AEROBATIC

TRAINING
NOTES
ISSUE 6 09/2009
APPENDIX E4N

______________________________________________

Oxford Aviation Academy (Australia) Pty Ltd

24 Northern Avenue Moorabbin Airport
Victoria Australia 3194
(03) 95806566

AEROBATIC PILOT TRAINING NOTES Issue 6 09/2009 Page 1 of 77

 Aerobatic Training Notes

RECORD OF CHANGES

ISSUE DATE CHANGES

5.1 Feb 2009 Pre-flight check on security of safety harnesses.
6 Sept 2009 Page checklist removed; summary sheet updated; added
notes on hangar courtesy; delete red-out description;
revised spinning to cover all elements of CASA syllabus,
added Decathlon sample AFM and associated information.

- Copyright 1990-2009 – Oxford Aviation Academy (Australia) Pty., Ltd.,

- The illustrations, diagrams and original text of this document are protected by
copyright.

- No part may be reproduced or stored in any manner whatsoever, electronic,

photographic, photocopying or stored in a retrieval system, without the prior written
permission of the authors.

- Nothing in this text supersedes any operational documents issued by either Oxford
Aviation Academy (Australia) Pty Ltd, or the C.A.S.A. or the Operators of Aircraft.

- Reference has to be made at all times to the Oxford Aviation Academy (Australia) Pty
Ltd, Operations Manual.

AEROBATIC PILOT TRAINING NOTES Issue 6 09/2009 Page 2 of 77

 8KCAB - DECATHLON LIMITATIONS
SUMMARY SHEET

SPEEDS: WEIGHT & BALANCE:

Pilot(kg) Pax(kg) Fuel(lt)

Vs 46 kts 90 90 70 
VR 55 kts 80 80 100
VA (at max weight) 116 kts 70 70 125
(reduce by 6 kts each 100 kg less) 90 70 100
VNO 139 kts 70 90 100
VNE 156 kts MTOW/MLW = 816 kg
VTOSS 58 kts Fuel max ½ for aerobatics.
VY 66 kts
VGLIDE 65 kts
Cruise Climb 80 kts
Base – 75 kts Final – 65 to 70 kts
Max Demonstrated X-wind – 17 kts

Aerobatics: PERFORMANCE:
Refer D.O.T. “P” Charts for airfield distances
Loop 120 kts and reference airspeeds.
Barrel Roll 105 kts Landing from 50 feet @ 20oC = 470 m
Stall Turn 120 kts Take-off to 50 feet @ 20oC = 450 m
Aileron/Slow Roll 105 kts
Spins Stalled Max/Min Load Factors:
Immelmann 125 kts Please stay within +4.5/-3 g - no flick
manoeuvres
Cuban Eight 120 kts Record time actually spent doing aerobatics

POWERPLANT / FUEL AND OIL:

Lycoming AEIO-320-E2B – 150 HP @ 2700 RPM & fixed pitch propeller.

Total fuel capacity – 151.3 litres useable (76 litres each side)

Normal cruise 65% power at approx 2500 ft altitude is 100 KIAS at 2300-2400 rpm
depending on propeller fitted. 30 litres/hr mixture lean and 36 litres/hr mixture rich

Note: aerobatics fuel flow 51 litres/hr

Min Aerobatics oil quantity – 6 Qts - typically add oil only if below 6 Qts.

Inverted Flight:
Inverted fuel header tank provides 2 mins of continuous inverted flight

NB: Oil pressure should not be allowed to drop below 60 psi

Notes:
 Wing span 9.8 m (32 ft)
 Tyre pressures – main 24  2 psi & tail 40  5 psi

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ENGINE LIMITATIONS AND INSTRUMENT MARKINGS

Engine: Lycoming AEIO-320-E2B – 150 HP @ 2700 RPM

Propeller: Hartzell
Fuel, Minimum Octane Rating, Aviation Grade - 80/87:
Approved for Continuous Use - 100/130
Tachometer: Normal Range (Green Arc) 1800 - 2700 RPM
Maximum (Red Line) 2700 RPM
Oil Temperature:
Normal Range (Green Arc) 100 - 245 OF (43 – 118 OC)
Maximum (Red Line) 245 OF
Oil Pressure:
Normal Range (Green Arc) 60 - 100 psi
Caution Range (Yellow Arc) 25 - 60 psi
Maximum (Red Line) 100 psi
Minimum (Red Line) idle25 psi

WEIGHT AND BALANCE LIMITS

Maximum Gross Weight - 816 kg (1800 lbs)

Centre of Gravity Range

Normal Category (+13.5) to (+21.0) @ 1800lbs.
(+11.5) to (+21.0) @ 1550lbs or less
straight line variation between the points
given.
Aerobatic Category (+13.5) to (+18.5) @ 1800lbs.
(+14.5) to (+18.5) @ 1550lbs or less
straight line variation between the points
given.
DATUM: Wing leading edge.

FLIGHT LOAD FACTORS (1800 LBS. GROSS WEIGHT)

ACCELEROMETER
CATEGORY LOAD FACTOR LIMITS MARKING

Normal Positive + 5G Green Arc

Negative - 3G Green Arc
Aerobatic Positive + 6G Red Line
Negative - 5G Red Line
It is well known that operating within, but close to, the certified load factor limits will
significantly reduce the life of the structure. Plan to operate within +4.5 and –3 g to leave
a margin so as ensure no structural damage due to inadvertent high g’s or “working” of
the structure. Remain well within the rolling G limits and do not perform flick rolls as these
cause high internal stresses.

The fuel tank loading is also a consideration. Even though you can carry 150 litres when
flying solo it is recommended that aerobatics not be performed with more than half fuel to
ease the G loads on the wing ribs supporting the fuel tanks and the fuel tanks themselves.
AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE

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The main wing spar in the Decathlon is either wood or, in later models, aluminium. The
wing leading edge is thin sheet metal. Wing ribs are aluminium with fabric covering over
the entire wing. Aircraft with a wooden spar use nails to attach the ribs and leading edge.

The front wing strut is an aluminium extrusion and the rear spar is a light steel tube.

The fuselage has a steel tube truss structure with light wooden formers to give the shape
and, apart from the nose, is also covered in fabric.

The tail is a light steel tube structure covered in fabric and braced with wires.

Some structural components, the front strut for example, have a safe life which depends
mainly on the amount of time spent doing aerobatics. This is the time actually spent in
aerobatic flight and does not include positioning time or climbing between manoeuvres
etc.

AEROBATIC HARNESS

The 8KCAB is fitted with a 7 point harness which consists of a 5 point harness and a 2
point lapstrap. This is required for aerobatic flight. This assembly is required to be
checked before every flight to ensure that the harness is secured. The harness is not
sewed on at the anchor so it is possible for the strap to loosen.

GROUND HANDLING

From the Pilot’s Operating Manual and factory recommendations:

Places to push (hands only):

1) Propeller base, near the hub.
2) Front struts (don't use the rear struts as they are thin-wall steel).
3) Handle on the starboard side of the rear fuselage.
4) The tail-wheel tow-bar.

For a small distance where little effort is required you may also consider:
5) Leading edge of vertical stabilizer (careful here to just push with your palm on the
steel - its not a handle) and the leading edge of the horizontal stabilizer - again,
don’t be push on the fabric, just the steel. Palm of the hand works best.
6) Top of the vertical stabilizer brace wires, using the fleshy part between thumb and
fore-finger. Basically, this is just right at the attachment so you don’t bend the brace
wires. It takes quite a bit of finesse so not recommended.

Finally, what not to do:

1) Do not step on the wing strut.
2) Do not push on the side of the fuselage.

HANGAR COURTESY

Put nuts on the bolts so they don’t get lost.

If there is a hangar fire the aircraft need to be moved so leave the park brakes off –
use chocks on the main wheels only.
It has a big wing – watch the wingtips when moving aircraft to avoid “hangar rash”.

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 There is no need to secure controls inside the hangar however if the aircraft is left
outside – secure the stick snugly with the lap belt and chock the wheels or apply the
park brake – you will need to apply pressure to the toe brakes while pulling the park
brake knob out.
Remember that is is your responsibility if left outside – consider that it doesn’t take
long to put it back in the hangar.

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 TAILWHEEL AEROPLANES

GENERAL
Sequence no. 1

Tailwheel aeroplanes are directionally unstable on the ground. That is once the
aeroplane starts to swing away from the direction of travel it will want to keep swinging
and it is up to the pilot to prevent it. This inconvenient behaviour is entirely because the
C.G. is BEHIND the main wheels. Once a swerve on the ground has begun for any
reason, the aircraft continues to turn. If a swerve is not stopped the aircraft will continue to
turn with a progressively smaller radius and increasing rotational speed – quickly
developing into a ground loop. The ground loop begins in earnest when the swerve
develops to the point where the inertia force acts outside the outer wheel. Another caution
to note is that the inertia force tends to tip the aircraft over the outer wheel!

We can control this in two ways. Firstly, by using the rudder to lever the tail back into line.
For this reason the rudder is invariably more powerful on tailwheel type aircraft than on
nosewheel types. Secondly, C.G. has not swung outside the wheel. Therefore, the wider
the track - distance between the main wheels - the more easily controllable the aeroplane.

Many tailwheel aircraft have the capacity to accept a large crosswind component during
takeoff and landing due to the powerful rudder and more rugged undercarriage - however
a higher level of skill is demanded of the pilot.

It is surprisingly easy to nose over by firm application of brakes while taxiing or even
running up the engine while stationary. Develop the habit of holding the stick back at all
times (unless there’s a good reason for putting it somewhere else) from before start-up
until after shutdown.

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OPERATION - VISIBILITY

One of the disadvantages of the tailwheel type of undercarriage is the reduced visibility on
the ground due to the high nose attitude. In the Decathlon it is not too bad from the front
seat. Special techniques are required to overcome the problem of poor visibility.

TAXIING: Weaving the aircraft from side to side - it is possible to see ahead by looking
out of each side alternately.

TAKEOFF: Raising the tail during the take-off run permits vision forward over the lowered
nose. Full power is applied at the start of the take-off run with the stick held HARDBACK
to avoid nosing over. Once the aeroplane has gathered speed the stick is eased
progressively forward, the tail should be raised only to the attitude at which the aeroplane
will fly itself off once take-off speed has been attained. Ideally, there is little or no rotation
or rearward movement of the stick at liftoff.

LANDING: The approach on final should be the same as that for a flapless one for a
normal aircraft. As the aeroplane rounds out just above the ground and the hold off is
commenced, the pilot looks ahead and to one side of the aeroplane. This technique takes
time to perfect. It is important not to look down too close to the aeroplane or to focus on
any one point - one should look towards the far end of the runway. Trying to look out over
the nose may first seem easier, but after getting used to looking out the side far better
control can be achieved.

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HANDLING

TAXIING: Taildraggers are particularly vulnerable to wind on the ground because of their
instability and the high angle of attack of the wings in the three point attitude.
Consequently, stick position is important when taxiing in strong or gusty winds. If the wind
is from the forward sector the stick should be held hard back to keep the tailwheel firmly
on the ground and aileron into wind should be applied. If the wind is from the rear sector
the aileron should be out of wind. If the wind is strong or gusty the stick should be held
fully forward. You must exercise judgement on the correct elevator position considering
the relative airflow at the tail which depends on wind speed, slipstream and taxi speed –
put your hand out the window and feel which way the wind is blowing but remember the
slipstream disperses before it reaches the tail. Taxi slowly in strong winds.

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TAKEOFF: Tailwheel aircraft have a tendency to swing on takeoff, due to several factors;

 CROSSWIND: The aeroplane will tend to weathercock into wind.

 SLIPSTREAM EFFECT: The aeroplane will tend to swing to the left if the propeller
rotates clockwise (as seen from the cockpit).
 GYROSCOPIC EFFECT: As the tail is raised the aeroplane will tend to swing to the left
due to gyroscopic precession acting on the propeller as it changes its plane of
rotation.
 TORQUE EFFECT: The aeroplane will tend to swing in the same direction as above
due to increased weight and therefore drag acting on the left main wheel. This is
caused by the aeroplane wanting to rotate around its propeller.

After some tail wheel experience, these effects can be anticipated and countered
instinctively with rudder, which is very effective during takeoff because of slipstream. It is
Important that as soon as a swing starts, it is counteracted immediately with rudder.

LANDING:
The usual method of landing a tail wheel aeroplane is in the 3-point attitude (touch down
on all three wheels simultaneously). In this attitude the aeroplane will usually be close to
the stall. The aeroplane is rounded out just above the ground and the stick is eased
progressively back as the speed washes off. The correct 3-point attitude is reached and
held and as the speed washes off further the aeroplane sinks on to the ground.

There are two difficulties in getting the aeroplane on to the ground in the prescribed
manner. Firstly, it is necessary to be able to recognise the 3-point attitude so that it can
be achieved and held. You should take note of the 3-point attitude while taxiing before
flight. Secondly, it is necessary to achieve the 3-point attitude close to the ground, in order
to avoid a heavy landing. Learn to look out the side to judge attitude and height – the
sighting point should be about 50 m in front of the aircraft just to the left of the nose.

If the main wheels contact the ground before the tailwheel, the aircraft will rotate due to
inertia of the tailwheel which increases the AoA. Hold the stick steady and wait for the
aeroplane to start sinking again and then ease it back into the correct attitude and land.
DO NOT push the stick forward after it bounces. This incorrect action is the cause of the
classic case of an aeroplane bouncing ever harder, higher and slower until it drops onto
the ground from considerable height with a very low airspeed. As the aeroplane sinks
back on to the ground again, try and touch in the 3-point attitude. Timely application of
power will greatly cushion the descent. If the bounce was severe, smoothly apply full
power and go round – there is not much time in which to make this decision. HINT – if you
are moving the stick forward at any time that demands an instant decision to GO
AROUND.
ONCE HAVING MADE THE DECISION TO GO AROUND, NEVER CHANGE YOUR
MIND.

If the tailwheel touches first, simply pull the stick fully back immediately to keep it there.
The aeroplane cannot rotate and the main wheels will settle on, possibly with a small
bounce or two.

IN ANY LANDING, ONCE THE TAILWHEEL IS ON THE GROUND, IMMEDIATELY GET

THE STICK FULLY BACK. This will increase frictional drag at the tailwheel and
aerodynamic drag at the tailplane, which provide a stabilising influence. If the tailwheel is
allowed to bounce up and down the risk of nosing over is considerably increased and

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directional control is more difficult. Note that, as the tailwheel touches down, the elevator
inertia will tend to move the stick forward – do not let it do that – fly the aeroplane not the
other way around.

CROSSWIND LANDINGS
This aspect is best discussed fully with your instructor. The possible techniques are
basically the same as for a tricycle undercarriage aeroplane.

DIRECTIONAL CONTROL DURING THE LANDING RUN:

During the landing run directional control is more difficult than during the takeoff because
of the lack of power. The rudder is less effective and the stabilising influence of thrust is
missing. Therefore differential braking will often be necessary. If there is a crosswind be
ready to prevent the expected swing into wind before it occurs. If a severe swing
develops the use of hard opposite brake is essential - making sure that the stick is fully
back. Power is also very helpful in this situation.

SIDESLIP:
Tailwheel aeroplanes, because of their powerful rudders, can be side-slipped very
effectively. Care must be taken to maintain a safe airspeed throughout as the airspeed
indicator will not be accurate while side-slipping. Side-slip can be very useful during an
approach for two reasons. Firstly it gives improved forward visibility. Secondly it is a
powerful aid in controlling the rate of descent - important since many tailwheel aeroplanes
do not have flaps.

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AEROBATIC PILOT TRAINING NOTES Issue 6 09/2009 Page 12 of 77
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

AIRFLOW/SLIPSTREAM EFFECT

The constant changes in airspeed, power and slipstream during aerobatics manoeuvres
vary the effectiveness of the controls and the trim of the aircraft. Changes of rudder
application are necessary to maintain balanced flight resulting from power changes and
the slipstream.

Adjustment to control movements will be necessary when recovering from any manoeuvre
which ends in a dive, as the aircraft is gaining speed and the controls are becoming more
effective.

EFFECT OF ACCELERATION FORCES (g-forces)

Acceleration forces are commonly referred to as g-forces, in both the positive and
negative senses. For example in a turn we have to accelerate the aeroplane towards the
centre of the turn; in a loop, we have to accelerate it (in the pitching plane) towards the
centre of the loop.

POSITIVE - g

If an aircraft is accelerated in the pitching plane by increasing the angle of attack of the
wings, it will move in a curved path and be subject to an increased loading. This
increased loading is measured in factors of 'g' and is felt by the pilot as an apparent
increase in his weight. In straight-and-level flight, a pilot experiences 1g, but when he
moves the stick back to enter a climb or loop, or if he banks the aeroplane and pulls it into
a steep turn he will experience 2g and feel twice as heavy (g-factor, or load factor, of 2).

High positive g has the following effects:

(a) The blood becomes 'heavier' and tends to drain from the head to the abdomen and
lower parts of the body.
(b) The heart is displaced downwards by its 'increased weight', thus increasing the
distance it has to pump the heavier blood to the brain and eyes.
(c) Greater muscular effect is required to raise the limbs and hold the head upright.

As a result, the eyes and brain are starved of oxygen, resulting in 'grey-out' and, if
sustained, 'black-out', and then, finally, loss of consciousness. Grey-out is blurred vision
under high positive acceleration; black-out is a dulling of the senses and seemingly
blackish loss of vision under sustained high positive acceleration.

Due to the latent period before the symptoms occur, it is possible to tolerate high 'g' for
short periods. Tolerance is decreased by illness, hunger, fatigue, lack of oxygen and the
common 'hang-over'!

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G-LOC

G-induced Loss of Consciousness

G-Loc is due to the reduced flow of blood to the brain.

The subjective visual symptoms of grey-out followed by black-out often precede G-LOC.
Theses occur as the arterial blood flow to the retinae of the eyes is progressively reduced.
Grey-out is a partial loss of vision, commencing with peripheral vision, while black-out
results in total loss of vision.

NEGATIVE - g

When a pilot feels the g-forces acting in the reverse direction to normal (as in inverted
flight, an outside loop or an inverted spin or during rolls), this is known as negative-g.
Excess blood is forced into the head 'red-out' occurs at about -2g to -2.5g. Negative-g
imposes a strain on the blood vessels of the brain and eyes, possibly causing permanent
damage.

Negative G will also reduce a pilots tolerance to Positive G.

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 EFFECT OF g-LOADING ON THE AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE
AND ENGINE

Aerobatics must be carried out only in those aircraft which have been certified for
aerobatic manoeuvres, and only those particular manoeuvres may be executed for which
the aircraft has been cleared.

As a large number of aerobatic aircraft are of the elementary type with fixed-pitch
propellers, care must be taken not to exceed engine limitations during dives and high-
speed exercises.

At G.F.S. flick manoeuvres are prohibited in the Decathlon due to the high acceleration
load on the wing. It must be remembered that the aircraft has a lower maximum negative-
g load limit than the maximum positive-g load limit.

ROLLING G

Care must be taken by a pilot while rolling an aircraft with a high positive g-loading.
Rolling an aircraft involves increasing the lift on the upgoing wing, which also increases
the g-loading on the upgoing wing. Care must be taken not to exceed the aircraft’s
maximum g-limits while applying high g-loads in a pull up and rolling together.

An aircraft’s ‘G’ meter will only measure G-loading in the pitching plane. There will be no
indication of rolling G levels in the cockpit.

As a general rule an aircraft’s maximum g-limits can be reduced by 1/3 while performing a
high g manoeuvre and rolling. For the Decathlon use +4G as the maximum rolling G limit.

INDUCED DRAG

Manoeuvres in the pitching plane involve numerous and sometimes large changes in the
angle of attack. An increase in angle of attack (achieved by pulling the stick back) will
cause an increase in Induced Drag, which will tend to slow the aeroplane down. So we
must be careful not to unintentionally stall the aircraft.

INVERTED FLIGHT

In our early studies we will have learned how the shape of the aerofoil or wing section
contribute to the lift. Now we are going to turn it upside down; the effect of the airflow
around the shape presented in this manner is reduced lift, so we must fly with a larger
angle of attack, or higher airspeed, to achieve similar performance and control. If we
have a higher angle of attack we will have more drag.

AEROBATIC PILOT TRAINING NOTES Issue 6 09/2009 Page 15 of 77

LESSON PLAN No. 52
Sequence no. 2 TAXIING

AIM

To manoeuvre the aircraft safely on the ground.

APPLICATION

Taxiing.

CONSIDERATIONS

 Inertia – More power is required to start the aircraft moving, than it is to keep it moving.
Power SHOULD NOT be used against brakes – reduce power first then apply brakes.

 Directional Control – Direction is maintained by use of the rudder pedals which

actuate the tail wheel (spring) steering as well as the rudder.

 Brakes – Using differential braking to assist directional control in crosswind conditions

is acceptable after full application of the rudder pedals has been implemented.

 Visibility – Your aircraft has poor visibility ahead and thus it may be necessary to yaw
the nose to ensure path is clear.

 Effect of Wind – Continuous consideration of the wind velocity is required during

ground operations. Use control surfaces to assist directional control.

 Centre of Gravity – The 8KCAB has a CoG just aft of the main wheels, thus reducing
stability whilst taxiing.

 Power – Taxiing speed is controlled by power.

 Pitch Control – it is surprisingly easy to nose over by firm application of brakes while
taxiing or even running up the engine while stationary. Develop the habit of holding the
stick back at all times (unless there is a good reason for putting it somewhere else)
from before start-up until after shutdown

AIR EXERCISE

 Rules of Taxiing:
 When two aircraft meet head on – EACH TURNS TO THE RIGHT.
 When one aircraft is overtaking another – OVERTAKING AIRCRAFT TO GIVE WAY.
 Aircraft landing and taking off have right of way over taxiing aircraft.

AIRMANSHIP
 Lookout
 Taxi checks
 Smooth and positive control inputs - keep the stick back
 Hand over/I have control procedure
 Taxi slowly and ensure forward area is clear before passing.

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LESSON PLAN No. 52
Sequence no. 3 SPINNING

AIM

To understand the principles and to recognise a fully developed spin. Also, to recover
from a spin with minimal height loss.

APPLICATION

For aerobatic training and understanding of recovery techniques. A spin should never
occur unintentionally. However, if entered, the correct method of recovery should be used.

REVISION

Symptoms of Approaching Stall: Stall:

1. High Nose Attitude 1. Nose Drop

2. Low Speed 2. Height Loss
3. Sloppy Controls 3. or minimum speed - full up elevator
4. Stall Warning Horn
5. Control Buffet
6. Control (elevator) position

DEFINITIONS

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Spin - A stalled condition of flight where an aircraft is described to be in a spiral descent
around a spin axis. During the spin, the aeroplane is simultaneously rolling, pitching and
yawing.
Incipient Spin – the initial part of the spin, prior to being in a fully developed, stable spin;
typically about one turn.
Flat Spin - A spin with higher relative nose attitude, lower rate of descent and slower rate
of rotation.
Steep Spin - A spin with lower relative nose attitude, higher rate of descent and faster
rate of rotation around the spin axis.

Phases of the Spin

ENTRY

INCIPIENT SPIN

FULLY DEVELOPED
SPIN

RECOVERY

PULL-OUT FROM DIVE

Note that the fully developed spin is a stable condition of flight with a steady, low airspeed
and a constant rate of rotation. Some aircraft types exhibit an oscillatory spin with the
nose rising and lowering as it rotates and may not even progress beyond the incipient
stage i.e. may transition to a spiral dive.

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PRINCIPLES

 A spin occurs as a result of an uncoordinated,

uncorrected stall. Therefore, spinning is
generally associated with low airspeeds
however a spin can occur whenever the
critical angle of attack is approached in
combination with roll/yaw coupling.
 Increased drag from the lower wing due to the
stalled condition, which results in yaw
towards the spin.
 Yaw induced a roll in the direction of spin.
 Secondary effect of roll is yaw; the process is
self-sustaining.
 These principles define the terms Auto-roll and Auto-yaw, which together combine to
form Autorotation, which is the basis of the spin.
 A spin will be self-sustaining unless pilot action is taken.
 The aircraft is:

Stalled
Yawing
Rolling
Pitching
Slipping
Losing height

AEROBATIC PILOT TRAINING NOTES Issue 6 09/2009 Page 19 of 77

The three primary forces are the resultants of the aerodynamic forces, inertia forces
(centrifugal forces) and the weight. These forces interact approximately as shown in the
figure below.

The weight is easily established as acting directly downward through the center of gravity
and, as the aircraft is descending, the overall relative airflow is coming from below the
aircraft. The vertical component of the aerodynamic forces is drag, being parallel to the
airflow, and acts to balance the weight. At a steady rate of descent the drag is equal to the
weight. Lift acts at 90 deg to the airflow and is therefore approximately horizontal and this
opposes the centrifugal force brought about by the rotational motion.

The next Figure shows the resultant aerodynamics forces with the effect of applying up
elevator and changing center of gravity.
A = resultant aerodynamic force
B = aerodynamic force from up elevator
C & D are inertial/centrifugal forces due to the mass distribution

AEROBATIC PILOT TRAINING NOTES Issue 6 09/2009 Page 20 of 77

The aerodynamic resultant A of lift and drag acting behind the center of gravity produces
a nose down moment and the up elevator tends to oppose this. The centrifugal forces
acting on the fore and aft masses will produce a nose up moment.

Therefore, the closer the centre of gravity to the aerodynamic force, the flatter the spin.
Consider the centre of gravity behind the aerodynamic force – both the aerodynamic force
and the centrifugal force will act together to flatten the spin.

If the spin becomes flatter, the angle of attack increases and the resulting increased drag
will reduce the rate of descent.

CONSIDERATIONS

Types of Spins:
 Flat spin - Higher relative nose attitude,
lower rate of descent and slower rate of
rotation.
 Steep spin - Lower relative nose attitude,
higher rate of descent and faster rate of
rotation.
 Inverted spin – Roll and yaw are in
opposite directions. A steep inverted spin
may be distinguished from a steep upright
spin by the negative G and the stick
position (at entry). In flatter, fully developed
spins the inverted attitude is a clear
indicator.

Effect of Stick Position

Depending on the aeroplane type:

 the use of aileron during a spin will change the spin characteristic between steep
and flat and may prevent recovery.
 forward elevator will blanket the rudder and may prevent recovery.
 it is possible to transition from an upright to an inverted spin.

Effect of GoG:

The further aft the CoG, the flatter the spin and the more readily the aircraft will enter a
spin. The further forward the CoG, the steeper the spin and the more reluctant the aircraft
will be to enter a spin and a spiral dive may result.

Effect of Power:

Adding power during a spin will cause the nose to raise to a higher nose attitude. The rate
of rotation will decrease and the rate of descent will decrease.

Spin vs Spiral dive:

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Spin associated with
 Low IAS
 High rate of rotation
 Low noise level
 Possible buffet

Spiral dive associated with

 High and increasing IAS
 High noise level

Blanketing the Rudder

This diagram shows a smoke canister

under the fuselage of an aircraft in
straight and level flight. The smoke
follows the streamlined airflow.

In the next diagram the aircraft is in a

spin. The high angle of attack of the
horizontal stabilizer results in turbulent
wake which reduces the effectiveness of
the fin and rudder.
The only parts of the rudder in clean air
are the top and the bottom, below the
elevator.
If the elevator is moved down, more of
the rudder is blanketed.
So, for aircraft with this tail design, do
not move the stick forward before
applying rudder.

Beggs-Mueller
Eric Mueller and Gene Beggs developed an emergency spin recovery technique which
has specific application when the pilot may be disorientated or does not know whether the
the spin is inverted or upright. It has been demonstrated to be effective in the Pitts aircraft
which has a variety of spin modes.
IMPORTANT – it is known to be ineffective for inverted spins in the Decathlon so the
information on the Beggs-Mueller technique is provided for reference only.

AEROBATIC PILOT TRAINING NOTES Issue 6 09/2009 Page 22 of 77

AIR EXERCISE
Note that this specifically applies to the Decathlon – refer to the relevant AFM and
your instructor for other types.

 Allow approximately 800 ft for a one turn spin and 300 ft for each
additional turn
 Lookout 3600 clearing turn – especially look below
 Select a reference point

Entry
1. Power to idle
2. Note symptoms of a stall
3. Several knots above the stall, apply full back pressure and full rudder in
the direction of the spin

During

4. Count number of spins as aircraft rotates past reference point.

Disorientation may occur after several rotations so limit the number of
turns to two or three. During initial practice focus on the recovery
technique rather than the exact number of turns and do not try to stop on
a particular heading.
5. After predetermined number of spins, begin recovery.
6. Exit usually takes ¼ to ½ of a spin rotation, so to exit on reference point,
begin exit approximately 120 0 before reference point.
7. Remember recovery must be complete before 3000 feet AGL.

Exit

8. P - Check power off

9. A – check aileron neutral.
10. R - Apply full opposite rudder to direction of yaw.
11. E - Move the stick forward towards neutral.
12. When the rotation stops, centralize the rudder, recover from dive,
applying power as nose passes through the horizon
13. Climb to reference altitude.

If recovery does not occur, move the stick fully aft to the position for a normal spin,
confirm direction of yaw then repeat the recovery actions above.

Note instrument indications in a spin: the turn co-ordinator shows spin direction (upright
spins only); constant low airspeed indicates a stable spin. The balance ball should not be
used to indicate direction.

AIRMANSHIP

 Lookout, especially below

 Pre-manoeuvre checks
 Smooth positive control inputs
 Taxiing
 Hand over/Take over procedure

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LESSON PLAN No. 53
Sequence no. 4 LOOPS

AIM

To learn how to conduct a loop, which is a straight pitch through 360 0 whilst maintaining a
constant direction (+/-100) and in balance.

APPLICATION

When conducting aerobatics

DEFINITIONS

Loop - A manoeuvre entirely in the pitching plane in which the aircraft rotates through
3600 in a circular path.

Load Factor - The total load force on an aircraft. Caused by both gravity and centrifugal
reaction. Measured as multiples of gravity; or ‘g.’ During a loop, pilots and passengers
may experience up to +3.5g

PRINCIPLES

Circular Loops:

 To undertake a circular loop, backpressure and g-force cannot remain constant.

 If g-force is kept constant through out the manoeuvre, Eg. 3g, the loop will not be
symmetrical.

 For a circular loop, many aircraft require an approximately constant stick position.

AEROBATIC PILOT TRAINING NOTES Issue 6 09/2009 Page 24 of 77

 Incorrect constant g-force Correctly varied g-force

 To prevent this, slowly ease off on the backpressure as you near the top of the loop.
 There is little backpressure needed at the top of the loop (inverted)

Straight Loop:

 The aircraft must remain in balance & wings level for the entire loop in order for it to
remain straight
 Check that the wings are level at the bottom, vertical and inverted stages of the loop.
 At the vertical position, the wings must intersect the horizon at the same points

Wings Level Wings Level – Inverted

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 Wings intercepting the horizontal at the same point

 If not, the loop will follow a corkscrew pattern

CONSIDERATIONS

Propeller Overspeed:

 As IAS increases, RPM increases with fixed pitch propellers. Do not exceed max RPM

Aircraft Overspeed:

 Can be noticed on the last 90 0 of the loop.

 Aircraft will accelerate rapidly due to weight + thrust

Slipstream Effect:

 As the aircraft approaches the top of the loop, slipstream effect will increase.
 More rudder will be required at the top of the loop to counteract slipstream effect.

AIR EXERCISE

 Pre-Aerobatics checks
 Lookout 3600 clearing turn
 Select ground reference

Entry:

1. Adjust power to 2500 RPM (8KCAB)

2. Dive the aircraft to loop entry speed 120kts (8KCAB)
3. Ensure RPM does not exceed red line
4. Smoothly apply firm backpressure (3-3.5g)

During:

5. When the nose passes the horizon, apply full power & right rudder.

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 6. Look to the wingtip to judge aircraft position during the loop
7. Maintain balance with rudder
8. 8. Gently start to ease off on backpressure when the aircraft becomes
vertical.
9. 9. Look for the inverted 45 0 position between the wing and the horizon
10. 10. Relax the backpressure smoothly to allow the aircraft to float over
the top.
11. 11. Check the wings level to the horizon at the top of the loop (inverted)
12. Hold aircraft in line with the ground reference line, using rudder
(balance for slipstream).
12. 13. As the aircraft passes through 45 0 below the horizon, ease in
backpressure and reduce power to keep RPM below red line.

Exit:

13. Apply backpressure on exit (3-3.5g) to recover at entry altitude

14. Establish the aircraft straight and level

AIRMANSHIP

 Lookout
 Pre-manoeuvre checks
 Smooth positive control inputs
 Take care not to exceed engine & airspeed limitations
 Hand over / Take over procedure

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LESSON PLAN No. 53
Sequence no. 5 BARREL ROLLS

AIM

To understand the principles behind a barrel roll and how to correctly execute one.

APPLICATION

For aerobatic training and a coordination exercise.

DEFINITIONS

Barrel Roll – A combination of roll, pitch, and yaw. The aircraft depicts a horizontal spiral
through the sky.

PRINCIPLES

 As mentioned above, the barrel roll is a cross between a loop and a roll
 Imagine the belly of our aircraft slipping across the inside of a barrel
 If we add this to forward movement, we get a horizontal spiral through the air.

 Note that at the half way point of the manoeuvre, we are in the inverted position.
 Also note the pitch attitude is the steepest when the wings are vertical.
AEROBATIC PILOT TRAINING NOTES Issue 6 09/2009 Page 28 of 77
 The attitude is steepest at the wings vertical point but the flight path is still climbing until
it reaches the vertical position.
 Any attempt to pull the nose down after the wings vertical point will cause the second
half of the roll to bottom out.
 Your wings level, inverted attitude should be the same as for the top of the loop.
 If the nose is too low, you will bottom out.
 If the nose is too high, you will level out above your entry altitude.

CONSIDERATIONS

 Propeller Overspeed:
 Related mostly to fixed pitch propeller aircraft.
 IAS increases, RPM increases. Must decrease power to keep RPM
below red line.
 Occurs in the dive into, and on the second half of the barrel roll.

 Aircraft Overspeed:
 Noticeable in the second half of the barrel roll.
 Be prepared to increase ‘g’ (Increase DT) to wash off speed.
 DO NOT EXCEED MAX ‘G-LIMITATIONS.’

 Slipstream Effect:
 Rudder in the direction of the roll is always present. When inverted, IAS
is low, reduced control effectiveness. Therefore increase rudder
deflection at this point to counter slipstream.

AIR EXERCISE

 Lookout 3600 clearing turn

 Select a reference point on ground

Pre-Entry
H
H
E
L
L
L

Entry
1. Adjust power to 2500RPM (8KCAB)
2. Apply positive forward pressure to dive to 105kts (8KCAB) although up to
120 kts may be used (note: above VA).
3. Ensure engine does not overspeed
4. Smoothly apply firm back pressure to establish 45 nose up, adding full
power when nose passes through horizon.
5. Apply aileron (full) and rudder in the direction of the roll, maintaining
balance.

AEROBATIC PILOT TRAINING NOTES Issue 6 09/2009 Page 29 of 77

During

6. As the inverted is reached relax back pressure to hold the nose above
the horizon, and continue the coordinated roll.

Exit

7. As the inverted is passed, re-apply back pressure to recover from nose

low attitude.
8. Establish the aircraft wings level, in balance and level off at reference
altitude.

AIRMANSHIP

 Lookout
 Pre-aerobatic HHELLL checks
 Smooth and positive control inputs
 Taxiing
 Hand over/I have control procedure
 Take care not to exceed redline

AEROBATIC PILOT TRAINING NOTES Issue 6 09/2009 Page 30 of 77

LESSON PLAN No. 54
Sequence no. 6 STALL TURNS

AIM

To conduct a stall turn. An aerobatic manoeuvre

APPLICATION

An aerobatic manoeuvre and an alternative method of changing heading by 180 0.

REVISION

Axis Control Surface Pilot Input Primary Secondary

Effect Effect
Normal Rudder Yaw Yaw Roll then pitch
Lateral Elevator Pitch Pitch Yaw
Longitudinal Aileron Roll Roll Yaw

DEFINITIONS

Stall Turn - Also Hammerhead; A pull up into a vertical zoom climb until a moment just
before all forward momentum is lost, where the aircraft is yawed 180 0 into a vertical dive,
accelerated and recovered into level flight. This manoeuvre will reverse the direction of
flight.

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PRINCIPLES

Description:

 "Stall turn" is a misnomer as aircraft not really

stalled at the top of this manoeuvre. (AoA < CA)
 Entry to a stall turn as per loop
 Aircraft is pitched to a vertical path and held at
0g until well approximately Vs
 Airflow from propeller provides some control
power for the elevator and rudder
 Rudder used to yaw the aircraft 180 0 until facing
vertically down
 Outside wing is to cut vertically through the
horizon
 Accelerated out of yaw in a 0g vertical dive until
backpressure is used to recover from the
manoeuvre

CONSIDERATIONS

 Slipstream, torque and gyroscopic effects dominate aircraft behaviour during

this manoeuvre.

1800 Yaw - Secondary Effects:

 Yaw gives rise to a roll. To counteract this, we need to apply aileron in the opposite
direction to the yaw
 The propeller is a gyroscope. Gyroscopic effect of the propeller acts to push the nose
towards the pilots head (nose up). To counteract this we need forward stick pressure
 To monitor performance, watch that the wing cuts in a straight line through the horizon.

AEROBATIC PILOT TRAINING NOTES Issue 6 09/2009 Page 32 of 77

Too Slow at the top:

 If the aircraft slows too much at the top of a stall turn, it is hard to
properly regain control and a departure from controlled flight can be
noticed
 Once the departure is noticed, the pilot must firmly hold all controls in
the central position to avoid damage. The controls will try to "force"
themselves out of your hands
 The aircraft will fall by the nose towards the ground
 After this happens, the aircraft will accelerate and when flying speed is
achieved we may fly away

Too fast at the top:

 If the aircraft is to fast at the top of a stall turn, the radius of the 180 0
yaw will increase due to a skidding effect.

Vertical:

 Judge a vertical climb by looking at the angular difference between the wing and the
horizontal.
 The fuselage and the aerofoil are slightly misaligned by means of a design initiative.

Slipstream Effect:

 Low IAS + High Power = High slipstream Effect

AEROBATIC PILOT TRAINING NOTES Issue 6 09/2009 Page 33 of 77

AIR EXERCISE

 Lookout 3600 clearing turn

 Select a ground reference line

Entry

1. Adjust power to 2500 RPM (8KCAB)

2. Lower the nose to dive the aircraft to entry speed 120 kts (8KCAB)
3. Positively but smoothly apply backpressure to establish a vertical attitude
(roughly 3.5 g)
4. Apply full power when the nose passes through the horizon
5. Look to the wingtip to judge the vertical climb position and maintain the
vertical by applying slight forward pressure

During

6. Just prior to the 1g stall airspeed - 50 kts (8KCAB) apply full rudder in the desired
direction
7. Apply opposite aileron to prevent roll due to yaw
8. Apply forward pressure to prevent pitch due to gyroscopic effect

Exit

9. Established in the vertical dive, reduce power so as not to exceed red line
10. Smoothly apply firm backpressure to exit the dive. Monitor IAS
11. Establish the aircraft in straight and level flight

AEROBATIC PILOT TRAINING NOTES Issue 6 09/2009 Page 34 of 77

AIRMANSHIP

 Lookout
 Smooth but positive use of controls
 Engine and airspeed limitations not exceeded
 Pre-aerobatic checks
 Hand over/ Take over procedure

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LESSON PLAN No. 55
Sequence no. 7 AILERON & SLOW ROLLS

AIM

To learn how to conduct an aileron roll and a slow roll. This involves rolling the aircraft
solely around the longitudinal axis whilst maintaining constant direction.

APPLICATION

An aerobatic manoeuvre and a coordination exercise

DEFINITIONS

Aileron Roll - A roll nominally about the longitudinal axis. Ideally with a fairly rapid roll and
with a straight flight path. The aircraft will climb and descend throughout the roll.

Slow Roll - A roll around the longitudinal axis with a straight flight path. The slow roll is a
development of the aileron roll.
Rolling g - A non-symmetrical load factor experienced by each wing when simultaneously
rolling and pitching. Can cause structural damage and is not desired.

PRINCIPLES

Roll rate:

 High performance aircraft have roll rates of up to 400 0/sec

 Typical aerobatics training aircraft have roll rates of around 60 0/sec - 900/sec
 Because of this reduced roll rate, it is normal to raise the nose slightly above the
horizon before we commence the roll.

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 The degree to which we raise the nose before the roll depends on roll rate and
airspeed

CONSIDERATIONS

Backpressure:

 Before the roll is commenced, check the nose is stationary (neutralising the control
stick)
 If there is backpressure during the roll, the aircraft will “barrel” and your manoeuvre will
look more like a poorly executed barrel roll. Also, you will bottom out of your entry
altitude.

AIR EXCERCISE

 Lookout 3600 clearing turn

 Select ground reference point

Entry

1. Adjust power to maintain 2500 RPM

2. Lower nose to gain entry speed 105 kts (8KCAB) although 110 kts may be used
(note VA at light weight).
3. Smoothly apply firm back pressure to establish around 10 0 nose up (Climb
attitude)
4. Roll the aircraft with aileron to the desired direction.

During

5. As the aircraft reaches the inverted, ease off on the rudder and apply forward
pressure to hold the nose of the aircraft in roughly the same position above the
horizon.

Exit

6. As the aircraft passes through the inverted position, increase the rudder in the
direction of the turn and ease off on the forward pressure.
7. Resume straight and level flight.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE SLOW ROLL

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Having mastered the aileron roll the technique should be refined to perform a true slow
roll. The initial nose up attitude is less so additional forward stick pressure is required
when inverted to maintain altitude.
An important factor in the slow roll is the specific variations in rudder application
throughout the roll:
1. Initially used to counteract any yaw when aileron is deflected.
2. Then applied to prevent the nose dropping as the wings approach knife-edge.
3. Centralise the rudder then apply rudder in the direction of the roll again to
prevent the nose dropping near the knife-edge position and, finally, to maintain
heading.
Remember the term “top rudder” as an aid.

AIRMANSHIP

 Lookout
 Pre-aerobatic HHELLL checks
 Smooth and positive control inputs
 Taxiing
 Hand over / Take over "I have control" procedure
 Take care not to exceed redline

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LESSON PLAN No. 56
Sequence no. 8 UNUSUAL ATTITUDES

AIM

To be able to safely recover from any unexpected attitude during aerobatic flight with
minimal height loss.

APPLICATION

 Too slow at the top of a stall turn

 Mishandled or misjudged manoeuvres
 Falling out of a loop
 Unintentional spin
 Engine failure during aerobatic manoeuvres

PRINCIPLES

Nearest Horizon:

 This is the horizon that would take the least amount of pitch to reach
 This can involve rolling the wings level from an inverted position, or pulling out
of a dive
 Allows the pilot to recover with minimal height loss

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Nose low recoveries:

 Aiming to contain the airspeed and recover to straight and level with minimal
height loss
 Must be careful not to over stress the aircraft
 Do not commit yourself to a low nose attitude at the beginning of the manoeuvre

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Nose high recoveries:

 You are trying to avoid a

stall and/or departure
from controlled flight
 Immediate actions are to
centralise the control
column and rudder.
 Hold controls firmly to
avoid control surface
damage
 When the nose passes
through the horizon, the
aircraft will accelerate
 Recover from dive
 Careful not to overstress
the aircraft or exceed
max RPM

CONSIDERATIONS

Roll rate:

 A faster roll rate will allow the aircraft to be recovered from an inverted - unusual
attitude more quickly

Weight:

 The heavier you aircraft is, the faster it will accelerate once the nose is low

Thrust:

 Thrust will assist weight in your downward acceleration

 To minimise downward acceleration, reduce power

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AIR EXERCISE

Instructor to initiate unusual attitude...

1. Centralise controls
2. Identify nearest horizon
3. Roll and pitch to this horizon
4. Recover

If at an extremely high nose attitude with low airspeed, centralise controls, wait for
the nose to drop through the horizon, allow airspeed to increase and recover.

AIRMANSHIP

 Lookout
 Engine and airframe limitations not exceeded
 Correctly identify nearest horizon
 Smooth coordinated use of controls
 Crossed controls + low airspeed = spin
 Hand over / take over "I have control" procedure

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Sample Airplane Flight Manual

The following notes should be read in conjunction with the Pilots Operating Manual (POM)
and the Airplane Flight Manual (AFM).

IMPORTANT: Refer to the AFM and associated documents approved for the actual
aeroplane to be flown. . In the event of any conflict the AFM, including these notes, takes
priority over the POM.

Note that many airspeeds in the AFM are expressed in CAS – refer the summary sheet
above for key airspeeds converted to IAS.

Paragraph numbers 1 to 4 below correspond to paragraph numbers in the AFM.

CONTENTS

1. LIMITATIONS

2. PROCEDURES

3. PERFORMANCE INFORMATION

4. LOADING INFORMATION

5. UNIT CONVERSION

AEROBATIC PILOT TRAINING NOTES Issue 6 09/2009 Page 43 of 77

1. LIMITATIONS

1.1.2 Oil temperature

Green arc 43OC to 118OC
Red radial 118OC

1.1.3 Max gross weight 816 kg (1800 lb) – see section 4 for loading

1.1.5 Day VFR only – night operations not permitted – refer CAO 20.18

1.1.7 Left side window do not open above 113 kts (130 mph)

1.2.1 Maneuvering speed 115 kts (132 mph) CAS at max gross weight.
Reduce by 6 kts for each 100 kg below max gross weight.

1.2.7 Maneuvers
Loop 140 122 kts
mph
Immelmann 145 126 kts
mph
Stall Turn (Hammerhead 140 122 kts
Turn) mph
Snap Roll (Flick Roll) 90 78 kts
NOT PERMITTED mph
English Bunt 70 61 kts
mph
Vertical ½ Slow Roll Up 160 139 kts
mph
Vertical Slow Roll Down 60 52 kts
mph
Slow or Barrel Roll 120 104 kts
mph
Outside Loop (enter from 70 61 kts
top) mph
Horizontal Eight 140 122 kts
mph
Stall Turn (inverted) 140 122 kts
mph

2. PROCEDURES

2.1.5 Fuel System

Total useable fuel capacity 151.3 litres (40 US Gallons)

2.1.9 Occupant Restraint Systems

The aircraft is fitted with a five-point harness as the primary restraint system and
aerobatic harness with a secondary belt also fitted.

2.1.10 Pre-Flight Check

1. g – an ELT is not fitted.
3. a & 5. a – main wheel tyre pressure – 24 ± 4 psi (165 ± 28 kp)
3. b & 5. b – use dipstick to visually check fuel tank contents.
AEROBATIC PILOT TRAINING NOTES Issue 6 09/2009 Page 44 of 77
 4. a. – oil – refer POM Page 7-3. Typically, add 1 qt if below 6 qts.
Use ashless dispersant oil such as Aeroshell W100. Alternatively, a
multigrade oil such as AeroShell W 15W-50 could be used in some aircraft.
8.c – tail wheel tyre pressure – 30 ± 10 psi (207 ± 69 kp)

3. PERFORMANCE INFORMATION

3.1 Climb Speeds

Speed for best rate of climb 69 kts (79 mph).
Speed for best angle of climb 57 kts (65 mph)
(reduce speeds by 1 kt for every 3500 ft altitude)

Note that the POM provides climb performance for a 56” pitch propeller only and cruise
performance data for a 60” pitch propeller only. Refer the table below for some typical
figures in cruise for the 60” pitch propeller and approximate cruise data for a 58” pitch
propeller .

Standard propeller (58” pitch) Cruise propeller (60” pitch)

2410 rpm at 2500 ft 100 KIAS, 106 KTAS 2310 rpm at 2500 ft 104 KIAS, 108 KTAS
2480 rpm at 5000 ft 98 KIAS, 107 KTAS 2380 rpm at 5000 ft 99 KIAS, 109 KTAS

4. LOADING INFORMATION

Refer to the empty weight statement and loading system approved for the specific aircraft.

5. UNIT CONVERSION

TO CONVERT INTO MULTIPLY BY

Feet Metres 0.31
US Gallons Litres 3.8
Litres of fuel Kilograms 0.72
Pounds Kilograms 0.4536
MPH KTS 0.869

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 References

1. CAAP 155-1 Aerobatics

2. Pilot Operating Manual 1978-79 Series Decathlon

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