Unit – 1

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY

Matter:
Matter is defined as anything that occupies space, possesses mass and the presence of which can
be felt by any one or more of our senses.
Some examples of matter are: water, air, metals, plants, animals etc.

Classification of matter:
There are two ways of classifying matter.
(A) Physical classification (B) Chemical classification.
(A) Physical classification: Based on physical state, matter is classified into the following 3 types.
(1) Solids (2) Liquids (3) Gases.
(B) Chemical classification: Based on chemical composition of various substances, matter is classified
into two major categories. (1) Pure substances (2) Mixtures.

Matter

Physical Chemical
Classification Classification

Solid Liqui d Gases Pure Mixtures

s ds Substance

Homogeneous Heterogeneous
Elements Compounds
(Solutions)
(All Homogeneous)

Inorganic Organic
Compounds Compounds

Pure substances:
A material containing only one type of substance is called a ‘pure substance’. Pure substances
have a fixed composition. Eg Copper, silver, gold, water, glucose etc. The constituents of a pure substance
cannot be separated by simple physical methods.
Pure substances are further classified into two types called ‘Elements’ and ‘Compounds’

Elements:
An element is defined as a pure substance that contains only one kind of atoms. Eg: Carbon,
sulphur, iron, lead, gold, oxygen etc
Some elements contain single atoms held together as their constituent particles. Eg sodium, copper
etc. But in some other elements two or more atoms combine together to form molecules of the element. Eg
Oxygen [ O atom + O atom → O2 molecule]

There are about 112 elements known so far. Out of these, 92 elements occur in nature, whereas the
remaining have been prepared artificially.

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Elements are further divided into following types.
(a) Metals: These are generally solids and have characteristics such as hardness, malleability,
ductility, high tensile strength, lusture and ability to conduct heat and electricity. Majority of
elements (65%) are metals. E. g. copper, iron, aluminium, silver etc.
(b) Non – metals: These are generally non –lustrous, brittle, poor conductors of heat and electricity.
E.g. sulphur, phosphorous, nitrogen, hydrogen etc.
(c) Metalloids: These elements have characteristics common to metals as well as non – metals.
E.g. Arsenic, tin, bismuth, antimony etc.

Compounds:
A compound is a pure substance containing two or more elements combined together in a fixed
proportion by weight. E.g. carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphuric acid (H2SO4), nitric acid (HNO3), water (H2O)
etc.
The constituents of a compound cannot be decomposed into its elements by physical methods. They can be
separated only by chemical methods.

The properties of a compound are completely different from those of its constituent elements.

The compounds are further classified into following types.

(a) Organic compounds Carbon is the essential constituent of these compounds. They are originally
obtained from living sources such as plants and animals.
E.g. fats, oils, proteins etc.
(b) Inorganic compounds: These are usually obtained from minerals and rocks. They contain any two
or more elements out of 109 elements.
E.g. common salt, marble, gypsum etc.

Mixtures:
Mixtures may be defined as the substances, which are made up of two or more pure substances. A
mixture contains two or more substances present in any ratio. Eg : sugar solution, air, tea etc. The
components of a mixture can be separated by some suitable physical methods such as simple hand picking,
filtration, crystallization, distillation etc.

Mixtures are of two types: (a) homogeneous and (b) heterogeneous mixtures.
Homogeneous mixtures: In a homogenous mixture, the components completely mix with each
other and its composition is uniform throughout. These mixtures are also known as solutions
E.g. air, sugar solution, brass, colored glass etc.

Heterogeneous mixtures: In heterogeneous mixtures the composition is not uniform throughout.

A heterogeneous mixture consists of two or more distinct phases. The components of a
heterogeneous mixture can be observed with naked eye or with the help of a microscope.
E.g. Sand and water, smoke, oil in water etc.

Differences between compounds and mixtures

Compound Mixture

1. The constituents of a compound are present in a fixed 1. The constituents of a mixture may be present in
ratio by mass. any ratio.

2. A compound is always homogeneous in nature. 2. Mixture may or may not homogeneous in

nature.
3. The constituents of a compound cannot be easily 3. The constituents of a mixture can be easily
separated separated.

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 4.Compounds are formed as a result of chemical change. 4. Mixtures are formed as a result of simple
mixing.

5. Chemical compound possess sharp meting and boiling 5. Melting point and boiling point of mixtures are
points . usually not sharp.

6. The properties of a compound are different from those 6. The properties of mixture are midway
of its constituents. between those of its constituents.

Laws of chemical combination:

The chemical reactions take place according to certain laws called the “laws of chemical
combination”. These are
(1) Law of conservation of mass
(2) Law of constant composition
(3) Law of multiple proportion
(4) Law of reciprocal proportion
(5) Gay Lussac’s law of gaseous volumes

(1) Law of conservation of mass:

This law was stated by the French chemist A. Lavoisier. This law states that “matter can neither be
created nor destroyed.” In other words “ in all physical and chemical changes, the total mass of the
reactants is equal to that of the products.

Illustration: 100gm of mercuric oxide when heated in a closed tube, decomposed to produce 92.6 gm
of mercury and 7.4 gm of oxygen gas.
HgO → Hg + ½ O2
100g 92.6g 7.4g
Thus during decomposition, matter is neither gained nor lost.

(2) Law of constant composition or Law of definite proportions:

This law was given by the French chemist, Joseph Proust. The law states that “ a given
compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements by weight.”

Illustration: Carbon dioxide can be obtained from different sources such as (a) burning of carbon (b)
heating limestone, (c) by the action of dil HCl on marble pieces. It can be shown experimentally that
different sample of carbon dioxide contain carbon and oxygen in the ratio of 3:8 by mass.

(3) Law of multiple proportions:

This law was given by John Dalton. This law states that “when two elements combine to form
more than one compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other, are
in the ratio of small whole numbers”.

Illustration: Hydrogen combines with oxygen to form two compounds, namely water and hydrogen
peroxide.
Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water
2g 16g 18g
Hydrogen + Oxygen → Hydrogen peroxide
2g 32g 34g
Here the masses of oxygen(16g and 32g) which combines with a fixed mass of hydrogen (2g) bear a
simple ratio, 16:32 or 1: 2

(4) Law of reciprocal proportions:

This law was put forward by Ritcher. The law states that “ The ratio of the weights of two
elements A and B which combines separately with a fixed weight of the third element C is either the
same or some simple multiple of the ratio of the weights in which A and B combine directly with each
other.

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 Illustration: Carbon and sulphur combine with oxygen to form carbon dioxide (CO 2) and sulphur
dioxide (SO2). They also combine with each other to form carbon disulphide (CS 2).
In CO2, 12 parts by mass of carbon combine with 32 parts by mass of oxygen.
In SO2, 32 parts by mass of sulphur combine 32 parts by mass of oxygen.
Therefore ratio of masses of carbon and sulphur which combine with fixed mass (32 parts) of oxygen
is
12: 32 or 3: 8 --------- (1)
In CS2, 12 parts by mass of carbon combine with 64 parts by mass of sulphur. The ratio of masses of
carbon and sulphur is

12: 64 or 3:16 ------- (2)

The two ratio (1) and (2) are related to each other as
3/8: 3/16 = 2:1

(5) Gay Lussac’s law of combining volumes:

Gay Lussac observed that “when gases combine or are produced in a chemical reaction, they do so
in a simple ratio by volumes provided all gases are at same conditions of temperature and pressure.

Illustration: 100 ml of hydrogen combine with 50 ml of oxygen to give 100ml of water vapour.

Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water

100ml 50ml 100ml
The ratio of volumes of hydrogen, oxygen and water is 2: 1: 2, which is a simple whole number ratio.

Dalton’s atomic theory

John Dalton is 1808 put forward a theory known as Dalton’s atomic theory. The main points of the
theory are
(1) Matter is made up of extremely small, indivisible, particles called atoms.
(2) Atoms of same substance are identical in all respects in size, shape and mass.
(3) Atoms of different elements are different in all respects.
(4) Atom is the smallest particle that takes part in chemical reactions.
(5) Atoms of different elements may combine with each other in fixed, simple, whole number ratio to
form compounds.
(6) Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed. Chemical reactions involve only reorganization of
atoms.
Limitations of Dalton’s atomic theory: The main drawbacks of Dalton’s atomic theory are,

(1) It failed to explain how atoms of different elements differ from each other.
(2) It could not explain how and why atoms combine to form molecules.
(3) It could not explain the nature of forces that bind together different atoms in a molecule
(4) It could not explain Gay Lussac’s law of combining volumes.
(5) It did not make any distinction between particles of an element (atom) or a compound (molecule).

Modern atomic theory

The main points of modern atomic theory are,
(1) Atom is no longer considered to be indivisible. Atom is composed of sub – atomic particles such as
electrons protons and neutrons.
(2) Atoms of the same element may not be similar in all respects. Atoms of same element which
possess different masses are called isotopes.
(3) Atoms of different elements may be similar in one or more respects. Atoms of different elements,
which possess same mass, are called isobars.
(4) Atoms is the smallest unit, which takes part in chemical reactions.
(5) The ratio in which atoms unite may be fixed and integral but may not be simple. For example in
sucrose (C12H22O11) molecule, the ratio of C, H and O is 12:22:11, which is not simple.
(6) Atoms of one element can be changed into atoms of other element by artificial transmutation.

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 (7) The mass of atom can be changed into energy according to Einstein’s equation E = mc2 [E =
energy, m = mass, c = velocity of light]. Thus atom is not longer indestructible.

Berzelius hypothesis
Berzelius correlated Dalton’s atomic theory and Gay Lussac’s law and put forward a
generalization known as Berzelius hypothesis.
It states that: equal volume of all gases under similar conditions of temperature and pressure
contain equal number of atoms.

Avogadro’s law
Avogadro’s law states that. “Equal volume of all gases under similar conditions of temperature
and pressure contain equal number of molecules”

Avogadro made distinction between atoms and molecules.

The smallest particle of an element that takes part in a chemical reaction is called an atom. Atoms
may or may not have independent existence.
The smallest particle of a substance (element or compound) that has independent existence is
called molecule.

Avogadro argued that smallest particle of gases that has independent existence is a molecule and not an
atom.
For example consider the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to produce water.
Hydrogen + Oxygen → water vapour
2 vol 1 Vol 2 Vol. (By expriment)
Avogadro could explain the above result by considering the molecule to be polyatomic. Here
hydrogen and oxygen are diatomic and during the formation of water molecule, oxygen undergo splitting to
produce oxygen atoms.

Atomic mass
The actual mass of an atom is extremely small and hence cannot be used for practical purposes.
Therefore the atomic masses are expressed as relative masses i.e. with respect to the mass of a standard
atom. Initially hydrogen was arbitrarily assigned a mass of 1 and other elements were assigned masses
relative to it. But the present system of atomic masses is based on carbon-12 as the standard.

“The atomic mass of an element is defined as a number which expresses how many times an atom
of the element is heavier than 1/12th of the mass of a carbon – 12 atom”

The scale in which relative atomic masses of different atoms are expressed is called atomic mass
unit scale (a.m.u). One atomic mass unit is defined as a mass exactly 1/12 the of the mass of a carbon – 12
atom

Thus the atomic mass of hydrogen is 1.008. amu while that of oxygen is 15.99 amu (taken as 16
amu).
Today ‘amu’ has been replaced by ‘u’ which is known as unified mass.

Average atomic mass

Many naturally occurring elements exist as more than one isotope. In such cases atomic mass of
the element is average of atomic masses of different isotopes considering their relative abundance

For example ordinary chlorine is a mixture of two isotopes with atomic masses 35 amu and 37
amu. They are present in the ratio of 3:1.

Hence the average atomic mass of Chlorine is 35  3 + 37  1 = 35.5 amu

3+1
Gram atomic mass

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 The atomic mass of an element expressed in grams is called gram atomic mass.
For example the atomic mass of Oxygen = 16 amu.
Therefore Gram atomic mass of oxygen (Or 1 gram atom of Oxygen) = 16 gm

Molecular mass:
The molecular mass of a substance is a number which expresses how many times a molecule of
that substance is heavier than 1/12th of the mass of a carbon–12 atom.
For example, the molecular mass of water (H2O) is 18 amu. It means that a molecule of water is
18 times heavier than 1/12th of mass of carbon atom (C –12).
The molecular mass of a substance can be obtained by adding the atomic masses of all the atoms
present in the molecule .
E.g. Molecular mass of H2O = 2 (atomic mass of H) + atomic mass of O
= 2 x 1.008 + 16 = 18.02 amu.

Gram Molecular mass:

The molecular mass of a substance expressed in grams is called gram molecular mass
For example: The molecular mass of H2SO4 = 98.amu
Gram molecular mass of H2SO4 (Or one gram molecule of H2SO4) = 98.0.g.

Formula mass
Ionic compounds such as sodium chloride do not contain discrete molecules as their constituent
units. In such compounds positive (Na+) and negative ions (Cl-) are arranged in three dimensional
structure. Here each Na+ is surrounded by six Cl- and vice-versa. Therefore in such compounds we not use
the term molecular mass, instead we use the term formula mass since in solid state sodium chloride does
not exist as a single unity.

Formula mass of an ionic compound is obtained by adding atomic mass of all the atoms in the
formula unit of the compound.
E.g.: Formula mass of NaCl = Atomic mass of sodium + Atomic mass of chlorine
23 u + 35.5 u = 58.5 u
Mole Concept

One mole is defined as the amount of the substance that contain as many specified elementary
particles as the number of atoms in 12 g of Carbon–12 isotope. The elementary particles may be atoms,
molecules, ions etc. This number has been experimentally found to be 6.02  1023 particles. This number is
also known as Avogadro’s number or Avogadro’s constant (No).

One mole = 6.02  1023 particles

Mass of one-mole of a substance in grams is called molar mass. The molar mass in grams is
numerically equal to atomic / molecular / formula mass in u.
Eg. Molar mass of water = 18.02g
Molar mass of NaCl = 58.5 g

In case of atoms one mole is equal to gram atomic mass and in case of molecules one mole is
equal to gram molecular mass.
E.g.:- One mole of Oxygen atoms = 6.02  1023 Oxygen atoms = 16 gram = GAM of Oxygen
One mole of oxygen molecule = 6.02  1023 Oxygen molecules = 32 gram = GAM of Oxygen
One mole of water molecule = 6.02  1023 water molecules = 18 gram = GAM of water

Mole and Volume

One mole molecules (6.02  1023 molecules) of all gases occupy 22.4 litre at 273K and 760 mm
pressure (STP). The volume occupied by one mole molecules of a gaseous substance is called molar
volume or gram molecular volume (GMV). Hence, molar volume of all gases at STP is 22.4 litres.

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Mole concept in ionic compounds
One mole of sodium chloride (NaCl)
= 6.02  1023 NaCl units
= 6.02  1023 Na+ ions + 6.02  1023 Cl– ions
Similarly
One mole of calcium chloride (CaCl2)
= 6.02  1023 CaCl2 units
= 6.02  1023 Ca 2+ ions + 2 x 6.02  1023 Cl– ions
Percentage composition

Percentage composition of a compound is the amount of various constituent elements present per
100 parts by mass of the substance.

% mass of an element = Mass of that element in the compound 100

Molar mass of the compound

For example the percentage composition of hydrogen and oxygen in water is

Molar mass of water = 18.02g

%age of hydrogen = 2  1.008  100 = 11.18 %

18.02
16
%age of oxygen =  100 = 88.79 %
18.02

Empirical formula and molecular formula:

The molecular formula of a compound may be defined as the formula, which gives the actual
number of atoms of various elements present in the molecule of the compound.

For example the molecular formula of glucose is C6H12O6. This means that a molecule of glucose
contains six carbon atoms, twelve hydrogen atoms and six oxygen atoms.

In order to find out molecular formula of a compound, the first step is to determine its empirical
formula from the percentage composition of various elements present in the compound.

The empirical formula of a compound may be defined as the formula, which gives the simplest
whole number ratio of atoms of the various elements present in the molecule of the compound.

For example the empirical formula of Glucose is CH 2O which shows that C, H and O are present
in the simplest ratio of 1:2:1

Molecular formula = Empirical formula x n Where ‘n’ = 1,2,3, -----

n = Molecular formula = Molecular mass

Empirical formula Empirical formula mass
Calculation of empirical formula from percentage composition
1. Divide the percentage composition of each element by its atomic mass. This will give the relative
number of moles of various elements in the compound.

2. Divide each of the numbers thus obtained by the smallest of them to obtain the simplest whole
number ratio between the moles of each element.

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 3. If the ratio obtained above is fractional multiply by a suitable number to obtain the simplest whole
number ratio.

4. Finally write down the symbols of the various elements and put the above number as subscripts.
This gives the empirical formula.

Steps for writing the molecular formula

1. Calculate the empirical formula as described above.

2. Find out empirical formula mass by adding the atomic mass of all atoms present in the empirical
formula.

3. Divide the molecular mass (determined by suitable method) by the empirical formula mass to
obtain the value of ‘n’

4. Multiply the empirical formula with ‘n’ to get the molecular formula.

Example: An organic compound on analysis gave the following data. C = 57.82%, H = 3.6% and the rest
is oxygen. Its vapour density is 83. Find its empirical and molecular formula.

(1) Calculation of empirical formula.

Element Percentage At: mass Relative no: of Simple ratio Simplest

moles of moles whole
number ratio

C 57.82 12 57.82/12 = 4.80 4.8/2.4 =2 4

H 3.6 1 3.60/1 = 3.60 3.6/2.4 = 1.5 3
O 38.58 16 38.58/16 = 2.4 2.4/2.4 =1 2
Empirical formula is C4H3O2.

(2) Calculation of molecular formula

Empirical formula mass = 12  4 + 1  3 + 2  16 = 83

Molecular mass = 2  V.P = 2  83 = 166
n = molecular mass /Empirical formula mass = 166/83 = 2
Molecular formula = Empirical formula  n
= C4H3O2  2 = C8H6O4

Chemical Equations:
Representation of a chemical change in terms of symbols and formulae of the reactants and
products is called a chemical equation.

For example zinc react with hydrochloric acid to form zinc chloride and hydrogen. This reaction
can be represented as
Zn + HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
Here no attempt has been made to equalize the number of atoms of various elements on both sides.
Such an equation is called skeleton equations.

A chemical equation in which the number of atoms of each element is equal on the reactant side
and the product side is called a balanced equation.

The balanced equation for the above reaction is

8

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 Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2

Importance of a chemical equation:

(1) A chemical equation tells us the name of the various reactants and products.
(2) It expresses the relative number of molecules of the reactants and products taking part in the
reaction.
(3) It expresses the relative number of moles of reactants and products.
(4) It expresses the relative masses of reactants and products.
(5) It expresses the relative volumes of gaseous reactants and products.

Balancing a chemical equation

The balancing of a chemical equation is based upon the law of conservation of mass and Dalton’s
atomic theory.
Simple equations can be balanced by Hit and trial method. The important points are
1. The elementary gases like hydrogen, oxygen etc involved in the reaction are represented in their
atomic form. After balancing, it is changed to molecular form.
2. The formula which contains maximum number of elements is selected first and the atoms present
in it are balanced.
3. If the above step fails, the atoms of elements which occur at minimum number of places are
balanced first.

Eg. Balance the following equation

Fe + H2O → Fe3O4 +H2
Step –1 Changing the elementary substance hydrogen to atomic form
Fe + H2O → Fe3O4 +H
Step –2 Select the compound Fe3O4 which has largest number of atoms and balance the equation based on
that.
3Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 +8H
Step – 3 Concert the equation into molecular form.
3Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2

Stoichiometry: Calculation based on chemical equation

The relationship between the masses of chemical reactants and products in a balanced chemical
equation is called stoichiometry of the reaction. The term stoichiometry is derived from Greek words
stoicheion meaning element and metron meaning measure.

The stoichiometric calculations involve the following steps.

1. Write the balanced chemical equation
2. From the chemical equation write the molar ratio between reactants and products.
3. Convert these moles into the desired parameters such as mass or volume.
4. Calculate the final result by applying unitary method.

For example consider the reaction between N2 and H2 to form ammonia in the presence of catalyst

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3(g)

1 mole 3 moles 2 moles
6.02  1023 molecules 3  6.02  1023 molecules 2  6.02  1023 molecules
28g of nitrogen 3  2 g of hydrogen 2  17 g of ammonia
22. 4 L 3  22.4L 2  22.4 L

Limiting reagent
In some chemical reactions, some of the reactants which is taken in excess is left over after the
completion of the reaction.
9

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For example consider the reaction
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
Suppose 2 moles of H2 and 2 moles of O2 are available for reaction. But one mole of O2 is
required for complete combustion of 2 moles of H 2. Therefore 1 mole of O2 will be left over after the
completion of the reaction. But hydrogen is completely consumed in the reaction. Here hydrogen is called
the limiting reagent.

A limiting reagent may be defined as the reactant, which is completely consumed during the
reaction. The reactant which is not completely consumed is referred to as excess reagent
In the above reaction H2 is the limiting reagent and O2 is excess reagent.

Mole concept in solutions

Solution: A solution is defined as a homogeneous mixture of two or more components, the relative
amounts of which can be varied up to a certain limit.
E.g.:- NaCl in water
If a solution consists of only two components, it is called a binary solution. The component
present in smaller amount is called the solute, while the component present in larger amount is called the
solvent.
The concentration of a solution can be expressed in a number of ways as follows.

1) Mass percent: It is the amount of solute in grams present in 100g of the solution

Mass percent = Mass of solute  100

Mass of solution
2) Molarity (M): It is defined as the number of moles of the solute present in 1000 ml or 1L of the
solution. Its unit is moles per liter (mole L –1)

Molarity = No of moles of solute

Volume of solution in liters

= Mass of solute  1000

Molecular mass of solute  Volume of solution in ml
3) Molality (m): The molality of solution is defined as the number of moles of the solute dissolved in
1000 g ( 1Kg) of the solvent.

Molality = No of moles of solute

Mass of solvent in Kg

= Mass of solute (g)  1000

Molecular mass of solute  mass of solvent in gram
4) Mole fraction: It is the ratio of number of moles of one component to the total number of moles present
in the solution. It is denoted by X.
If nA and nB are the number moles of two components A and B present in a solution,

nA
Mole fraction of A, (XA) =
n A + nB

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 nB
Mole fraction of B, (XB) =
n A + nB

nA nB
XA + X B = + = 1
n A + nB n A + nB

Therefore X A = 1 - XB and X B = 1 - XA
5.Normality (N): It is the number of gram equivalents of the solute dissolved per litre of the solution. It is
denoted by N.
Normality (N) = Number of gram equivalents of solute
Volume of solution in litre.
Or
Normality (N) = Mass of solute x 1000
Equivalent mass of solute x Vol of solution in ml
Relationship between Normality and Molarity
Normality = Molarity x molar mass
Equivalent mass
Or
Normality = Molarity x Acidity (or Basicity)

8.Formality: Formality is the number of formula masses of the solute dissolved per litre of the solution.

Formality = Number of formula masses of solute

Volume of the solution in litre
It is used to express the concentration of ionic substances. The sum of the atomic masses of various
atoms in the formula of an ionic compound is called formula mass.

Molarity equation
If a solution having molarity M1 and volume V1 is diluted to volume V2. so that the new molarity
is M2, then

M 1 V1 = M 2 V2
This equation is called molarity equation

If V1 ml of solution of molarity M1 is mixed with V2 ml of solution of same substance with

molarity M2 then the molarity M of the new solution is given by

M = M1 V1 + M2V2
(V1 + V2)

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 ADDITIONAL ENTRANCE TOPICS

The term atom was introduced by Ostwald

The term molecule was introduced by Avogadro
The concept of element was introduced by Robert Boyle

Loschmidt number The number of molecules in 1 cm3 of gas at STP is called Loschmidt number. Its value
is 2.688 x 1019. The calculation of this number is based on the Faraday’s laws of electrolysis.
• Equivalent mass
It is the number of parts of a substance that combines with or displaces directly or indirectly 1.008 parts by
mass of hydrogen, 8 parts by mass of oxygen and 35.5 parts by mass of chlorine.
Atomic masses and molecular masses of elements and compounds are always constant but equivalent mass
may change. A compound has different equivalent mass in different reactions.
(i) Equivalent mass of an element = Atomic mass
Valency
(ii) Equivalent mass of an acid = Molecular mass
Basicity
(Basicity of an acid is the number of replaceable hydrogen atoms in one molecule of the acid)
(iii) Equivalent mass of a base = Molecular mass
Acidity
(Acidity is the number of replaceable OH groups in one molecule of the base)
(iv) Equivalent mass of a salt = Formula mass .
Total positive or negative charges

(v) Equivalent mass of a reducing agent

= Formula mass
Number of electrons lost or Total change in oxidation number
(vi) Equivalent mass of an oxidizing agent
= Formula mass
Number of electrons gained per molecule or Total change in O.N.

(vii) Equivalent mass of radicals = Formula mass of radical

Number of units of charge
• Equivalent mass of common oxidizing agent KMnO 4 changing with medium of a reaction
(i) Equivalent mass of KMnO4 in acidic medium
MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e- → Mn2+ + 4H2O
KMnO4 → MnSO4
Change in oxidation number of Mn is from +7 to +2 = +5.
158
Equivalent mass of KMnO4 = = 31.60
5
(ii) Equivalent mass of KMnO4 in neutral medium
MnO4 + 4H+ + 3e- → MnO2 + 2H2O
KMnO4 → MnO2
Change in O.N. of Mn is from +7 to +4 = +3

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 158
Equivalent mass of KMnO4 = = 52.67
3
(iii) Equivalent mass of KMnO4 in basic medium
MnO4- + e- → MnO42-
KMnO4 → K2MnO4
Change in O.N. is from +7 to +6 = +1

Equivalent mass of KMnO4 = 158 = 158

1
• Methods of determining Atomic Masses
1. Dulong and Petit’s method
Atomic mass x Specific heat (in cal per gram) = 6.4 (app.) [Dulong and Petit’s law]

Thus Atomic mass (app.) = 6.4

Sp. Heat (in cal per gram)

This law is applicable only to solid elements except Be, B, C and Si.

2. Specific heat method

This method is suitable only for elementary gases. The two types of specific heats of
gases are Cp (at constant pressure) and Cv (at constant volume). Their ratio is known as  whose
value is constant (1.66 for monoatomic, 1.40 for diatomic and 1.33 for triatomic gases). Thus
having known the atomicity of the gas from the value,
Atomic mass of gaseous element = Mol. mass
Atomicity
(Atomicity = number of atoms present in a molecule of the element).

3. Isomorphism method (Mitscherlich’s Law)

This method is based on the law of isomorphism which states that compounds having
identical critical structure have similar constitution and chemical formulae. Some examples of
isomorphous compounds are given below :
(i) K2SO3 ; K2CrO4 and K2SeO4 (Valency of S, Cr, Se = 6)
(ii) ZnSO4 . 7H2O ; MgSO4 . 7H2O ; FeSO4 . 7H2O (Valency of Zn, Mg, Fe = 2)
(iii) Alums : M2SO4 . M2` (SO4)3 x 24H2O (M = univalent ion, M` = trivalent ion)
Isomorphous substances form crystals of the same shape and can grow in saturated
solution of each other.

• Application of isomorphism
(i) The valencies of the two elements forming isomorphous salts are essentially same. Thus, if
valency of one of the elements is known that of other will also be the same.
(ii) Weights of two elements, that combine with the same weight of other elements in their respective
isomorphous compounds, are in the ratio of their atomic masses ie.

Wt. of element A that combines with a certain wt. of other element = At. Mss of A
Wt. of element B that combines with a certain wt. of other element At. Mss of B
Thus, by knowing the percentage of the two elements in their respective isomorphous
compounds and atomic mass of one element, atomic mass of other element can be calculated.
• Methods of Determining Molecular Masses
(i) Vapour density method (V.D.)

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 Molecular mass = 2 x V.D.
(ii) Diffusion method
According to Graham’s law of diffusion, rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely
proportional to the square root of its molecular mass.
r1 M2
=
r2 M1
(iii) Colligative properties
The molecular mass of a solute can be determined from different expressions involving
colligative properties.
(a) Depression in freezing point (Cryoscopic method)
K f  w  1000
Mol. mass =
W  T f
Here w is the mass of non-volatile solute in grams, W is the mass of solvent in grams, Tf is
depression in freezing point, Kf is molal depression constant.
(b) Elevation in boiling point (Ebullioscopic method)
K b  w  1000
Mol. mass =
W  Tb
Here Kb is molal elevation constant and Tb is elevation in boiling point.
(iv) Victor Meyer method
This method applies to volatile organic liquids. Suppose vapour of an organic liquid
having mass W g occupies a volume of V ml at STP. Then its molecular mass is,
W
Mol. mass = x 22,400
V
* Atmolysis: seperation of a mixture of gases on the basis of the difference in their rates of diffusion is
called atmolysis. Eg Seperation of a mixture of H2 and O2.
* Metathesis (Double decomposition): Exchanging of ions by two compounds in solution is called
metathesis or double decomposition.
Eg . AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO3
* Lightest known element → Hydrogen
* Heaviest naturally occurring atom → U-238
* One mole of electron weights → 0.55 mg
* Accurate measurement of atomic mass and the relative abundance of the isotopes can be determined
with the help of mass spectrometer developed by Aston .
• Polymorphism: The existence of a compound in different crystalline forms is called polymorphism
and the different forms are called polymorphs.
Eg ZnS has two polymorphs called zinc blende and wurzite.

• Hygroscopic substances : Substances which absorb moisture from the air are called hygroscopic
substances Eg anhydrous CuSO4, P2O5, quicklime(CaO) etc
• Deliquescent substances: Solid substances which absorb a large amount of the moisture from air so
that they become wet or pass into solution are called deliquescent and the phenomenon is called
deliquescence Eg NaOH, KOH, MgCl2, CaCl2 etc
• Efflorescent substances: Some crystalline solids when exposed to air lose their water partly or
wholly. Such substances are called efflorescent and this property is called efflorescence. Eg
Na2CO3.10H2O, Na2SO4.7H2O, CuSO4.5H2O
• ‘Barn’ is a unit of area for measuring the cross-section of nuclei [ 1 Barn = 10-24cm2 = 10-28m2]

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Dr. Rajesh.G, Tuition For Chemistry, Kochulloor, Trivandrum. Phone :2550382, 9645630330
 • ‘Fermi’ is a unit of length used for expressing nuclear diameter ( 1 fermi = 10-13 cm = 10-15m

Entrance Questions

SET-1

1. Which one of the following pairs of compounds illustrate the law of multiple proportions?
a) H2O, Na2O b) MgO, Na2O c) Na2O, BaO d) SnCl2, SnCl4
2. Two samples of lead oxide were separately reduced to metallic lead by heating in a current of
hydrogen. The weight of lead from one oxide was half the weight to lead obtained from the other
oxide. The data illustrates
a) law of reciprocal proportion b) law of constant proportion
c) law of multiple proportion d) law of equivalent proportion
3. An element has 2 isotopes with isotopic masses 50 & 55 and if their relative abundance are
respectively 40% and 60%, the average at masses of the element is____
(a) 52.5 (b) 51 (c)53 (d) 54
4. The wt of 1.5 x 10 atoms of an element is X x 10-6 kg. The atomic mass of that element is
26

(a) 4X x 10-6 (b) X x 10-6 (c) 2X x 10-6 (d) 4X x 10-3

5. The atom mass of an element is 32. The no. of atoms present in 1.6g of that element is
(a) 3 x 1022 (b) 3 x 1023 (c) 6 x 1022 (d) 3 x 1021
6. The wt of 0.75 x 1020 atoms of an element is 4 x 10-3g. The atomic mass of the element is
(a) 32 (b) 51 (c)16 (d) 54
7. Which one among the following contains max no. of atoms
a) 1.2g of Mg b) 0.48g of carbon c) 0.2g of Ca d) 1.078g of Ag e) 0.011gram atom of B
8. Among the following the one that contains lowest no of atoms
a) 5.4g of Al b) 2g of carbon c) 0.6g of Mg d) 0.88g of Ca
9. The vol. of 2g of SO2 at NTP is
(a) 0.4 L (b) 0.5 L (c) 0.7 L (d) 5 L
10. At same temp and presence, the vol occupied by 2.2 g of CO2 will be equal to that occupied by
a) 2.2g of nitrous oxide b) 2.2 g of nitric oxide c) 2.2g of nitrogen d) 2.2g of CO
e) none of these.

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Dr. Rajesh.G, Tuition For Chemistry, Kochulloor, Trivandrum. Phone :2550382, 9645630330
11. Which one among the following weighs most
a ) 1400 CC of CH4 at NTP b) 5600 CC of H2 at NTP c) 0.05 mole of SO2.
d) 1120 CC of H2S at NTP e) 2800 CC of CO2 at NTP
12. 0.25 g of a gas occupy a volume of 350cc at NTP. The gas may be
a) CH4 b) N2 c) O2 d) SO2 e) None
13. The wt of 1.5 x 1020 molecules of a substance is 0.006g. The vol occupied by 1.2g of that gas at
NTP
(a) 2.4 L (b) 1.5 L (c) 2.7 L (d) 1.12 L
14. Which one among the follows contains max no of molecules
a) 2.25g of H2O b) 3.9g of C6H6 c) 4.6 g of C2H5OH d) 1.5 g of C2H6
15. Among the following one that contain lowest no. of molecule
a) 700 cc of Cl2 at NTP b) 1400 cc of H2S at STP c) 0.5 g of CH4 d) 1g of SO2 at STP
16. 0.5g of a gas occupies a vol of 700 cc at NTP. The no. of molecules present in 0.8g of that gas at
NTP is
(a) 3 x 1022 (b) 3x 1020 (c) 6x 1025 (d) None
17. The specific heat of a metal is 0.214 cal/gm. The atomic weight is nearly
a) 6.6 b) 12 c) 30 d) 65
18. The specific heat of a metal is 0.11 and its equivalent weight is 18.61. Its exact atomic weight is
a) 58.2 b) 29.1 c) 55.83 d) 27.91
19. The atomic wt of a trivalent metal is 27. The vol of H2 displaced at NTP by treating 0.36g of that
metal with excess of dil acid is
20. The eq. wt of a metal is 20. The wt of that metal required to liberate 560 cc of H 2 at NTP from
excess of dilute acid is
21. 0.25gm of a metal M when treated with excess of a dilute acid liberated 140 cc of H2 at NTP. If
the atomic mass of metal in 60, the valency of the metal is
22. The atomic wt of a divalent metal is 40. The wt of that metal required to liberate 280 cc of H2
from a dilute acid is
23. 0.5gm of metal when treated with excess of dilute acid liberated 280 cc of H2 at NTP. The metal is
divalent. The atomic wt of the metal is
24. The equivalent wt of S in S03 is ___
25. An oxide of metal contains 60% by wt of metal. If the metal in divalent the mol wt of its oxide is
26. The atomic wt of a divalent metal is 64. The % by wt of O2 in its oxide is
27. When 1g of metal is heated in oxygen 1.25g of its oxide is formed. If the metal is trivalent, the
mol wt of its carbonate is______
28. The mol wt of the chloride formed by a trivalent metal is 133.5. The wt of oxide formed by 0.18g
of that metal is
29. An oxide of a metal contains 60% by wt of metal. The vol of H2 obtained at NTP by treating 0.48g
of that metal with excess of dilute acid is
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Dr. Rajesh.G, Tuition For Chemistry, Kochulloor, Trivandrum. Phone :2550382, 9645630330
30. The atomic wt of a divalent metal is 40. The wt of that metal required to react completely with
1.42g of Cl to form the chloride is
31. A metal forms its carbonate with the formula M2(CO3)3. If the atomic mass of metal is 27 the % of
metal in its chloride is nearly
32. The chloride of a metal contains 64.5% by wt of metal. If the metal is divalent the mol mass of its
chloride is
33. An oxide of a metal contains 40% by wt of oxygen. The % by wt of chlorine in its chloride is
nearly
34. The volume of O2 liberated at NTP by heating 6.32g of KMnO4 is ___
35. The wt K2Cr2O7 to be heated to obtain 1344cc of O2 at NTP is____
36. The volume of chlorine liberated at NTP by heating 1.58g of KMnO 4 with excess of HCl is___
37. The wt of pot. chlorate (KClO3) to be heated to obtain 336 cc of O2 at NTP.
38. When 5g of limestone is treated with excess of dil HCl, 896 cc of CO 2 are liberated at NTP. The %
purity of CaCO3 in the given sample of limestone
39. The wt of Na to be treated with enough H2O to obtain 448 cc of H2 at NTP is
40. A compound contains 69.5% oxygen and 30.5% nitrogen and its molecular weight is 92. The
formula of that compound is
a) N2O b) NO2 c) N2O4 d) N2O5
41. An organic compound has an empirical formula CH 2O, its vapour density is 45. The molecular
formula of the compound is
a) CH2O b) C2H5O c) C2H2O d) C3H6O3
42. The empirical formula of an organic compound containing carbon and hydrogen is CH 2. The mass
of one litre of this organic gas is exactly equal to that of one litre of N 2. Therefore, the molecular
formula of the organic gas is
a) C2H4 b) C3H6 c) C6H12 d) C4H8
43. The molecular wt of a tribasic acid is M. The wt of that acid required to react completely with 2
moles of a di acidic base is
44. The wt of an acid required to react with 3 moles of a mono acidic base is X g. If the acid is dibasic
its molecular wt is
45 The wt of H2SO4 required to react with a solution containing 0.28g of KOH is -----

17

Dr. Rajesh.G, Tuition For Chemistry, Kochulloor, Trivandrum. Phone :2550382, 9645630330
 18

Dr. Rajesh.G, Tuition For Chemistry, Kochulloor, Trivandrum. Phone :2550382, 9645630330