CHAPTER 36

OCEAN CURRENTS

TYPES AND CAUSES OF CURRENTS

3600. Definitions

The movement of ocean water is one of the two

principal sources of discrepancy between dead reckoned
and actual positions of vessels (the other source is the
wind). Water in motion is called a current; the direction
toward which it moves is called set, and its speed is called
drift. Modern shipping speeds have lessened the impact of
currents on a typical voyage, and since electronic Figure 3600. NOAA’s National Center for Environmental
navigation allows continuous adjustment of course, there is Information (NCEI) formerly the National Ocean Data
less need to estimate current set and drift before setting the Center (NODC).
course to be steered. Nevertheless, a knowledge of ocean https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/General/current.html
currents can be used in cruise planning to reduce transit
times, and current models are an integral part of ship 3601. Causes of Ocean Currents
routing systems.
Oceanographers have developed a number of methods The primary generating forces of ocean currents are
of classifying currents in order to facilitate descriptions of wind and differences in water density caused by variations
their physics and geography. Currents may be referred to in heat and salinity. Currents generated by these forces are
according to their forcing mechanism as either wind driven modified by such factors as depth of water, underwater
or thermohaline. Alternatively, they may be classified topography (including shape of the basin in which the
according to their depth (surface, intermediate, deep or current is running), extent &location of land and deflection
bottom). The surface circulation of the world’s oceans is by the rotation of the Earth.
mostly wind driven. Thermohaline currents are driven by
differences in heat and salt and are associated with the 3602. Wind Driven Currents
sinking of dense water at high latitudes; the currents driven
by thermohaline forces are typically subsurface. Note that The friction or stress of wind blowing across the sea
this classification scheme is not unambiguous; the causes a surface layer of water to move. Due to the low
circumpolar current, which is wind driven, extends from the viscosity of water, this stress is not directly communicated
surface to the bottom. to the ocean interior, but is balanced by the Coriolis force
A periodic current is one for which the speed or within a relatively thin surface layer, 10-200m thick. This
direction changes cyclically at somewhat regular intervals, layer is called the Ekman layer and the motion of this layer
such as a tidal current. A seasonal current is one which is called the Ekman transport. Because of the deflection
changes in speed or direction due to seasonal winds. The by the Coriolis force, the Ekman transport is not in the
mean circulation of the ocean consists of semi-permanent direction of the wind, but is 90° to the right in the Northern
currents which experience relatively little periodic or Hemisphere and 90° toward the left in the Southern
seasonal change. Hemisphere. The amount of water flowing in this layer
A coastal current flows roughly parallel to a coast, depends only upon the wind and the Coriolis force. It is
outside the surf zone, while a longshore current is one independent of the depth of the Ekman layer and the
parallel to a shore, inside the surf zone, generated by waves viscosity of the water.
striking the beach at an angle. Any current some distance The large scale convergence or divergence of Ekman
from the shore may be called an offshore current, and one transport serves to drive the general ocean circulation.
close to the shore an inshore current. Consider the case of the Northern Hemisphere subtropics.
General information on ocean currents is available To the south lie easterly winds (Trade Winds) with
from NOAA’s National Center for Environmental Informa- associated northward Ekman transport. To the north lie
tion (NCEI), formerly the National Ocean Data Center westerly winds with southward Ekman transport. The
(NODC). See Figure 3600 for a link to the NCEI website. convergence of these Ekman transports is called Ekman

583
584 OCEAN CURRENTS

pumping and results in a thickening of the upper ocean and length of time it has blown, and other factors. In general,
a increase in the depth of the thermocline. The resulting however, wind drift current is about 2 percent of the wind
subsurface pressure gradients, balanced by the Coriolis speed, or a little less, in deep water where the wind has been
force, give rise to the anticyclonic subtropical gyres found blowing steadily for at least 12 hours.
at mid latitudes in each ocean basin. In subpolar regions,
Ekman suction produces cyclonic gyres. 3603. Currents Related to Density Differences
These wind driven gyres are not symmetrical. Along
the western boundary of the oceans, currents are narrower, The density of water varies with salinity, temperature,
stronger, and deeper, often following a meandering course. and pressure. At any given depth, the differences in density
These currents are sometimes called a stream, i.e. the Gulf are due only to differences in temperature and salinity. With
Stream in the Atlantic Ocean. In contrast, currents in mid- sufficient data, maps showing geographical density distri-
ocean and at the eastern boundary, are often broad, shallow bution at a certain depth can be drawn, with lines
and slow-moving. Sometimes these are called drift connecting points of equal density. These lines would be
currents. similar to isobars on a weather map and serve an analogous
Within the Ekman layer, the currents actually form a purpose, showing areas of high density and those of low
spiral. At the surface, the difference between wind direction density. In an area of high density, the water surface is
and surface wind-current direction varies from about 15° lower than in an area of low density, the maximum
along shallow coastal areas to a maximum of 45° in the difference in height being about 1 meter in 100 km.
deep oceans. As the motion is transmitted to successively Because of this difference, water tends to flow from an area
deep layers, the Coriolis force continues to deflect the of higher water (low density) to one of lower water (high
current. At the bottom of the Ekman layer, the current flows density). But due to rotation of the Earth, it is deflected by
in the opposite direction to the surface current. This shift of the Coriolis force or toward the right in the Northern
current directions with depth, combined with the decrease Hemisphere, and toward the left in the Southern
in velocity with depth, is called the Ekman spiral. Hemisphere. This balance, between subsurface pressure
The velocity of the surface current is the sum of the fields and the Coriolis force, is called geostrophic
velocities of the Ekman, geostrophic, tidal, and other equilibrium. At a given latitude, the greater the density
currents. The Ekman surface current or wind drift current gradient (rate of change with distance), the faster the
depends upon the speed of the wind, its constancy, the geostrophic current.

OCEANIC CIRCULATION

3604. Introduction the ocean to the polar region and is associated with the
surfacing of the main thermocline. This zone is typically
A number of ocean currents flow with great found at 40°S but varies with longitude and season.
persistence, setting up a circulation that continues with In the Antarctic, the circulation is generally from west
relatively little change throughout the year. Because of the to east in a broad, slow-moving current extending
influence of wind in creating current, there is a relationship completely around Antarctica. This is called the Antarctic
between this oceanic circulation and the general circulation Circumpolar Current or the West Wind Drift, and it is
of the atmosphere. The oceanic circulation is shown on the formed partly by the strong westerly wind in this area, and
Stream Drift Chart of the World insert (winter N. partly by density differences. This current is augmented by
hemisphere), with the names of the major ocean currents. the Brazil and Falkland Currents in the Atlantic, the East
Some differences in opinion exist regarding the names and Australia Current in the Pacific, and the Agulhas Current in
limits of some of the currents, but those shown are the Indian Ocean. In return, part of it curves northward to
representative. Speed may vary somewhat with the season. form the Cape Horn, Falkland, and most of the Benguela
This is particularly noticeable in the Indian Ocean and Currents in the Atlantic, and the Peru Current in the Pacific.
along the South China coast, where currents are influenced In a narrow zone next to the Antarctic continent, a
to a marked degree by the monsoons. westward flowing coastal current is usually found. This
current is called the East Wind Drift because it is
3605. Southern Ocean Currents attributed to the prevailing easterly winds, which occur
there.
The Southern Ocean has no meridional boundaries and
its waters are free to circulate around the globe. It serves as 3606. Atlantic Ocean Currents
a conveyor belt for the other oceans, exchanging waters
between them. The northern boundary of the Southern The trade winds set up a system of equatorial currents
Ocean is marked by the Subtropical Convergence zone. which at times extends over as much as 50° of latitude or
This zone marks the transition from the temperate region of more. There are two westerly flowing currents conforming
 OCEAN CURRENTS 585

generally with the areas of trade winds, separated by a north and becomes a broad drift current flowing across the
weaker, easterly flowing countercurrent. North Atlantic. The part in the Straits of Florida is
The North Equatorial Current originates to the sometimes called the Florida Current.
northward of the Cape Verde Islands and flows almost due A tremendous volume of water flows northward in the
west at an average speed of about 0.7 knot. Gulf Stream. It can be distinguished by its deep indigo-blue
The South Equatorial Current is more extensive. It color, which contrasts sharply with the dull green of the sur-
starts off the west coast of Africa, south of the Gulf of rounding water. It is accompanied by frequent squalls.
Guinea, and flows in a generally westerly direction at an When the Gulf Stream encounters the cold water of the
average speed of about 0.6 knot. However, the speed Labrador Current, principally in the vicinity of the Grand
gradually increases until it may reach a value of 2.5 knots, Banks, there is little mixing of the waters. Instead, the junc-
or more, off the east coast of South America. As the tion is marked by a sharp change in temperature. The line
current approaches Cabo de Sao Roque, the eastern or surface along which this occurs is called the cold wall.
extremity of South America, it divides, the southern part When the warm Gulf Stream water encounters cold air,
curving toward the south along the coast of Brazil, and the evaporation is so rapid that the rising vapor may be visible
northern part being deflected northward by the continent as frost smoke.
of South America.
Between the North and South Equatorial Currents, the
weaker North Equatorial Countercurrent sets toward the
east in the general vicinity of the doldrums. This is fed by
water from the two westerly flowing equatorial currents,
particularly the South Equatorial Current. The extent and
strength of the Equatorial Countercurrent changes with the
seasonal variations of the wind. It reaches a maximum
during July and August, when it extends from about 50°
west longitude to the Gulf of Guinea. During its minimum,
in December and January, it is of very limited extent, the
western portion disappearing altogether.
That part of the South Equatorial Current flowing along
the northern coast of South America, which does not feed
the Equatorial Countercurrent, unites with the North
Equatorial Current at a point west of the Equatorial Counter-
current. A large part of the combined current flows through
various passages between the Windward Islands and into the
Caribbean Sea. It sets toward the west, and then somewhat
north of west, finally arriving off the Yucatan peninsula.
From there, the water enters the Gulf of Mexico and forms
the Loop Current; the path of the Loop Current is variable
with a 13-month period. It begins by flowing directly from
Yucatan to the Florida Straits, but gradually grows to flow Figure 3606a. Infrared image of the warm water Gulf
anticyclonically around the entire Eastern Gulf; it then Stream running northwards along the U.S. East Coast.
collapses, again following the direct path from Yucatan to
the Florida Straits, with the loop in the Eastern Gulf Investigations have shown that the current itself is
becoming a separate eddy which slowly flows into the much narrower and faster than previously supposed, and
Western Gulf. considerably more variable in its position and speed. The
Within the Straits of Florida, the Loop Current feeds maximum current off Florida ranges from about 2 to 4
the beginnings of the most remarkable of American ocean knots. Northward, the speed is generally less, and it
currents, the Gulf Stream. Off the southeast coast of decreases further after the current passes Cape Hatteras. As
Florida this current is augmented by the Antilles Current the stream meanders and shifts position, eddies sometimes
which flows along the northern coasts of Puerto Rico, break off and continue as separate, circular flows until they
Hispaniola, and Cuba. Another current flowing eastward of dissipate. Vessels in the Newport-Bermuda sailing yacht
the Bahamas joins the stream north of these islands. race have been known to be within sight of each other and
The Gulf Stream follows generally along the east coast be carried in opposite directions by different parts of the
of North America, flowing around Florida, northward and same current. This race is generally won by the boat which
then northeastward toward Cape Hatteras, and then catches an eddy just right. As the current shifts position, its
curving toward the east and becoming broader and slower. extent does not always coincide with the area of warm, blue
After passing the Grand Banks, it turns more toward the water. When the sea is relatively smooth, the edges of the
586 OCEAN CURRENTS

current are marked by ripples. In Baffin Bay the West Greenland Current generally
A recirculation region exists adjacent to and southeast follows the coast, curving westward off Kap York to form
of the Gulf Stream. The flow of water in the recirculation the southerly flowing Labrador Current. This cold
region is opposite to that in the Gulf Stream and surface current flows southward off the coast of Baffin Island,
currents are much weaker, generally less than half a knot. through Davis Strait, along the coast of Labrador and
As the Gulf Stream continues eastward and Newfoundland, to the Grand Banks, carrying with it large
northeastward beyond the Grand Banks, it gradually quantities of ice. Here it encounters the warm water of the
widens and decreases speed until it becomes a vast, slow- Gulf Stream, creating the cold wall. Some of the cold water
moving current known as the North Atlantic Current, in flows southward along the east coast of North America,
the general vicinity of the prevailing westerlies. In the inshore of the Gulf Stream, as far as Cape Hatteras. The
eastern part of the Atlantic it divides into the Northeast remainder curves toward the east and flows along the
Drift Current and the Southeast Drift Current. northern edge of the North Atlantic and Northeast Drift
The Northeast Drift Current continues in a generally Currents, gradually merging with them.
northeasterly direction toward the Norwegian Sea. As it The Southeast Drift Current curves toward the east,
does so, it continues to widen and decrease speed. South of southeast, and then south as it is deflected by the coast of
Iceland it branches to form the Irminger Current and the Europe. It flows past the Bay of Biscay, toward southeastern
Norway Current. The Irminger Current curves toward the Europe and the Canary Islands, where it continues as the
north and northwest to join the East Greenland Current Canary Current. In the vicinity of the Cape Verde Islands,
southwest of Iceland. The Norway Current continues in a this current divides, part of it curving toward the west to help
northeasterly direction along the coast of Norway. Part of it, form the North Equatorial Current, and part of it curving
the North Cape Current, rounds North Cape into the toward the east to follow the coast of Africa into the Gulf of
Barents Sea. The other part curves toward the north and Guinea, where it is known as the Guinea Current. This
becomes known as the Spitsbergen Current. Before current is augmented by the North Equatorial Counter-
reaching Svalbard (Spitsbergen), it curves toward the west current and, in summer, it is strengthened by monsoon winds.
and joins the cold East Greenland Current flowing It flows in close proximity to the South Equatorial Current, but
southward in the Greenland Sea. As this current flows past in the opposite direction. As it curves toward the south, still
Iceland, it is further augmented by the Irminger Current. following the African coast, it merges with the South
Off Kap Farvel, at the southern tip of Greenland, the East Equatorial Current.
Greenland Current curves sharply to the northwest following The clockwise circulation of the North Atlantic leaves
the coastline. As it does so, it becomes known as the West a large central area between the recirculation region and the
Greenland Current, and its character changes from that of an Canary Current which has no well-defined currents. This
intense western boundary current to a weaker eastern area is known as the Sargasso Sea, from the large quanti-
boundary current. This current continues along the west coast ties of sargasso or gulfweed encountered there. See Figure
of Greenland, through Davis Strait, and into Baffin Bay. 3606b.

Figure 3606b. The Sagrasso Sea, located entirely within the Atlantic Ocean, is the only sea without a land boundary.

That branch of the South Equatorial Current, which Current, which in some respects resembles a weak Gulf
curves toward the south off the east coast of South America, Stream. Off Uruguay it encounters the colder, less-salty
follows the coast as the warm, highly-saline Brazil Falkland or Malvinas Current forming a sharp
 OCEAN CURRENTS 587

meandering front in which eddies may form. The two As this current approaches the North American
currents curve toward the east to form the broad, slow- continent, most of it is deflected toward the right to form a
moving, South Atlantic Current in the general vicinity of clockwise circulation between the west coast of North
the prevailing westerlies and the front dissipates somewhat. America and the Hawaiian Islands called the California
This current flows eastward to a point west of the Cape of Current. This part of the current has become so broad that
Good Hope, where it curves northward to follow the west the circulation is generally weak. Near the coast, the
coast of Africa as the strong Benguela Current, southeastward flow intensifies and average speeds are about
augmented somewhat by part of the Agulhas Current 0.8 knot. But the flow pattern is complex, with offshore
flowing around the southern part of Africa from the Indian directed jets often found near more prominent capes, and
Ocean. As it continues northward, the current gradually poleward flow often found over the upper slope and outer
widens and slows. At a point east of St. Helena Island it continental shelf. It is strongest near land. Near the southern
curves westward to continue as part of the South Equatorial end of Baja California, this current curves sharply to the west
Current, thus completing the counterclockwise circulation and broadens to form the major portion of the North
of the South Atlantic. The Benguela Current is also Equatorial Current.
augmented somewhat by the West Wind Drift, a current During the winter, a weak countercurrent flows
which flows easterly around Antarctica. As the West Wind northwestward, inshore of the southeastward flowing
Drift flows past Cape Horn, that part in the immediate California Current, along the west coast of North America
vicinity of the cape is called the Cape Horn Current. This from Baja California to Vancouver Island. This is called the
current rounds the cape and flows in a northerly and Davidson Current.
northeasterly direction along the coast of South America as Off the west coast of Mexico, south of Baja California
the Falkland or Malvinas Current. the current flows southeastward during the winter as a
continuation of part of the California Current. During the
3607. Pacific Ocean Currents summer, the current in this area is northwestward as a
continuation of the North Equatorial Countercurrent.
Pacific Ocean currents follow the general pattern of As in the Atlantic, there is in the Pacific a counter-
those in the Atlantic. The North Equatorial Current flows clockwise circulation to the north of the clockwise
westward in the general area of the northeast trades and the circulation. Cold water flowing southward through the
South Equatorial Current follows a similar path in the western part of Bering Strait between Alaska and Siberia, is
region of the southeast trades. Between these two, the joined by water circulating counterclockwise in the Bering
weaker North Equatorial Countercurrent sets toward the Sea to form the Oyashio. As the current leaves the strait, it
east, just north of the equator. curves toward the right and flows southwesterly along the
After passing the Mariana Islands, the major part of the coast of Siberia and the Kuril Islands. This current brings
North Equatorial Current curves somewhat toward the quantities of sea ice, but no icebergs. When it encounters the
northwest, past the Philippines and Taiwan. Here it is Kuroshio, the Oyashio curves southward and then eastward,
deflected further toward the north, where it becomes known the greater portion joining the Kuroshio and North Pacific
as the Kuroshio, and then toward the northeast past the Current.
Nansei Shoto and Japan, and on in a more easterly direction. The northern branch of the North Pacific Current curves
Part of the Kuroshio, called the Tsushima Current, flows in a counterclockwise direction to form the Alaska
through Tsushima Strait, between Japan and Korea, and the Current, which generally follows the coast of Canada and
Sea of Japan, following generally the northwest coast of Alaska. When the Alaska Current turns to the southwest and
Japan. North of Japan it curves eastward and then flows along the Kodiak Island and the Alaska Peninsula, its
southeastward to rejoin the main part of the Kuroshio. The character changes to that of a western boundary current and
limits and volume of the Kuroshio are influenced by the it is called the Alaska Stream. When this westward flow
monsoons, being augmented during the season of arrives off the Aleutian Islands, it is less intense and
southwesterly winds, and diminished when the northeasterly becomes known as the Aleutian Current. Part of it flows
winds are prevalent. along the southern side of these islands to about the 180th
The Kuroshio (Japanese for “Black Stream”) is so meridian, where it curves in a counterclockwise direction
named because of the dark color of its water. It is and becomes an easterly flowing current, being augmented
sometimes called the Japan Current. In many respects it is by the northern part of the Oyashio. The other part of the
similar to the Gulf Stream of the Atlantic. Like that current, Aleutian Current flows through various openings between
it carries large quantities of warm tropical water to higher the Aleutian Islands, into the Bering Sea. Here it flows in a
latitudes, and then curves toward the east as a major part of general counterclockwise direction. The southward flow
the general clockwise circulation in the Northern along the Kamchatka peninsula is called the Kamchatka
Hemisphere. As it does so, it widens and slows, continuing Current which feeds the southerly flowing Oyashio. Some
on between the Aleutians and the Hawaiian Islands, where water flows northward from the Bering Sea through the
it becomes known as the North Pacific Current. eastern side of the Bering Strait, into the Arctic Ocean.
588 OCEAN CURRENTS

The South Equatorial Current, extending in width the Pacific Ocean along the eastern boundary. During the
between about 4°N latitude and 10°S, flows westward from northern hemisphere winter, the North Equatorial Current
South America to the western Pacific. After this current and South Equatorial Current flow toward the west, with
crosses the 180th meridian, the major part curves in a the weaker, eastward Equatorial Countercurrent flowing
counterclockwise direction, entering the Coral Sea, and then between them, as in the Atlantic and Pacific (but somewhat
curving more sharply toward the south along the east coast south of the equator). But during the northern hemisphere
of Australia, where it is known as the East Australian summer, both the North Equatorial Current and the
Current. The East Australian Current is the weakest of the Equatorial Countercurrent are replaced by the Southwest
subtropical western boundary currents and separates from Monsoon Current, which flows eastward and
the Australian coast near 34°S. The path of the current from southeastward across the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.
Australia to New Zealand is known as the Tasman Front, Near Sumatra, this current curves in a clockwise direction
which marks the boundary between the warm water of the and flows westward, augmenting the South Equatorial
Coral Sea and the colder water of the Tasman Sea. The Current, and setting up a clockwise circulation in the
continuation of the East Australian Current east of New northern part of the Indian Ocean. Off the coast of Somalia,
Zealand is the East Auckland Current. The East Auckland the Somali Current reverses direction during the northern
Current varies seasonally. In the winter, it separates from the hemisphere summer with northward currents reaching
shelf and flows eastward, merging with the West Wind speeds of 5 knots or more. Twice a year, around May and
Drift, while in winter it follows the New Zealand shelf November, westerly winds along the equator result in an
southward as the East Cape Current until it reaches eastward Equatorial Jet which feeds warm water towards
Chatham Rise where it turns eastward, thence merging with Sumatra.
the West Wind Drift. As the South Equatorial Current approaches the coast of
Near the southern extremity of South America, most of Africa, it curves toward the southwest, part of it flowing
this current flows eastward into the Atlantic, but part of it through the Mozambique Channel between Madagascar and
curves toward the left and flows generally northward along the mainland, and part flowing along the east coast of
the west coast of South America as the Peru Current or Madagascar. At the southern end of this island the two join
Humboldt Current. Occasionally a set directly toward to form the strong Agulhas Current, which is analogous to
land is encountered. At about Cabo Blanco, where the coast the Gulf Stream. This current, when opposed by strong
falls away to the right, the current curves toward the left, winds from Southern Ocean storms, creates dangerously
past the Galapagos Islands, where it takes a westerly set and large seas.
constitutes the major portion of the South Equatorial South of South Africa, the Agulhas Current retroflects,
Current, thus completing the counterclockwise circulation and most of the flow curves sharply southward and then
of the South Pacific. eastward to join the West Wind Drift; this junction is often
During the northern hemisphere summer, a weak marked by a broken and confused sea, made much worse by
northern branch of the South Equatorial Current, known as westerly storms. A small part of the Agulhas Current rounds
the New Guinea Coastal Current, continues on toward the the southern end of Africa and helps form the Benguela
west and northwest along both the southern and Current; occasionally, strong eddies are formed in the retrof-
northeastern coasts of New Guinea. The southern part flows lection region and these too move into the Southeastern
through Torres Strait, between New Guinea and Australia, Atlantic.
into the Arafura Sea. Here, it gradually loses its identity, The eastern boundary currents in the Indian Ocean are
part of it flowing on toward the west as part of the South quite different from those found in the Atlantic and Pacific.
Equatorial Current of the Indian Ocean, and part of it The seasonally reversing South Java Current has
following the coast of Australia and finally joining the strongest westward flow during August when monsoon
easterly flowing West Wind Drift. The northern part of winds are easterly and the Equatorial jet is inactive. Along
New Guinea Coastal Current, both curves in a clockwise the coast of Australia, a vigorous poleward flow, the
direction to help form the Pacific Equatorial Countercurrent Leeuwin Current, runs against the prevailing winds.
and off Mindanao, turns southward to form a southward
flowing boundary current called the Mindanao Current. 3609. Arctic Currents
During the northern hemisphere winter, the New Guinea
Coastal Current may reverse direction for a few months. The waters of the North Atlantic enter the Arctic Ocean
between Norway and Svalbard. The currents flow easterly,
3608. Indian Ocean Currents north of Siberia to the region of the Novosibirskiye Ostrova
where they turn northerly across the North Pole and
Indian Ocean currents follow generally the pattern of the continue down the Greenland coast to form the East
Atlantic and Pacific but with differences caused principally Greenland Current. On the American side of the Arctic
by the monsoons, the more limited extent of water in the basin, there is a weak, continuous clockwise flow centered
Northern Hemisphere, and by limited communication with in the vicinity of 80°N, 150°W. A current north through
 OCEAN CURRENTS 589

Bering Strait along the American coast is balanced by an around it. The Barents Sea, Kara Sea, and Laptev Sea each
outward southerly flow along the Siberian coast, which have a weak counterclockwise circulation. A similar but
eventually becomes part of the Kamchatka Current. Each weaker counterclockwise current system appears to exist in
of the main islands or island groups in the Arctic, as far as the East Siberian Sea.
is known, seems to have a clockwise nearshore circulation

OCEANIC CURRENT PHENOMENA

3610. Ocean Eddies and Rings Currents, arrives off the southwest coast of Iceland,
warming it to the extent that Reykjavik has a higher average
Eddies with horizontal diameters varying from 50-150 winter temperature than New York City, far to the south.
km have their own pattern of surface currents. These Great Britain and Labrador are about the same latitude, but
features may have either a warm or a cold core and currents the climate of Great Britain is much milder because of the
flow around this core, either cyclonically for cold cores or relatively warm currents. The west coast of the United
anticyclonically for warm cores. The most intense of these States is cooled in the summer by the California Current,
features are called rings and are formed by the pinching off and warmed in the winter by the Davidson Current. Partly
of meanders of western boundary currents such as the Gulf as a result of this circulation, the range of monthly average
Stream. Maximum speed associated with these features is temperature is comparatively small.
about 2 knots. Rings have also been observed to pinch off Currents exercise other influences besides those on
from the Agulhas retroflexion and to then drift to the temperature. The pressure pattern is affected materially, as
northwest into the South Atlantic. Similarly, strong anticy- air over a cold current contracts as it is cooled, and that over
clonic eddies are occasionally spawned by the loop current a warm current expands. As air cools above a cold ocean
into the Western Gulf Mexico. current, fog is likely to form. Frost smoke occurs over a
In general, mesoscale variability is strongest in the warm current which flows into a colder region. Evaporation
region of western boundary currents and in the Circumpolar is greater from warm water than from cold water, adding to
Current. The strength of mesoscale eddies is greatly atmospheric moisture.
reduced at distances of 200-400 km from these strong
boundary currents, because mean currents are generally 3613. Ocean Current Observations
weaker in these regions. The eddies may be sufficiently
strong to reverse the direction of the surface currents.
Historically, our views of the surface circulation of the
ocean have been shaped by reports of ocean currents
3611. Undercurrents
provided by mariners. These observations consist of reports
of the difference between the dead reckoning and the
At the equator and along some ocean boundaries,
observed position of the vessel. These observations were
shallow undercurrents exist, flowing in a direction counter
routinely collected until the start of World War II.
to that at the surface. These currents may affect the
operation of submarines or trawlers. The most intense of Today, three observation systems are generally used for
these flows, called the Pacific Equatorial Undercurrent, surface current studies. The first utilizes autonomous free-
is found at the equator in the Pacific. It is centered at a depth drifting buoys which are tracked by satellite or relay their
of 150m to the west of the Galapagos, is about 4 km wide, position via satellite. These buoys consist of either a
and eastward speeds of up to 1.5 m/s have been observed. spherical or cylindrical surface float which is about 0.5m in
Equatorial Undercurrents are also observed in the Atlantic diameter with a drogue at a depth of about 35m.
and Indian Ocean, but they are somewhat weaker. In the The second system utilizes acoustic Doppler current
Atlantic, the Equatorial Undercurrent is found to the east of profilers. These profilers utilize hull mounted transducers,
24°W and in the Indian Ocean, it appears to be seasonal. operate at a frequency of 150 kHz, and have pulse repetition
Undercurrents also exist along ocean boundaries. They rates of about 1 second. They can penetrate to about 300m,
seem to be most ubiquitous at the eastern boundary of and, where water is shallower than this depth, track the bot-
oceans. Here they are found at depths of 100-200m and may tom. Merchant and naval vessels are increasingly being
be 100 km wide, and have maximum speeds of 0.5 m/s. outfitted with acoustic Doppler current profilers which,
when operated with the Global Positioning System, provide
3612. Ocean Currents and Climate accurate observations of currents.
The third system is a high frequency radar system em-
Many of the ocean currents exert a marked influence ploying land-based radar antennae that can measure surface
upon the climate of the coastal regions along which they currents (top ~2m) up to 200 km from shore. These obser-
flow. Thus, warm water from the Gulf Stream, continuing vations are available in near-real time to the mariner with an
as the North Atlantic, Northeast Drift, and Irminger internet connection.
590 OCEAN CURRENTS

3614. References OCTOBER 1977), SCIENCE, Vol. 198, Issue 4313,

Surface Currents Mapped by Radar, pp. 138-144.
Barrick, D. E., Evans, M. W., and Weber B. L., (14