Module –IV SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

Structure of Atoms, Energy Band diagram, Metal, Insulator and Semiconductor, Intrinsic & extrinsic semi-
conductors, Direct and Indirect semiconductor. Bond in semiconductor and effect of temperature on
semiconductors, Hole & electron description, charge densities in semiconductor, Generation &
Recombination of charge carrier, Law of mobility and conductivity, current densities in semiconductors,
Fermi levels, Mass action law, Drift & Diffusion currents, Hall effect, Hall coefficient & its applications,
Numerical problems
Energy bands in solids

The electrons of an isolated atom have discrete energy levels. When a large number of atoms are brought
close to each other, then valence electrons of all these atoms interact with each other. Due to this, the
discrete energy levels of all the valence electrons of all these atoms come close to each other. These closely
spaced energy levels form the energy bands

Consider a silicon crystal with N atoms. The electronic configuration of silicon having atomic number 14 is
1S2, 2S2, 2P6, 3S2, 3P2. In this case, the first orbital is completely filled with 2 electrons. The second orbit is
completely filled with 8 electrons. Also 3S subshell is completely filled with 2 electrons whereas 3P subshell
contains only 2 electrons, however, it can accommodate 6 electrons.

In silicon crystal, there are 14N electrons (or 14N energy levels). In this case, the first orbit is completely
filled with 2N energy levels and the second orbits are completely filled with 8N energy levels. Here 3S
subshell is completely filled with 2N energy levels whereas 3P subshell contains only 2N energy levels,
however, it can accommodate 6N energy levels. Let is discuss the different situations

1. If the interatomic distance of the atom is very large i.e. r = d, then there is no interatomic
interaction.
2. When the interatomic distance is equal to ‘c’, the interaction between the valence electrons of
various silicon atoms becomes appreciable.
3. When the interatomic distance is equal to
‘b’, the energy gap between 3S and 3P
levels completely disappears. Now, the
energy levels of 3S subshell and 3P subshell
mix with each other. In such a situation, it is
not possible to distinguish between the
electrons belonging to 3S and 3P subshell.
We can only say that there are 8N energy
levels in which 4N energy levels are filled
and 4N energy levels are empty.
4. When the interatomic distance ‘r’ is equal
to ‘a’ (the actual interatomic distance in the
crystal), then the energy band containing
4N filled energy levels is separated from the
energy band which contains 4N empty energy levels. The energy gap between filled energy band
and empty energy band is called forbidden gap. The lowest band completely filled band is called
valence band and the upper unfilled band is called conduction band.
Valence band:-The band of energy levels occupied by valence electrons is called valence band. This band
may be partially filled or completely filled with electrons. It can never be empty for instance in inert gases,
the valence band is full whereas for other materials, it is partially filled. The partially filled band can
accommodate more electrons.

Conduction band:- In metals the valence electrons are

loosely attached to the nucleus. Even at room temperature
some of valence electrons may get detached to become free
electrons. These electrons are responsible for conduction of
current in a conductor and are called conduction electrons.
The band occupied conduction electrons is called conduction
band. This is next to the valence band. It may be empty or
partially filled with electrons. In conduction band electrons
can move freely. When a substance has empty conduction
band, the current conduction is not possible. Generally insulators come under this category.

Forbidden energy gap:- The separation between conduction band and valence band is known as forbidden
gap. There is no allowed energy level in this gap and hence no electron can stay in the forbidden energy
gap. The greater the energy gap, more tightly the valence electrons are bound to the nucleus. In order to
push an electron from valence band to conduct band, external energy equal to the forbidden energy gap
must be supplied.

Distinguish between conductors, insulators and semi-conductors

Conductors:- Conductors are those substances which easily allow the passage of electric current through it.
Conductors have large number of free electrons. The energy band diagram for conductors is such that
either the conduction band is partially filled or the conduction and valence bands partially overlap each
other and there is no forbidden gap. A slight potential difference across a conductor causes the free
electrons to constitute electric current. Metals like copper, silver, aluminum, etc are good conductors of
electricity.
Insulators:- Insulators are those substances which do not allow the passage of electric current through
them. Examples of insulators are glass, wood, plastic etc. In insulators, the valence band is completely
filled, the conduction band is empty and forbidden energy gap (Eg) is greater than 3eV. Due to large
forbidden gap, no electron is able to go from valence band to the conduction band even if electric field is
applied. Hence the electrical conduction is not possible. Diamond is an insulator with Eg= 6eV.

Semiconductors:- Semiconductors are those substances whose electrical conductivity lies between
conductors and insulators. Here the valence band and conduction band are separated by a very small
forbidden energy gap (Eg<3eV). At absolute zero of temperature, the conduction band is completely empty
and valence band is full and no electron is able to cross forbidden energy gap. Therefore, semiconductors
are insulators at low temperature. However, at room temperature, some electrons have sufficient energy
to jump from valence band to the conduction band. With increase in temperature (at room temperature)
electrons jump from valence band to the conduction band this leads to increase in conductivity of
semiconductors. Germanium and silicon have energy gap of 0.72eV and 1.21eV, respectively are examples
of semiconductors.

Bonds in semiconductors:- In semiconductors, bonds are formed by sharing of valence electrons, such
bonds are called covalent bonds. Covalent bond is formed by sharing of electrons by two or more atoms. It
is formed between atoms of same or different elements.

Semiconductors like germanium and silicon have crystalline structure. Both these materials are tetravalent
i.e. each has four valence electrons in the outermost shell. Consider the case of germanium. It has 32
electrons. Out of these 32 electrons, 28 are tightly bound to the nucleus while the remaining four revolve in
outermost orbit. These four electrons are known as valence
electrons. The four valence electrons of a germanium
atoms form four covalent bonds by sharing the electrons of
neighbouring four germanium atoms.

Consider the case when two atoms of germanium are

brought close to each other. Now the positive core of the
atom interacts with one of the valence electrons of the
other atom. Each core attracts the electron from the other
atom and the two electrons are shared by two atoms.
These two such electrons form an electron pair as shown in
Fig.3. When the attractive force is balanced by the repulsive
force between two positive cores a covalent bond is formed.
The covalent bonds are the binding forces between the
adjacent atoms. No free electron is available for conduction
process at 0 Kelvin, a pure germanium crystal is an insulator as
there are no free charge carriers.

The energy needed to liberate an electron from germanium

atom is very small i.e. of the order of 0.72eV. Thus even at
room temperature an electron of an atom can be detached from its bond by thermal agitation. The
detached electron now becomes free and can move throughout the crystal lattice in a random motion.
When electric field is applied the random motion of the electron experiences a drift towards the positive
terminal of battery.

When an electron escapes from the covalent bond an empty space is left behind which is called a hole.
Once the hole is created an electron from the covalent bond of a nearby atom shifts to occupy this hole. In
this way the process continues and the hole goes on shifting from one atom to another. The hole acts like a
free positive charge.

Under the influence of external electric field, the hole moves towards the negative plate. The free electron
moving to and fro in a crystal lattice may collide with one of the broken covalent bond and many combine
with a hole. Now again a covalent bond is formed i.e. the free electron is converted into bound electron.
Thus in pure germanium both electrons and holes contribute towards electrical conductivity.

Effect of temperature on semiconductors:- The electrical conductivity of semiconductors changes with rise
in temperature.

At very low temperature at 0 Kelvin, all the electrons are tightly bound to the nucleus. The inner orbit
electrons are bound whereas the valence electrons have covalent bond with other atoms. The covalent
bonds are very strong and there is no free electron. At this stage semiconductor behaves as insulator. In
terms of energy bond, the valence band is filled and there is a large energy gap between valence band and
conduction band and no valence electron can reach the conduction band to become free electron.

When the temperature is raised to room

temperature, some of the covalent bonds are
broken due to thermal energy supplied to the
crystal. Due to breaking of the bonds, some
electrons become free these electrons move from
valence band to the conduction band. This
produces holes in the valence band and free
electrons in the conduction band. When a
potential difference is applied across the
semiconductor crystal, small current flows due to
the movement of these electrons and holes. With
the increase in temperature the rate of generation
of electron hole pairs is increased this leads to the
conclusion that conductivity of intrinsic
semiconductor increases with increase in temperature or semiconductors have negative temperature
coefficient of resistance.
Intrinsic semiconductor:- A semiconductor in an
extremely pure form is known as intrinsic
semiconductor. Consider the case of germanium
atom, it has four valence electrons in its outermost
orbit. The four valence electrons of each atom form
covalent bonds with the electrons of four
neighbouring atoms in the crystal. Thus outermost
orbit of each germanium atom is complete with
eight electrons leaving no free electrons. Thus pure
germanium acts as an insulator at very low
temperature.

At room temperature, some of the valence

electrons become free to move randomly through
crystal. The energy needed to break a covalent
bond at room temperature is about 1.2eV in silicon
and 0.72 eV in germanium. Each electron that
leaves the covalent bond creates a vacancy at its
original position. This vacancy or deficiency of
electron is called a hole. The electrons are thus
thermally excited from the valence band to the conduction band. The vacancies so formed in the valence
band are holes. A hole carries a net positive charge equal to that of an electron. Free electrons and holes
are always generated in pair, the concentration of electrons in conduction band i.e. ‘n’ is equal to the
concentration of holes in the valence band i.e. ‘p’. Thus for intrinsic material at a given temperature there
is certain concentration of electron-hole pair ni

n = p = ni

When an external electric field is applied across an intrinsic semiconductor, the conduction through the
semiconductor is by both free electrons and holes. The free electrons in the conduction band moves
towards the positive terminal of the battery while the holes in the valence band moves towards the
negative terminal of the battery i.e. the electrons and holes move in the opposite directions. Thus total
current inside the semiconductor is the sum of currents due to free electrons and holes. However, the
current in the external wires is only due to flow of electrons.

Doping:- Doping is the process of addition of impurity atoms to a pure semiconductor(1 part per million) to
modify its properties. The impurity atoms added are called dopant and the semiconductor to which
impurity is added is called extrinsic semiconductor. Depending upon the type of impurity added the
extrinsic semiconductor may be divided into two type classes

1. n-type semiconductor
2. p-type semiconductor

During the process of doping following conditions should be taken into account
 1. The dopant atom should take the position of semiconductor atom in the lattice.
2. The presence of dopant atom should not distort the crystal lattice.
3. The size of the dopant atom should be almost the same as that of crystal atom.
4. The concentration of dopant atom should not be very large.

Methods of doping

1. By adding the impurity atoms to an extremely pure sample of a molten semiconductor.

2. By heating the crystalline semiconductor in an atmosphere containing dopant atoms so that dopant
atoms diffuse into the semiconductor.
3. By bombarding the semiconductor by the ions of doping atoms. In this process, the doping atoms
are implanted into the semiconductor.

Extrinsic semiconductor:- The conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor is very poor even at room
temperature. So in order to make the semiconductors useful for electronic devices, their conducting
properties must be increased. This is achieved by adding small amount of suitable impurity in an intrinsic
semiconductor. The process is known as doping. Depending on the type of impurity, extrinsic
semiconductor are classified as

1. n-type semiconductor :- When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure

semiconductor crystal during the crystal growth, the resulting crystal is called n-type extrinsic
semiconductor. When pentavalent arsenic is added to
pure silicon crystal. Arsenic atom have five valence
electrons, while silicon atom has have four. When an
arsenic atom replaces a silicon atom in a silicon crystal
four of its valence electrons form covalent bonds with
electrons of four neighbouring silicon atoms the fifth
electron is set free and move about in the crystal. Each
impurity atom donates one free electron to the silicon
crystal and is called donar atom. Since electric current

is carried by negative electrons, therefore, the crystal

is called n-type semiconductor. The free electrons
provided by the arsenic impurities occupied energy
level just below the conduction band known as donar
level. Electrons can be easily excited from this level to
the conduction band. Hence conductivity of
semiconductor is increased.

2. p-type semiconductor:- When a small amount trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor
crystal during the crystal growth, the resulting crystal is called p-type semiconductor. When
trivalent aluminum is added to pure semiconductor crystal. aluminum has three valence electrons.
 When an aluminum atom replaces a silicon
atom in a silicon crystal, its three valence
electrons form covalent bonds with electrons
of neighbouring silicon atoms. The four bond
is incomplete due to deficiency of an electron.
To complete the fourth covalent bond, the
impurities atom takes one electron from
nearby covalent bond and thereby creates a
hole at the position of an electron. Thus, for
every trivalent impurities atom added, an
extra hole will be created. Since the current
conduction is due to motion of these holes
which are positively charged, so the crystal is
called p-type semiconductor. The impurities
which accepts one electron from the crystal
to complete four covalent bond is called
acceptor atom. The holes created acceptor
energy level just above the top of valence
band. The electrons from valence band can be
easily excited to these acceptor levels leaving
holes behind them in valence band.

Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors

Intrinsic semiconductors Extrinsic semiconductors

These are made up of pure semiconducting Some impurity is added to the semiconducting
materials and no impurity is added materials to increase the conductivity
There electrical conductivity is a function of There electrical conductivity is a function of
temperature only temperature and also on the amount of impurity
added
Their electrical conductivity is small Their electrical conductivity is comparatively large
The number of free electrons in conduction band n-type semiconductor contains excess of free
and holes in valence band is equal electrons and p-type conductor contains excess of
holes
There is no permanent energy level between the There is permitted energy level i.e. donar and
valence band and conduction band acceptor levels between the valence band and the
conduction band
It is of no practical use It is used in electronic devices.
Distinguish between n-type and p-type semiconductor

n-type semiconductor p-type semiconductor

It is produced by adding pentavalent impurity to It is produced by adding trivalent impurity to an
an intrinsic semiconductor intrinsic semiconductor
The impurity atoms added provide free electrons The impurity atom added create holes and are
and are called donar atoms called acceptor atoms
The electrons are majority charge carriers while The holes are majority charge carriers while
holes are minority charge carriers electrons are minority charge carriers
The electron density is much greater than hole The hole density is much greater than electron
density. density
The donar energy level lies just below the The acceptor energy level above the valence band
conduction band
The current conduction is mainly by free electrons The current conduction is mainly by holes.

Direct and indirect semiconductors

When an electron moves in crystal, it moves in a periodic potential of the crystal lattice. Due to this
interaction, electron has different mass than that it has in free space. When a graph is plotted between
momentum and energy of electron a parabola is obtained. The energy momentum curves for gallium
arsenide and silicon are shown in figure. The upper curves are for conduction band and lower of
valence band. The electron energy is measured upwards and the hole energy is measured downward.
There is a band gap Eg between the bottom of the conduction band and the top of the valence band.
However, the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band are not generally at the
same value of momentum ‘p’

Those semiconductors for which maximum of valence band

and minimum of conduction band occurs at the same value
of momentum are called direct band gap semiconductors. In
these semiconductors an electron makes a transition from
conduction band to the valence band without a change in
its momentum and give rise to a photon of energy Eg= ℎ𝜈.
Light emitting diodes and semiconductor lasers require
direct semiconductors for efficient generation of photons.
Examples of these semiconductors are GaAs, InP, etc.

Those semiconductors for which maximum of valence band

and minimum of conduction band do not occur at the same
value of momentum are called indirect semiconductors. In
this case, an electron in the conduction band cannot make a
transition directly to the valence band instead it undergoes
a change in momentum as well as energy. The difference
of energy appears as heat in the lattice. These
semiconductors are not suitable for optical device like lasers
and LEDs. Examples of indirect semiconductors are silicon, germanium, etc.

Charge on n-type and p-type semiconductors:- In n-type semiconductors, current conduction is due to
excess of electrons whereas in a p-type semiconductor, the conduction is by holes. In n-type
semiconductor there are excess of electrons but these extra electrons were supplied by the atoms of
donar impurities and each donar impurity is electrically neutral. Thus, due to addition of pentavalent
impurity the crystal as a whole remain electrically neutral. Similar situation is observed in case of p-type
and the material is also electrically neutral.

Mass action law:- In an intrinsic semiconductor, concentration of free electrons is always equal to the
concentration of holes. When pentavalent impurities are added to intrinsic semiconductor, the
concentration of free electrons is increased or the concentration of holes is decreased below the
intrinsic value. Similarly, the addition of trivalent impurities the hole concentration increases or reduces
the concentration of free electrons below the intrinsic value. Under thermal equilibrium, the product of
concentration of n free electrons and the concentration p of holes is constant and is independent of
the amount of doping by donar or acceptor impurities. This is known as mass action law. Thus, for a
given semiconductor at particular temperature,

np= 𝑛𝑖2 = constant,

where ni is the intrinsic concentration and is a function of temperature. For an intrinsic

semiconductor, n=p=ni

The law of mass action hold for both intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors. If impurity atoms are
added to a semiconductor to increase n, there will be corresponding decrease in p so that the product
np remains constant.

Charge density in semiconductor:- Let Nd be the density of donar atoms. Since at room temperature all
the donar atoms are ionized, the total positive charge density is Nd+p. Similarly if Na is the density of
acceptor atoms which are also all ionized at room temperature, the total negative charge density is
Na+n. As the semiconductor is electrically neutral, the total positive charge density must be equal to the
total negative charge density.

i.e. Nd + p=Na + n … (1)

For n-type semiconductor, no acceptor atoms are added, Na=0

Nd + p= n or Nd = n-p Since for n-type semiconductor n>>p

Thus, Nd ≅ n

From mass action law, we have np= 𝑛𝑖2 , where ni is the electron or hole concentration in the intrinsic
semiconductor.

𝑛𝑖2 𝑛𝑖2
Thus density of holes in n-type semiconductor is given by p = 𝑛
= 𝑁𝑑
 For p-type semiconductor, no donar atoms are added, Nd = 0, therefore from equation (1) we get,
p=Na + n
or Na = p-n Since for p-type semiconductor p>>n , Thus, Na ≅ p
From mass action law, we have np= 𝑛𝑖2 , where ni is the electron or hole concentration in the intrinsic
semiconductor.
𝑛𝑖2 𝑛𝑖2
Thus density of electrons in p-type semiconductor is given by n = 𝑝
= 𝑁𝑎

Mobility of charge carriers:- The mobility of charge carriers is defined as the drift velocity acquired by it
per unit electric field. It is given by
𝑣𝑑
𝜇=
𝐸
𝑞𝐸𝜏
Since drift velocity 𝑣𝑑 = , where 𝜏 is the relaxation time, q and m are charge and mass of charge
𝑚
carriers.
𝑣𝑑 𝑞𝐸𝜏
𝑞𝜏
∴𝜇 = = =
𝐸 𝐸𝑚𝑚
𝑒𝜏
For an electron 𝜇𝑒 = 𝑚 𝑒
𝑒
𝑒𝜏
For a hole 𝜇ℎ = 𝑚 ℎ
ℎ
In metallic conductor, the electric current is due to free electrons and is given by
I=neA𝑣𝑑 but 𝑣𝑑 = 𝜇𝑒 𝐸
∴ I= neA𝜇𝑒 𝐸
This is the relation between electric current and electron mobility.
The electric current in a semiconductor is due to both electrons and holes and is given by
I= Ie + Ih = nAe𝜇𝑒 𝐸 + pAe𝜇ℎ 𝐸
or I = Ae𝐸(𝑛𝜇𝑒 + 𝑝𝜇ℎ )
where n and p are electron and hole densities of the semiconductor.
The current density is defined as the charge flowing across unit area of cross section per unit time
𝐼 Ae𝐸(𝑛𝜇𝑒 + 𝑝𝜇ℎ )
𝐽= = = e𝐸(𝑛𝜇𝑒 + 𝑝𝜇ℎ )
𝐴 𝐴

Electrical conductivity of a semiconductor:- Consider a block of semiconductor of length l and area of cross
section A having free electron density n and hole density p . Let V be the potential difference applied across
the ends of the semiconductor, then electric field setup inside the conductor will be
𝑉
𝐸= 𝑙
…(1)
Due to the electric field both
electrons and holes move in
opposite directions with drift
velocities ve and vh . If Ie and
Ih are currents due to
electrons and holes
respectively, then total current
I= Ie + Ih …(2)
Since Ie = neA𝑣𝑒 and Ih = peA𝑣ℎ
Substitute in equation (2), we get
I= neA𝑣𝑒 + peA𝑣ℎ = eA(n𝑣𝑒 + 𝑝𝑣ℎ ) … (3)
If R is the resistance of the semiconductor and 𝜌 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑙
𝑅 = 𝜌𝐴 …(4)
According to Ohm’s law
𝑉 𝐸𝑙
=𝐼=
𝑅 𝑙
𝜌𝐴
Substituting equations (1) and (4) in this equation, we get
𝐸𝐴
𝐼= 𝜌
… (5)
From equations (3) and (5), we get
𝐸𝐴
𝜌
= eA(n𝑣𝑒 + 𝑝𝑣ℎ )
𝐸
or 𝜌
= e(n𝑣𝑒 + 𝑝𝑣ℎ ) … (6)
Since electron mobility is defined as drift velocity per unit electric field, therefore,
𝑣𝑒
Electron mobility 𝜇𝑒 = or 𝑣𝑒 = 𝜇𝑒 𝐸
𝐸
𝑣ℎ
Hole mobility 𝜇ℎ = 𝐸
or 𝑣ℎ = 𝜇ℎ 𝐸
Substitute values of 𝑣𝑒 and 𝑣ℎ in equation (6), we get
𝐸
= e(n𝜇𝑒 𝐸 + 𝑝𝜇ℎ 𝐸)
𝜌
1
= e(n𝜇𝑒 + 𝑝𝜇ℎ )
𝜌
1
Hence electrical conductivity 𝜎 = 𝜌 = e(n𝜇𝑒 + 𝑝𝜇ℎ ) … (7)
Thus the conductivity of a semiconductor depends on number densities of electrons and holes and
their mobilities. As n and p increase with rise in temperature, therefore, conductivity of semiconductor
increases with rise in temperature.
For an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of conduction electrons is equal to the number of holes
i.e. n= p =ni where ni is the intrinsic concentration of electrons or holes in the semiconductor. Thus
conductivity 𝜎𝑖 of the intrinsic semiconductor is given by
𝜎𝑖 = e(𝑛𝑖 𝜇𝑒 + 𝑛𝑖 𝜇ℎ ) = e𝑛𝑖 (𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇ℎ )
In case of n-type semiconductor, the electron concentration is very greater than the hole
concentration. The hole concentration is negligibly small in comparison to electron concentration i.e.
p<< n. From equation (7), electron concentration n ≅ 𝑁𝐷 i.e. the concentration of donor atoms.
∴ Electrical conductivity 𝜎𝑛 = e𝑁𝐷 𝜇𝑒
In case of p-type semiconductor, the electron concentration is negligibly small in comparison to hole
concentration i.e. n<<p. From equation (7), the hole concentration p ≅ 𝑁𝐴 the concentration of
acceptor atoms.
∴ Electrical conductivity 𝜎𝑝 = e𝑁𝐴 𝜇ℎ
Effect of temperature on extrinsic semiconductors:- With the increase in temperature of an n-type
semiconductor, all the donar have already donated their free electrons at room temperature. The
additional thermal energy will only increase the generation of electron hole pairs. Thus, the
concentration of minority charge carriers increases. A temperature is ultimately reached when the
number of covalent bonds broken is very large such that the number of holes and electrons is almost
equal. The extrinsic semiconductor then behaves like an intrinsic semiconductor, although its
conductivity is higher. This critical temperature is 85°C for germanium and 200°C for silicon. Similar
situation is observed in case of p-type semiconductors.

Carrier concentration in an intrinsic semiconductor

Concentration of electrons:- In an intrinsic

semiconductor every electron transferred to the
conduction band leaves a hole in the valence band.
Therefore, the total number of electrons in the
conduction band is equal to the total number of
holes in the valence band. The number of electrons
per unit volume in the energy range E to E+𝑑𝐸 is
given by

𝑑𝑛 = 𝐷(𝐸)𝑓(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 … (1)

Where 𝐷(𝐸) is the density of state and is defined as the total number of allowed electronic states per
unit volume in a semiconductor and 𝑓(𝐸) is the Fermi distribution function which gives the probability
of occupation of a state.

According to the free electron theory,

3 1
4𝜋
𝐷(𝐸) = ℎ3 (2𝑚)2 𝐸 2

1
The Fermi function is given by 𝑓(𝐸) = (𝐸−𝐸𝑓 )
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 + 1

Substitute values of 𝐷(𝐸) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝐸) in equation (1), we get

3 1
4𝜋 1
𝑑𝑛 = 3 (2𝑚)2 𝐸 2 (𝐸−𝐸𝑓) 𝑑𝐸
ℎ
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 + 1

As the bottom of the conduction band has energy Ec and not zero, thus replacing E by (E-Ec). and also
replacing m by me.
3 1
4𝜋 1
𝑑𝑛 = ℎ3 (2𝑚𝑒 )2 (𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 )2 (𝐸−𝐸𝑓 ) 𝑑𝐸
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 + 1

Since the conduction band extends from Ec to ∞, now integrating above in these limits we get
 3 1
4𝜋 ∞ 1
𝑛 = ℎ3 (2𝑚𝑒 )2 ∫𝐸 (𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 )2 (𝐸−𝐸𝑓 )
𝑑𝐸
𝑐
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 + 1

If E-Ef >>kT, then 1 can be neglected in denominator and above equation reduces to
3 1
4𝜋 ∞ 1
𝑛= 3
(2𝑚𝑒 )2 ∫𝐸 (𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 )2 𝑑𝐸
ℎ 𝑐 (𝐸−𝐸𝑓 )
𝑒 𝑘𝑇

3 1 (𝐸𝑓 −𝐸)
4𝜋 ∞
𝑛= 3
(2𝑚𝑒 )2 ∫𝐸 (𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 )2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝐸
ℎ 𝑐

Adding and subtracting 𝐸𝑐 in the exponential term we get

3 1 (𝐸𝑐 −𝐸𝑐 +𝐸𝑓 −𝐸)

4𝜋 ∞
𝑛 = ℎ3 (2𝑚𝑒 )2 ∫𝐸 (𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 )2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝐸
𝑐

3 1 (𝐸𝑓 −𝐸𝑐 ) (𝐸𝑐 −𝐸)

4𝜋 ∞
𝑛 = ℎ3 (2𝑚𝑒 )2 ∫𝐸 (𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 )2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝐸 … (2)
𝑐

In order to solve this integral we make certain substitutions

(𝐸−𝐸𝑐 )
Put 𝑘𝑇
= 𝑥 or (𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 ) = 𝑘𝑇𝑥

∴ 𝑑𝐸 = 𝑘𝑇𝑑𝑥

Change of limits in equation (2), when 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑐 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0

also when 𝐸 = ∞, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = ∞

3 (𝐸𝑓 −𝐸𝑐 ) 1
4𝜋 ∞
𝑛 = ℎ3 (2𝑚𝑒 )2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ∫0 (𝑥𝑘𝑇)2 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑘𝑇𝑑𝑥

3 3 (𝐸𝑓 −𝐸𝑐 ) 1
4𝜋 ∞
𝑛 = ℎ3 (2𝑚𝑒 )2 (𝑘𝑇)2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ∫0 (𝑥)2 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1
∞ √𝜋
Since ∫0 (𝑥)2 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2

3 3 (𝐸𝑓 −𝐸𝑐 )
4𝜋 √𝜋
𝑛 = ℎ3 (2𝑚𝑒 )2 (𝑘𝑇)2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
2

3 3 (𝐸𝑓 −𝐸𝑐 )
2𝜋
𝑛 = ℎ3 (2𝑚𝑒 )2 (𝑘𝑇)2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 √𝜋

3 (𝐸𝑓 −𝐸𝑐 )
3
2(𝜋)2
𝑛= (2𝑚𝑒 𝑘𝑇)2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
ℎ3

3 (𝐸𝑓 −𝐸𝑐 )
2
𝑛 = ℎ3 (2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝑘𝑇)2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
 3 (𝐸𝑓 −𝐸𝑐 )
2𝜋𝑚 𝑘𝑇 2
𝑛= 2( ℎ2𝑒 ) 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 …(3)

𝑊ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟.

(𝐸𝑓 −𝐸𝑐 ) 3
2𝜋𝑚 𝑘𝑇 2
𝑛 = 𝑁𝐶 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 , here 𝑁𝐶 = 2( ℎ2𝑒 ) is the effective density of states in the conduction band.

Concentration of holes:- Since a hole is created by the removal of an electron. Thus a hole is a state of
energy in the valence band unoccupied by the electron, accordingly the Fermi function for such a state
is [1 − 𝑓(𝐸)].

Thus, the number of holes per unit volume in the energy range E to E+𝑑𝐸 is given by

𝑑𝑝 = 𝐷(𝐸)[1 − 𝑓(𝐸)]𝑑𝐸 … (1)

Where 𝐷(𝐸) is the density of state and is defined as

the total number of allowed electronic states per unit
volume in a semiconductor
(𝐸−𝐸𝑓 )
1
[1- 𝑓(𝐸)]= 1- (𝐸−𝐸𝑓 ) = 1-[ 1 + 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ]−1
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 + 1

Expanding using binomial theorem

(𝐸−𝐸𝑓 ) (𝐸−𝐸𝑓 )
[1- 𝑓(𝐸)] = 1-[1- 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 + ⋯ ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠] = 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 …(2)

The kinetic energy of a hole in the valence band is (Ev-E).Thus, the density of states per unit volume in
the valence band can be written as
3 1
4𝜋
𝐷(𝐸) = 3
(2𝑚ℎ )2 (𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸)2
ℎ

Substitute this equation and equation (2) in (1), we get,

3 1 (𝐸−𝐸𝑓 )
4𝜋
𝑑𝑝 = ℎ3 (2𝑚ℎ )2 (𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸)2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝐸

Since the valence band extends from -∞ to Ev now integrating above equation in these limits we get

3 1 (𝐸−𝐸𝑓 )
4𝜋 𝑣 𝐸
𝑝 = ℎ3 (2𝑚ℎ )2 ∫−∞ (𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸)2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝐸

Adding and subtracting 𝐸𝑣 in the exponential term we get

 3 1 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑣 +𝐸−𝐸𝑓 )
4𝜋 𝑣 𝐸
𝑝 = ℎ3 (2𝑚ℎ )2 ∫−∞ (𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸)2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝐸

3 1 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑓 ) (𝐸−𝐸𝑣 )

4𝜋 𝐸𝑣
𝑝= 3
(2𝑚ℎ )2 ∫−∞ (𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸)2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝐸 …(3)
ℎ

In order to solve this integral we make certain substitutions

(𝐸𝑣 −𝐸)
Put = 𝑥 or (𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸) = 𝑘𝑇𝑥
𝑘𝑇

∴ −𝑑𝐸 = 𝑘𝑇𝑑𝑥 or 𝑑𝐸 = −𝑘𝑇𝑑𝑥

Change of limits in equation (3), when 𝐸 = −∞ , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = ∞

and also when 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑣 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0

3 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑓 ) 1
4𝜋 0
𝑝=
ℎ 3
(2𝑚ℎ )2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ∫∞(𝑥𝑘𝑇)2 𝑒 −𝑥 (−𝑘𝑇𝑑𝑥)

3 3 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑓 ) 1
4𝜋 ∞
𝑝=
ℎ 3
(2𝑚ℎ )2 (𝑘𝑇)2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ∫0 (𝑥)2 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑑𝑥) [here the negative sign is absorbed due to exchange of
limits]
1
∞ √𝜋
Since ∫0 (𝑥)2 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
2

3 3 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑓 )
4𝜋 √𝜋
𝑝= (2𝑚ℎ )2 (𝑘𝑇)2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
ℎ3 2

3 3 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑓 )
2𝜋
𝑝 = ℎ3 (2𝑚ℎ )2 (𝑘𝑇)2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 √𝜋

3 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑓 )
3 3
2𝜋2
𝑝= 3
(2𝑚ℎ )2 (𝑘𝑇)2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
ℎ

3 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑓 )
2
𝑝 = ℎ3 (2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝑘𝑇)2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇

3 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑓 )
2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝑘𝑇 2
𝑝 = 2( ) 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 …(3)
ℎ2

𝑊ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟.

(𝐸𝑓 −𝐸𝑐 ) 3
2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝑘𝑇 2
𝑝 = 𝑁𝑝 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 , here 𝑁𝑝 = 2( ℎ2
) is the effective density of states in the valence band.
Fermi level:- Fermi level is a characteristics energy of a material . In an intrinsic semiconductor, there is
an equal number of electrons and holes. The
concentration of electrons decreases above
the bottom of conduction band and the
concentration of holes decreases below the
top of the valence band as shown in figure.
Thus the centre of gravity of electrons and
holes lies exactly at the middle of forbidden
gap. The Fermi level lies in the middle of
conduction band and valence band. Thus
Fermi level is the energy that corresponds to
the centre of gravity of the conduction
electrons and holes weighted according to
their energies. Fermi level is concept like a
hollow body that have centre of gravity where
there is no matter.

When a donar impurity is added to an intrinsic semiconductor, it becomes n-type. Now it has more
conduction electrons than holes. This moves the centre of gravity up i.e. Fermi level shifts towards the
conduction band. Similarly, when an acceptor impurity is added to an intrinsic semiconductor, it
becomes p-type. Now it has more holes than electrons. This shifts the Fermi level towards the valence
band.

Position of Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor:- In intrinsic semiconductor, the number of electrons
n in the conduction band is equal to the number of holes p in the valence band i.e. n = p
3 (𝐸𝑓 −𝐸𝑐 ) 3 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑓 )
2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝑘𝑇 2 2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝑘𝑇 2
2( ℎ2
) 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 = 2( ℎ2
) 𝑒 𝑘𝑇

3 (𝐸𝑓 −𝐸𝑐 ) 3 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑓 )

or (𝑚𝑒 )2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 = (𝑚ℎ )2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇

(𝐸𝑓 −𝐸𝑐 ) 3
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 𝑚 2
or (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑓 )
= ( 𝑚ℎ )
𝑒
𝑒 𝑘𝑇

(2𝐸𝑓 −𝐸𝑐 −𝐸𝑣 ) 3

𝑚 2
or 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 = ( 𝑚ℎ )
𝑒

Taking natural logarithm on both sides

we have

(2𝐸𝑓 −𝐸𝑐 −𝐸𝑣 ) 3 𝑚ℎ

= 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑘𝑇 2 𝑚𝑒
 (𝐸𝑐 +𝐸𝑣 ) 3 𝑚
𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑓 = 2
+ 4 𝑘𝑇𝑙𝑛 (𝑚ℎ )
𝑒

3 𝑚
At T= 0K and also assume that 𝑚ℎ = 𝑚𝑒 , then 4
𝑘𝑇𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑚ℎ ) =0
𝑒

(𝐸𝑐 +𝐸𝑣 )
Thus 𝐸𝑓 = 2
,

Thus in intrinsic semiconductor Fermi level lies in the middle of valence band and conduction band.

Fermi level in extrinsic semiconductor:-

n-type semiconductor:- When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to the crystal, it creates
extra electron without adding any new holes. This impurity introduces new energy levels into the
energy band diagram. The location of these new levels is slightly below the bottom of the conduction
band for intrinsic semiconductor.

Mathematically, if density of ionized donar atoms is ND, then at usual temperatures all the donar levels
will be fully activated and donar atoms will be ionized. It means that the density of electrons in the
conduction band will be approximately equal to the donar atoms density i.e. n ≅ 𝑁𝐷

From previous equation (3), that we have obtained in concentration of electrons in intrinsic
semiconductor, we have
3 (𝐸𝑓 −𝐸𝑐 )
2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝑘𝑇 2
𝑛 = 𝑁𝐷 =2( ℎ2
) 𝑒 𝑘𝑇

(𝐸𝑓 −𝐸𝑐 ) 3
2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝑘𝑇 2
𝑛 = 𝑁𝐶 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 , here 𝑁𝐶 = 2( )
ℎ2
is the effective density of states in the
conduction band

(𝐸𝑓 −𝐸𝑐 )
𝑁𝐷 = 𝑁𝐶 𝑒 𝑘𝑇

(−𝐸𝑓 +𝐸𝑐 )
𝑁𝐶
𝑁𝐷
=𝑒 𝑘𝑇

Taking natural logarithm on both sides we have

𝑁 (−𝐸𝑓 +𝐸𝑐 )
𝑙𝑛 𝑁𝐶 = 𝑘𝑇
𝐷

𝑁
𝑘𝑇𝑙𝑛 𝑁𝐶 = −𝐸𝑓 + 𝐸𝑐
𝐷

𝑁𝐶
𝐸𝑓 = 𝐸𝑐 − 𝑘𝑇𝑙𝑛
𝑁𝐷

It shows that Fermi-level lies below the bottom of conduction band

 p-type extrinsic semiconductor:- When an acceptor type impurity is added to the crystal, it introduces
new energy levels into the energy band diagram. The location of these new levels is slightly above the
top of the valence band for intrinsic semiconductor.

Mathematically, if density of ionized acceptor atoms is NA, then at usual temperatures all the acceptor
levels will be fully activated and acceptor atoms will be ionized. It means that the density of holes in the
valence band will be approximately equal to the acceptor atoms density i.e. p ≅ 𝑁𝐴

From previous equation (3) that we have obtained in concentration of holes in intrinsic semiconductor
3 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑓 )
2𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝑘𝑇 2
𝑝 = 𝑁𝐴 =2( ℎ2
) 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 …(3)

(𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑓 ) 3
2𝜋𝑚 𝑘𝑇 2
𝑝 = 𝑁𝑣 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 , here 𝑁𝑣 = 2( ℎ2ℎ ) is the effective density of states in the valence band

(𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑓 )
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑁𝑉 𝑒 𝑘𝑇

(−𝐸𝑣 +𝐸𝑓 )
𝑁𝑉
𝑁𝐴
=𝑒 𝑘𝑇

Taking natural logarithm on both sides we have

𝑁 (−𝐸𝑣 +𝐸𝑓 )
𝑙𝑛 𝑁𝑣 = 𝑘𝑇
𝐴

𝑁
𝑘𝑇𝑙𝑛 𝑁𝑣 = -𝐸𝑣 + 𝐸𝑓
𝐴

𝑁
𝐸𝑓 = 𝐸𝑣 + 𝑘𝑇𝑙𝑛 𝑁𝑣
𝐴

It shows that Fermi-level lies above the top of valence band

Law of mass action:- In intrinsic semiconductors, Fermi level lies in the middle of valence band and
conduction band. The concentration of electrons and holes in the conduction band and valence band,
respectively, is given by
3 (𝐸𝑓 −𝐸𝑐 )
2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝑘𝑇 2
𝑛 =2( ℎ2
) 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 …(1)

3 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑓 )
2𝜋𝑚 𝑘𝑇 2
𝑝 =2( ℎ2ℎ ) 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 …(2)

Multiplying equation (1) with (2), we get,

2𝜋𝑘𝑇 3 3 (𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑐 )

𝑛𝑝 = 4 ( ℎ2
) (𝑚𝑒 𝑚ℎ )2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
 2𝜋𝑘𝑇 3 3 −𝐸𝑔
𝑛𝑝 = 4 ( ℎ2
) (𝑚𝑒 𝑚ℎ )2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇

Thus, for a given material at a given temperature, the product of electrons and holes concentration is
constant. This is independent of Fermi level but depends upon energy band gap (𝐸𝑔 ). If impurity is added to
increase electron ‘n’ , there will be corresponding decrease in holes ‘p’ so the product np remains constant.
This is known as mass action law.

Drift and diffusion current:- In a semiconductor the movement of charge carriers give rise to two types of
currents namely drift current and diffusion current. The drift current is due to the movement of charge
carriers under the effect of an applied electric field and the diffusion current is due to the movement of
charge carriers under the effect of concentration gradient of dopants present inside the semiconductor.

Drift current:- When an electric field is applied the charge carriers in semiconductor materials drift and
produce drift current. The two types of charge carriers, electrons and holes produce two drift current
components

The electrons drift in the conduction band produces a component 𝐽𝑒 given by

𝐽𝑒(𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡) = 𝑛𝑒𝜇𝑒 𝐸

The holes drift in the valence band produced a component 𝐽ℎ given by

𝐽ℎ(𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡) = 𝑝𝑒𝜇ℎ 𝐸

The total drift current is given by

𝐽(𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡) = 𝐽𝑒(𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡) + 𝐽ℎ(𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡) = 𝑛𝑒𝜇𝑒 𝐸 + 𝑝𝑒𝜇ℎ 𝐸

Diffusion current:- In order to understand the concept of diffusion current, consider the effect of placing a
drop of dye into a clear beaker of water. The heavy concentration of dye will diffuse through the clear
water. The same effect takes place in a semiconductor material when a heavy concentration of carrier is
introduced to some region. Due to diffusion, heavy concentration carriers distribute themselves evenly
through the material. In a semiconductor a non-uniform concentration of charge carriers may exist. Let the
concentration n of electrons varies with distance x
𝑑𝑛
and concentration gradient is 𝑑𝑥
. Let the
concentration gradient is negative i.e. the electron
concentration is greater for lower values of x. Now,
the diffusion of electron along the positive x-
direction constitutes the diffusion current. The
diffusion electron current density is proportional to concentration gradient thus, we have

𝑑𝑛
𝐽𝑒(𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓) = −𝑒𝐷𝑛
𝑑𝑥

where e is the magnitude of electron charge 𝐷𝑛 is proportionality constant called as diffusion coefficient or
diffusivity of electrons.

Similarly, the hole diffusion current density can be written as

𝑑𝑝
𝐽ℎ(𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓) = 𝑒𝐷𝑝
𝑑𝑥

No electric field is required for diffusion current and it is absent in semiconductor having uniform impurity
distribution.

Equation of current density:- When an electric field is present in addition to concentration gradient, both
drift and diffusion current will flow. Then total electron current density at any point is sum of drift and
diffusion components.

𝑑𝑛
𝐽𝑒 = 𝐽𝑒(𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡) + 𝐽𝑒(𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓) = 𝑛𝑒𝜇𝑒 𝐸 −𝑒𝐷𝑛
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑛
𝐽𝑒 = 𝑒(𝑛𝜇𝑒 𝐸 −𝐷𝑛 )
𝑑𝑥

Similarly for holes, we can write

𝑑𝑝
𝐽ℎ = 𝐽ℎ(𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡) + 𝐽ℎ(𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓) = 𝑝𝑒𝜇ℎ 𝐸+𝑒𝐷𝑝
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑝
𝐽ℎ = 𝑒(𝑝𝜇ℎ 𝐸+𝐷𝑝 )
𝑑𝑥
Einstein’s relation:- When the pn junction is in equilibrium at a given temperature without any external
biasing, the net current through the junction is zero. Under this condition, for each types of carriers the
drift current due to electric field must be equal to diffusion current due to concentration gradient. i.e.
𝑑𝑛
𝑛𝑒𝜇𝑒 𝐸 = 𝑒𝐷𝑛
𝑑𝑥

𝑒𝐷𝑛 𝑑𝑛
𝑛𝑒𝐸 = 𝜇𝑒 𝑑𝑥
… (1)

Force on charge carrier is given by

F = 𝑛𝑒𝐸 …(2)

From (1) and (2), we get

𝑒𝐷𝑛 𝑑𝑛
F= … (3)
𝜇𝑒 𝑑𝑥

Now by making an analogy between the excess of carriers in semiconductors and gas molecules at low
pressure , the force corresponding to the pressure gradient is given by below equation (From kinetic theory
of gases)
𝑑𝑛
F= 𝑘𝑇 … (4), where k is Boltzmann constant and k=1.38 X 10-23JK-1 and T is temperature in Kelvin
𝑑𝑥

From equations (3) and (4), we get

𝑒𝐷𝑛
𝜇𝑒
= 𝑘𝑇

𝐷𝑛 𝑘𝑇
or = … (5)
𝜇𝑒 𝑒

Similarly, for the flow of holes, we get

𝐷𝑝 𝑘𝑇
𝜇ℎ
= 𝑒
… (6)

From equations (5) and (6), we get

𝐷𝑛 𝐷𝑝
𝜇𝑒
=𝜇
ℎ

𝐷𝑛 𝜇
𝐷𝑝
= 𝜇𝑒
ℎ

The relation between diffusion coefficient and mobility of charge carriers is termed as Einstein relation.