EFFECT OF PHOTOJOURNALISM OF READERS’ EXPOSURE AND RETENTION

OF MEDIA CONTENT. A CASE STUDY OF DAILY MONITOR

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 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
This chapter will introduce the reader to the background of the study, the
problem statement, the research objectives, questions, scope of the study,
conceptual framework and the operational definitions.

1.1 Background of the study

Globally according to Aqsa (2017) the final decade of the 20th century
brought the evolution of the digital camera. Today’s photojournalism is
almost exclusively a digital endeavor. The transformation of photography
from analog to digital has revolutionized photojournalism in terms of
workflow, mobility, transmission of images, ethics, image availability, and
the question of “who is a photojournalist?” Finally, the gradual mutation of
the term “photojournalism” to “visual journalism” denotes a transformation
of the medium itself from the still image to a combination of still and moving
images or perhaps exclusively moving images in the future. This, in turn,
may fundamentally change the ways in which photojournalistic stories are
told and experienced.

Photojournalism is the practice of reporting primarily through still and

moving images. The creation and presentation of photojournalism has been
closely tied to available technologies at different points in history and has
evolved as the technologies have improved. Improvements in the ability to
create and present news photography have changed the content, but
motivations driving photojournalists have remained consistent (Mendelson A.
2001).

Bucher (2015) added that among other purposes, photojournalists have

sought to witness the important events of the day and share the evidence
with others. They also have sought to use photojournalism to illustrate

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important social issues and promote dialog about public response. Research
in photojournalism has explored the practices of production and distribution
of photojournalism, the content of news photographs and video, and viewer
reception and interpretation

Photojournalism is a modern form of journalism. It includes production of

images related to news events in order to develop better understanding of
event in reader’s mind. Photojournalism is “the practice of communicating
news by photographs“(Oxford dictionary). This is most universal form of
mass media as even illiterate person can understand depth and intensity of
issue by simply having a glance over photo. Photographs are used with
accompanying text to establish better understanding about event in reader’s
mind. "Photojournalism is agent of change in our society forming visual
narratives and feature stories that help to illuminate and clarify the issue
with a depth and perspective that no other mass medium can achieve
because it captures time". "Photojournalist is a person who performs the
practice of photojournalism. Photojournalist capture verbs (actions) while
photographer capture nouns (places, persons, objects)". Noun is easy to
capture but actions are difficult to capture. Photojournalist capture the photo
related to the story and then photo itself become the story. Another element
of modern day photojournalism that is still working its kinks out is the huge
increase in “CITIZEN JOURNALISM”. These days everybody owns a camera,
even if only a camera phone. This means that more and more events are
documented as they happened my random people who just happen to be in
the right place at the right time. "The combination of photography and
journalism, or photojournalism - a term coined by Frank Luther Mott,
historian and dean of the University of Missouri School of Journalism. This
practice started in 1853 when first known photojournalist Carol Szathmari
documented Crimean War".

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Retention is “the action of absorbing and continuing to hold a substance”
(Google definitions.). In mass media retention is that how long the reader
keeps articles and news in its mind (Baram SJ, Davis DK 2003). Through
graphics and images related to news stories helps a lot in building perception
about issue and if a person are having perception about any issue then that
news related to that issue will remain in one’s mind for long period. There
are some news happening that people cannot witness them first hand, but
accompanying image with the news helps us to view and practice these news
events. Images have great effect on readers, they are used by editors to set
agenda of public because they know news with images will be popular
among reader, they will have perception about those issues and considered
them important (Knobloch S, Hastall M, ZillMann D, Callison C 2003). “The
growing use of imagery in news reporting and daily life has been
characterized a picture flood”.

Images remains in memory more easily and for longer period of time then
text, that’s why images have strong effect on our perception, judgment and
our retention [2]. It is widely understood and accepted that images used in
news can “stir emotions and foster public outcry like no other means of
expression” Zillman D, Bryant J (1985) Selective Exposure to
Communication. New York.

It is a fact that then images of major events and movements play important
role that people remember them for a long time. The event of Laal Masjid is
still remembered by the public, images of Laal Masjid operations were
continuously published by print media at that time. "And these images of Lal
Masjid operation become become the part of collective memory of all
Pakistani's for years to come". Images in newspaper also play important role
in movement of restoration of Chief Justice Iftkhar Chahudry. Photos related
to the movement is given a large space in the newspapers so result of these
photos was that they effect masses a lot and people in large numbers
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participate in this movement which cause great pressure on government and
government decided to restore the chief justice. Similarly on many occasions
print media photographs play very important role in arousing emotions
among public. "When the picture of Benazir Bhutto dead body was published
in newspaper it caused increase in sorrow among her supporters". Recently
the pictures of drought in Thar when published in Pakistan print media then
they arouse sympathy among people and these emotions cause retention of
news events among public. And these emotions can only be aroused by the
photos of verbs (Photojournalism). So photojournalism has great effects on
people and due to these effects people retain news.

Many mass communication theories provide justification of consumption of

specific media content. Selective exposure, selective retention and
information processing are theories that provide relevant information with
this research.

Selective exposure is theory of mass communication that explain that media

users expose or select only those messages that are according to existed
believes, ideas and perceptions. People select those information and news
which are best suited with their already held ideas believes and attitudes
and they do this to avoid dissonance. So in my research I’ll see that readers
only expose that newspaper news that have related photograph with it. And
also prefer to expose those news which have bigger size image

Selective Retention is theory readers only remember or retain those

information from the media that are similar or somehow similar to their
interests, exited believes and ideas. People memorize those information and
news for longer period of time which are consistent with their already exist
ideas, attitudes and interests so the research will after observe the
phenomenon of selective exposure of media content. Which news are

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retained in the memory of readers for long time. News with images or
without images

1.2 Problem statement

According to Kobré, (2004) authenticity and integrity of photojournalism in
the digital photography and editing age has been a concern to various mass
communication scholars. Images can capture specific important events and
moments. Now-a-days every person has a camera which can be in the form
of mobile phones, digital cameras, tablets etc. This makes every person
paparazzi (Photographer). Images are usually used by people because they
want to store important moments of their life. According to Mbuga (2018)
images used in print media industry (Daily Monitor) are very important in
process of memory and retention because people remember and believe
what they see through their eyes. Researcher selected this topic for research
so that role of images and their importance in print media should be
explained as they are also important factor is selective retention and
selective exposure of news content hence defining the importance and worth
of images and pictures in the journalistic practice especially in print media. A
case study of Daily Monitor Uganda.

1.3 Purpose of the study

The basic reason for conducting this research is to define the importance and
worth of images and pictures in the journalistic practice especially in print
media a case study of daily monitor Kampala Uganda.

1.4 Research objectives

i. To determine the effect of photojournalism on retention of specific
news stories
ii. To find out the importance of photojournalism on reader’s exposure
and retention

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 iii. To find out the Risks and Challenges facing photojournalism as a
profession

1.5 Research questions

i. What is the effect of photojournalism on retention of specific news
stories?
ii. What is the importance of photojournalism on reader’s exposure and
retention?
iii. What are the risks and challenges facing photojournalism

1.6 Scope of the study

1.6.1 Geographical scope
The study will be conducted from daily monitor located along 8 th street
Industrial Kampala Uganda. It has been chosen as a study area because it
possesses the vital and relevant information related to the study topic.

1.6.2 Time scope

The study will be carried out or conducted within a period of three months
that is from April-June 2020

1.6.3 Content scope

The study will look at the role of photojournalism on the reader’s exposure
and retention. In this topic, photojournalism will be taken to be the
independent variable and reader’s exposure and retention to be the
dependent variable.

1.7 Significance of the study

This study will considerably break a new ground in research into
photojournalism in Uganda, as one of the prime research efforts which re-

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examine the credibility of photojournalism in the digital photography and
editing era.

The study will hopefully help the journalist, especially photojournalists in

restoring the glory (credibility and integrity) of print journalism in Uganda.

The study will also contribute to the growing body of literature in

photojournalism practice globally.

1.8 Operational definition of terms

Photojournalism
Photojournalism is a particular form of journalism (the collecting, editing,
and presenting of news material for publication or broadcast) that creates
images in order to tell a news story. It is now usually understood to refer
only to still images, but in some cases the term also refers to video used in
broadcast journalism. Photojournalism is distinguished from other close
branches of photography by complying with a rigid ethical framework which
demands that the work is both honest and impartial whilst telling the story
in strictly journalistic terms.

Reader’s retention of news stories

In mass media retention is that how long the reader keeps articles and

news in his or her mind

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1.9 Conceptual framework

Independent variable Independent variable

Photojournalism
Reader’s exposure and
Feature photojournalism
retention of media content
Sports photojournalism
Environmental portraits

The above figure shows an illustration of the relationship between

photojournalism (independent variable) and reader’s exposure and retention
(dependent variable). As clearly depicted by the arrow pointing to the right it
means that photojournalism directly affects the way readers are exposed
and retain the media content.

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 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
This chapter will discuss the literature that has been found and published by
other scholars in relation to the study topics-objectives.

2.0 Effect of photojournalism on retention of specific news stories

Bruder (2017) conducted research to find the effects of newspaper images
on reader’s retention. He chooses 50 students from each science, math,
history and political science classes. And provide 50 students a front page of
newspaper. Other 50 students are provided by manipulated version of
newspaper in which text and image of news do not relate with each other.
50 students get a copy of same newspaper page which include graphics
version of news. And other 50 received copy of newspaper which only
included text and no images. Each set of participant read newspaper for 10
minutes and then Bruder asked question to check their retention of news
events. He conclude article or news which has related image with it have
most information retention among the reader. News which has unrelated
image with it will have intermediate level of retention. News stories with
graphics also have intermediate level of retention and news which included
text only will have least level of information retention.

Most Americans, even those not alive at the time the picture was taken, can
recall the infamous picture from Vietnam of a naked young girl, burned from
napalm, running down a road screaming in agony. On the other hand, most
Americans probably cannot remember the combat actions surrounding that
photo, or any other detail that would have been explained in a full text
article on the incident. The photo is remembered over the information
because of the way it evokes emotion. Graphic photographs of military
action, or the consequences of such action, tend to elicit affective responses
from the general public.
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Emotions are generally viewed as mental states representing evaluative
reactions to events, agents, or objects that vary in intensity (Ortony, Clore,
& Collins, 1988). A simple photograph can serve as an object that elicits
emotion. According to Paivio (1986), imagery is more likely to be evoked by
and used with pictures than with words and affective reactions would usually
occur more quickly to pictures than to words because pictures have a more
direct access to affect-mediating imagens. These emotions serve as
heuristics, and guide one’s decisions with minimal information processing or
thought (Dillard & Meijinders, 2002). Affect, therefore, plays an important
part in determining how individuals view events. If an event is determined to
be beneficial to an individual then it is likely to trigger a positive emotion,
and when an event is considered to be harmful to an individual it is likely to
trigger a negative emotion (Mesquita & Karasawa, 1999).

The impact of visuals on text isn’t restricted to content bolstering alone.

Innis (1964) posited the idea that different media have differing potential for
control. Much of this control potential stems from accessibility of the
particular medium. McLuhan (1964) added that media can even work as
extensions of the human sense or processes, suggesting that different media
affect the organization of human senses differently. In consideration of these
viewpoints, the accessibility of newspaper images may lend to some form of
societal control. Newspapers physically permeate the nation and are
inexpensive, many cheaper than a soft drink or a pack of gum, some costing
nothing at all. If the print medium is a working factor in the organization of
human senses, how does it affect human senses? Since newspaper images
are overwhelmingly accessible and impact human senses, it’s possible that
they have some control over emotion, which is inextricably linked with one’s
senses.

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The mental imagery processing model (Staats & Lohr, 1979) states that both
words and images can serve to elicit an emotional response (Scott & Batra,
2003). It is not simply the descriptive words of a news story that stir up a
reader’s sensations. Nabi (2003) notes that pictures have an unquestioned
capacity to arouse emotions, and adds that such emotion may influence
attitudes directly or indirectly by impacting message processing. News
stories use images not only to clarify text, but also because they stimulate
emotion in consumers. Strivers (1994) believed visual images appeal to
human beings on an emotions level and posited the more vibrant, excited, or
convincing an image is, the more likely it will affect an individual. In the
marketing context, similar outcomes are noteworthy. In Morris et al.’s
(2002) robust study of over 23,000 responses to 240 advertising messages,
researcher’s found that affect dominates over cognition for predicting
attitude and action, and that “emotional response is a powerful predictor of
intention” (p. 14).

According to Mackie, Asuncion, and Rosselli, positive affect occurs when

specific content from long-term memory is activated. In other words,
“positive mood will be accompanied by a flux of predominately positive
material in active memory” (1992, p. 251). Additionally, research suggests
that affectively valenced material is allocated more emotional attention than
non-affectively valenced material. Following this path, human beings tend to
allocate more attention (and cognition) to material that is positively
valenced. Mackie, Asuncion, and Rosselli (1992) suggested that less
attention is given to negatively valenced material, leading to the suggestion
that humans might focus on positively valenced material by suppressing
negatively valenced material. Graber (1996) found emotionally valenced
visuals have more impact for the receiver. Since images can create a sense
of drama, they hold a viewer’s attention and create emotional involvement
resulting in personal identification between the subjects of the story and the

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viewer. “In fact, to create dramatic impact, print stories often try to draw on
exciting visuals stored in the audience’s memory,” (Graber, 1996, p. 90).

The intellectual impact of imagery is less important than the emotional force
of an image, since imagery affects a receiver emotionally before cognitively
dissecting the image into intellectual components (Strivers, 1994). This
influence is precisely what news producers are aiming at, since “the image is
intended to make an impression, to have an emotion impact on its audience”
(Strivers, 1994, p. 132). Unlike photographs portraying political leaders or
scenic landscapes, images of military action evoke some type of feeling.

2.2 The importance of Photojournalism on Reader’s Exposure and

Retention

Udomon et al. (2009) analyzed the role of visual and audio on memory and
recall. They divided sample into 2 groups. Group A is provided with audio
recording of 30 words. Group B is shown pictures and visuals of same 30
objects. Then they ask both groups to write down he name of objects they
heard and they visualize. They concluded that visuals have high level of
information retention. Visual stimuli are more effective than audio stimuli in
the process of memory and recall. They observed that group B who are
exposed with visuals recalled more objects than the individuals who heard
the audio name of such words. They also said that if individuals are exposed
with multimodal stimuli (with both audio and visual) then memory process
will be more effective. And memory process is less effective when stimuli is
unimodal.

Morrison et al. (2013) in their research article explored how instructions

given by images are beneficial for memory and retention. They conducted
experiment on 60 undergraduate students in which 44 are females and 6 are

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males. Their research results are different from other researches they said
that images are not very helpful in information recall. But images which are
extra ordinary and provide us important and unique information can be
recalled. Not every image has capability to recall but images which are extra
ordinary.

Schulz and Omweri (2014) studied the effect of business images on

customer retention. They concluded that images play important role in
enhancing customer retention. 66% respondents said that employee training
play important role in enhancing customer retention. 24% said that images
play important role in enhancing customer retention. 8% are neutral and 1%
denied that images play important role in enhancing customer retention.
They said that top management roles are required in building business
images. They also conclude that use of technology in building business
images also enhance the retention of customers.

Richards (2017) in his article said that three tools can increase the
memorization process. Repetition of anything, images and patterns can
enhance the memorization process. One can easily recall the information
related to images. All type of images weather visual image or motor image
are having great effect on retention.

Arpan et al. (2005) analyzed the effects of images on social protests prior
attitudes. Newspaper consumer can’t understand the facts of story as clearly
if story is in text as they understand in images. Images are more effective in
the sense of memorization process. Visuals help us to information recall and
attention towards the specific story. Visuals are given with specific news
stories in newspaper so that consumer can recall that news stories. If they
recall these stories they have point of view on that issue that’s why memory
of visuals also helps in framing process.

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Klinger (2016) in his research article explored the effect of images on
process of memory and learning. He in his research article said that
information which are learnt through written text can be easily be forgotten
but memory of images and learning we done through images is can’t be lost
easily. Memory loss I case of images is very less than text. Images serve as
higher order organizers. Newspaper stories which are text only are difficult
to recall and memorize than stories which also have images with it. Images
are significantly beneficial in process of memory and learning.

Cookman (2008) in his book said that photojournalism can be described by a

phrase “mirror with a memory”. Photographs serve as mirror for our future
generations. One photograph about incident reflects ton of details about the
original scene. Photojournalism serves as memory chip for our future
generations. It has great worth in journalistic process.

Mendelson (2012) conducted a research to know effects of verbalizers and

visualizers of newspapers. The results of research are entirely different from
the previous researches. The high visualization of newspaper do not increase
recall score of news or visuals have no effect on memory. News which
included verbalization had most interesting near the readers. News which
included more verbalization has high recall score than stories which include
visuals.

Zelizer (2017) in his article addressed the role of images on public memory.
In certain situation images become more effective than words. He examined
the pictures of 9/11 attacks on twin towers of world trade center. The photo
of man had been jumping from world trade center which is captured by the
photojournalist of Associated Press of America whose name is Richard Drew.
2ndphoto he selected is of that people in world trade center after attacks are
watching outside the window and thinking whether they should die of fire or
by jumping from the window. This photo is captured by the photojournalist

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of Reuters whose name is Jeff Christensen. 3rd photo he selected is of when
2nd plane is going to be crashed on 2nd tower of World Trade Center. That
is captured by Sean Adair who is photojournalist of Reuters. He says these
“about to die photos” of 9/11 attacks when repeatedly given on front page of
US and international newspapers move these pictures into memory of
readers. People all around the world still remembered this horrific event due
to these photos. And this collective memory of world trade center incident
made this event great not in history of United States but in history of world.
That’s why “visual becomes an effective mode of relay about the past and a
key vehicle of memory”.

2.3 Risks and Challenges facing photojournalism as a profession

According to Smith (2013) not many consider photojournalism as a
profession with the talent that everyone who has a camera can take
picture, so what is the new thing that a photojournalist is doing? Answer
to this, everyone can press the shutter button, but makes is a good
storytelling narrative is the hardest thing that goes unnoticed in
photojournalism. It is like when we all have access to pen and paper,
why do we hail Shakespeare as a great writer?

In the study of Morgan (2015) the numbers of platforms that hire

photojournalists are very less, making the field very difficult to enter.

Peruth (2017) noted that photojournalism is not only taking

photographs, but also a combination that invites collaboration with many
other forms of expression and activities. This include that
photojournalism is not an independent on its own. It requires a platform
like publications to run the story, associations like NGOs to gain story
insights and access among the many others.
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Photojournalism is highly subdued by other glamorous forms of
photography ( i am not meaning to degrade the other genres here) but
the fine line between PJ, travel, street, fashion, documentary
photography renders itself in a difficult position (Molly 2009) .

Allan (2013) urged that the relative ease of use of digital cameras might
give the impression that anybody holding a camera-equipped smartphone, a
simple compact camera or a digital singlelens reflex camera (DSLR), can
produce pictures as good as those produced by any professional.

According to Patrick and Allan (2013), the democratization of image media

and intense financial pressures force many newsrooms to undervalue having
a full-time professional photo department. As found during the data
collection for our study, the majority of Czech, Polish, and Slovak local
newspapers with smaller circulations do not have a regular photo
department at all. In such cases, newsrooms must rely on photographs from
photo agencies, image banks, freelancers, and their staff reporters.

As news organizations cut back on staff and budgets, it is not rare that a
multimedia reporter equipped with a simple DSLR camera, or even just a
smartphone, is forced to manage it all – gather information, take
photographs, write articles, and shoot and edit video (Bock 2008). Research
also show that the phenomenon of citizen journalism – or as Allan (2013a)
calls it, ‘citizen witnessing’ – challenges professional photojournalism (Allan
2007, 2013b). Scholars also question the quality of content and the working
practices involved in obtaining eyewitness imagery (Kobré 2006, Mortensen
2011). For example, Mortensen (2014) investigates the ethical dilemmas
and the lack of editorial control when citizen photojournalism is used as a
unique news source.

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Photojournalism is facing several issues. Photographers may have greater
control over what photographs are published, but combining the tasks of
photographer and photo editor into a single role might suggest that photo
editors are unnecessary (Klein-Avraham & Reich 2014). The absence of
guidance and oversight may also result in lower quality standards (Newton
2009a, 2009b), and journalists may be forced to spend more time on
handling technology and dealing with their additional duties than on
producing quality content (Bock 2008).

In addition to a certain level of gatekeeping in photo selection, most

photographers are also expected to take part in post-production. Thus, the
majority perform at least basic editing (Hadland et al. 2015) and write
captions (such as metadata, keywords, etc.) for both publishing and
archiving purposes. In our recent study (Štefaniková & Láb 2016), Czech
photojournalists claimed they spend almost the same amount of time
handling these additional tasks as they used to spend working in the
darkroom in the analog era. At least two other studies (Bock 2008, Klein-
Avraham & Reich 2014) show similar results. Given these findings, we may
also question where the responsibility for published material now lies. The
answer may be quite troubling when the possibilities of digital alteration are
considered. Thanks to digital technology, any element of a photograph can
easily be improved, added upon, or modified. Thus, the almost undetectable
manipulation of digital images raises the issues of reliability and ethics in
photojournalism (Kobré 2006, Langton 2009, Láb et al. 2016)

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 CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
This chapter will present the methodology from which the study will be
conducted. The chapter begins with the research design, type of data,
sources of data, data collection methods, data analysis method, data
presentation and the limitations of the whole study.
3.1 Research Design.
This study will employ a descriptive research design. This was because under
some instances the researcher will involve in analyzing and describing
different views of different authors in the literature. This will be done in
order to extract meaning full information from the study.

3.2 Study Population

The study will cover a total population of 20 people and a sample size of 19
respondents from Daily Monitor that is from the editorial department,
marketing department and lastly the human resource office. All these
understand issues regarding the study.
3.3 Sample Procedure and Size
The population of the study had four distinct categories. Therefore,
purposive sampling will be used. Thereafter, simple random sampling will be
used to select the final respondents from each category.

3.4 Data Sources and Collection methods.

Primary data will be collected using a questionnaire as the instrument of the
research procedure which will be distributed to the staff of Daily monitor.
The secondary data will be collected from various sources, which include
textbooks, journals, internet, papers and the internal annual reports.
3.4.1 Sources of Data Collection
The two main sources of data that will be used in the research are primary
data and secondary data.

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3.4.1.2 Primary data
Primary data will be collected by use of self-administered questionnaire. This
is because of its confidentiality and efficiency that will enable the researcher
to get responses and reveal the respondents views.
3.5 Data collection instruments
The researcher will use the following data collection instruments.
3.5.1 Questionnaires
The researcher will use self-administered questionnaires. The questions will
be objective and a few unstructured types. This tool will target some of the
employees of daily monitor. The questionnaire will be designed in line with
the topic and research objectives. This tool will be advantageous in that, it
will collect detailed and accurate information compared to other tools. It is
also cheaper to administer.
3.6 Data Analysis
In this study, quantitative analysis will be used and analyses will employ
software known as Statistical Package for Social Sciences, (SPSS Version
16.0). Descriptive statistics will be used to describe the variables in this
study. The study will use the information from the questionnaires.
Qualitative data will be analyzed using descriptive statistics and tables.

Descriptive statistics that the researcher will use include frequencies, which
will be presented in a table form.

Qualitative data will explain verbally depending on the research findings.

For more clarity on the findings from the field, the researcher also will use
frequency distribution tables, regression analysis and comparison of the
means and standard deviation, while presenting the findings. From that the
researcher will make conclusions concerning the study objectives.

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3.7 Data Presentation
The findings from primary, secondary and or quantitative (numerical) data
will be presented in tables, using frequencies and percentages and
cumulative frequencies to make the reader appreciate the output.

Also narration and descriptive methods will be used to quote the exact
responses, comments and observations from the respondents during the
process of and observations

3.8 Ethical consideration

Informed consent will be sought from the respondent before any
questionnaire is presented to the respondents. The data which is collected by
use of reliable and valid tools, will be coded and data collection tools will be
burnt to avoid any form of information misuse. The researcher will maintain
the confidentiality of the respondents and protect their privacy at all times.
The researcher will try to be professional when presenting himself to the
respondents as this can affect the attitude and expectations of the
respondents. The researcher will use the language that is as neutral as
possible regarding the terminology involving people and avoiding
discriminative language. Lastly, the researcher will try to be considerate
during the interactions with respondents.

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