.
There are a variety of other factors that also characterise formal academic writing. Have a look at these sentences
and underline those elements that reflect an informal style and would need to be changed in an academic essay.
1. As soon as you start to look carefully at social service provision in the community, you frequently find evidence of
abuse.
2. The advisory panel set up by the government couldn't establish the cause of the disaster and in the end no blame was
attached to the actions of the pilot.
3. The invasion of the island resulted in misery, starvation, destitution etc for large numbers of the people in the area and
in addition the ruling party was unwilling to ask for aid.
4. This proposal creates a way for raising awareness in the UK of effective approaches to combat poverty practised by
overseas partners.
5. The evidence produced at the enquiry was very damaging for the Prime Minister and anyone could see that he felt
uncomfortable.
6. 1 believe that without clear leadership from the United Nations, we are likely to find ourselves in a similar position
next year.
7. It is obvious that the decline of fish stocks in the North Sea will ultimately result in significant environmental damage
in that area.
8. They found evidence of a fight when they studied the ancient body and they wrote a report which reflected their
findings.
9. The results of the government study were great because they enabled the university to fund the new department.
10. It is certain that the new financial regulations will lead to a significant growth in output.
11. The research proves that drinking high levels of vitamin C may help to ward off colds in the winter.
12. The research was rigorous. But the way the results were used was poor. Few financial managers were trained in the
new techniques. Little progress was made despite the hard work of the specialists.

Task 3
Rewrite this passage in a suitably academic style. When you have finished refer to the feedback. Your re-written
passage does not need to be identical of course, but it should reflect an academic style.
The island was discovered in 1734 when a storm blew Sir Peter Newsbury off course and he stumbled upon this bit of
land which no-one knew anything about before. Some excavations which have been carried out within the last ten years
show us that members of the crew built houses to live in, and got through the very cold winter. Analysis of the soil in and
around these buildings proves that the people liked to eat fish and fruit that they picked from the trees. However, despite
the food that they had, it's obvious that their life was quite difficult because of the rocks and open ground and so on.
People carrying out research have found debris from the ship close to the buildings. They have come up with a number of
explanations for the smashing up of the ship but once you look at the waves you can see how dangerous the waters are in
this area and there are lots of rocks and reefs and things like that.

WRITING AND SPEAKING

Fluent speakers of English (whether it is their first language, or a language that they speak very well) often assume
that if they can speak English competently then they can write competently in English too. However, these are two very
different skills. As children we acquire our native language through speaking and listening - skills that are learned
naturally without being taught. Writing and reading are not acquired in the same way – they have to be
specifically taught and only then are they learned. Some people, in fact, never learn to read and, consequently, never learn
to write either.
Once we have learnt to read fluently, we can read almost anything that is not too technical in terms of our own
skills. In other words, we can, for example, read anything in a newspaper but we might find it difficult to understand an
economics research paper (unless we are economists) because of the technical language. In contrast, many people find

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that writing remains a challenge throughout their lives. Many of us are faced with many different writing challenges
throughout our lives as our priorities and our careers change, and we take on more challenges. One of these, of course, is
the challenge many under-graduates face when they are asked to write academic essays, but others include the need to
write a good CV, to write reports as part of our job, or the need to take minutes in a meeting.
Task 1
a. Can you think of any occasions when you have had to deal with new writing situations in English? What were they?
How did you cope with the new situation? Were you successful or not?
What other differences are there between the skills of writing and speaking?
b. If you listen carefully to an average speaker you will notice a number of mistakes and hesitations. What might they
be?
c. As a skilled user of English you will be able to discriminate between the features of the spoken and written language
quite easily although sometimes we deliberately choose to blur the lines between the two. For example, we might want to
adopt a very informal tone when we are writing to friends or relatives.
Task 2
Look at the short example of an informal letter below and decide which features have been carried over from the
spoken language.
Hi Fred,
How’s things? Just thought I’d write to see if you’d received my parcel and give you a few bits of news. I got into trouble
at work again this week…..had a run in with the accounts manager and he complained to the head of the department and
got me reprimanded for insubordination or something like that, but it didn’t worry me too much ‘cos I’d already decided
to move on. Can you keep an eye out for anything that might suit? Nothing to demanding, but with a decent salary! 'nuff
said…!
Task 3
List down all the differences that you can think of between writing and speaking

IMPROVE YOUR STYLE

Style is the signature of the author, the experience of his or her personality; consequently, the primary objective of
an author is precision of expression. The goal of correctness and effectiveness of expression is to say what one means and
to mean what one says.
Listed below are explanations and examples of a few stylistic errors which you ought to avoid in the draft or
remedy in the revision of your writing.

MISPLACED MODIFIERS
A misplaced modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that is out of place, resulting in an awkward or confusing sentence. In
most cases, modifiers should be near the words they modify. This is particularly true for the following words: almost,
just, hardly, even, not, nearly, merely, and only.

Find a misplaced modifier in the following sentences and make these sentences sound clear.
MM: I turned in my essay to Ms. Jinx that had been revised.
Clear:
MM: Ms. Jinx only grades one revision of each paper.
Clear:
Notice the several different possible locations for the adverb "only" in the following sentences. Each one could be
correct depending upon the writer's purpose. Which message would you wish to receive; which message would you wish
to send?
1. Only Jay said he loved me.
2. Jay only said he loved me.
3. Jay said he only loved me.
4. Jay said he loved only me.

DANGLING MODIFIERS
A dangling modifier is often an introductory word group with no clear reference to some other word in the sentence.
Find a dangling modifier in the following sentences and make these sentences sound clear.
Dangling: After walking into the room, the radio was turned on.
Clear:
Dangling: Writing for five hours, the first draft was finally done.
Clear:
Dangling: Weary after such a long pilgrimage, the note told of his sojourns in many strange lands.

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Clear:

PARALLELISM
Parallelism means to write balanced sentences; lists or ideas that are logically related should be expressed in similar
ways. In addition, using the following pairs of correlative conjunctions requires parallel construction: both/and, either/or,
neither/nor, whether/or, not only/but also. Good writers use parallelism effectively, especially when connecting ideas.
Furthermore, we recognize parallelism not only in sentences but also in passages, such as Ecclesiastes' parallel description
of the times and seasons. Here is an interpretation of the theme of reaping what one sows illustrated in parallel
construction:
Sow a thought, and reap a deed.
Sow a deed, and reap a habit.
Sow a habit, and reap a character.
Sow a character, and reap a destiny.

Change the non-parallel constructions into parallel

Non-Parallel: I like to read, writing, and traveling.
Parallel:.
Non-Parallel: She is not only a funny person but also has brains.
Parallel:

FAULTY COMPARISONS
Comparisons in a sentence must be logical and complete. Faulty comparisons, however, equate apples and oranges; that
is, they make incompatible unions which often lead to problematic marriages. For example, the concept of "other" and
"else" could often make for more harmonious unions when the subjects are compatible:

Change the faulty comparisons into clear ones:

Faulty: I like you better than anybody.
Clear:
Faulty: You are brighter than any of my classmates.
Clear:
Faulty: Mr. Dee is tougher than any teacher at Sinclair.
Clear:
Faulty: My car is nicer than my wife.
Clear:
Faulty: Ann is one of the best, if not the best, teacher at UD.
Clear:

OMISSIONS
Omissions, like other actions, are of two kinds: the correct and the incorrect. Correct omissions are often found in adages
and aphorisms; for instance, "To err is human, to forgive divine." However, writers must be careful not to omit words that
are necessary to their meaning.

Improve the incorrect sentences:

Incorrect: His homework is easy, but his tests difficult.
Correct:
Incorrect: I have and always will try to do my best on the job.
Correct:
Incorrect: I have written a story and essay about my vacation.
Correct:

IS WHERE/IS WHEN
Generally avoid using "is where/was where" or "is when/was when." A time is when; a place is where, but a thing, idea,
emotion, or act is what it is, just as a person is who he or she is. We define our thoughts and feelings usually in terms of
what they are. For example: Comedy is life viewed at a distance, while tragedy is life viewed close at hand ; life is
comedy to one who thinks and tragedy to one who feels.
Even when used correctly, these constructions are wordy: "Eight o'clock is when I eat breakfast" could just as well be
written as "I eat breakfast at eight o'clock." "Dayton is where I live" could be written more concisely as "I live in Dayton."
In particular, avoid using them in definitions.
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Improve the incorrect sentences:
Incorrect: Happiness is when you live in Dayton, Ohio.
Correct:.
Incorrect: A run-on is where two sentences are joined incorrectly.
Correct:

ACADEMIC WRITING STYLE

Exercise
Identify the informal expressions in the following sentences. Rewrite the following sentences, replacing the
informal expressions with a more formal equivalent.
1. With women especially, there is a lot of social pressure to conform to a certain physical shape.
2. Significantly, even at this late date, Lautrec was considered a bit conservative by his peers.
3. It focused on a subject that a lot of the bourgeois and upper-class exhibition-going public regarded as anti-social and
anti-establishment.
4. Later Florey got together with Paul Fildes in an experimental study of the use of curare to relieve the intractable
muscular spasms which occur in fully developed infection with tetanus or lockjaw.
5. When a patient is admitted to a psychiatric inpatient unit, the clinical team should avoid the temptation to start specific
treatments immediately.
6. Therefore after six months the dieter is behaving according to all twenty-six goals and she has achieved a big reduction
in sugar intake.
7. Modern houses have so many labour-saving things that it is difficult for the person at home to have adequate exercise
by doing chores, cooking, and looking after a family.
8. Simply making the effort to reclaim this wasted stuff for fertilizer would have a positive effect on greenhouse releases.
9. It is difficult to imagine exactly what is meant by saying that such a classification is natural as any collection of things
could be classified in this way.
10. Unfortunately, since there are so many possible explanations, the correct one is most difficult to find out.
11. These exercises can easily be incorporated into an exercise routine, with each exercise done again a number of times.
12. Fleming did well in isolating a streptococcus from the cerebrospinal fluid of the patient.
13. Effective vaccines prevent such hazards, but only if a social organisation makes sure that all potential mothers are
vaccinated in good time.