Artificial Intelligence

1. Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

Florin Leon

“Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iași

Faculty of Automatic Control and Computer Engineering

“Al. I. Cuza” University of Iași

Faculty of Computer Science
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Introduction to Artificial Intelligence
1. Overview
2. Intelligence and artificial intelligence
3. Definitions of artificial intelligence
4. History of artificial intelligence
5. Subfields and applications
6. Conclusions

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Introduction to Artificial Intelligence
1. Overview
2. Intelligence and artificial intelligence
3. Definitions of artificial intelligence
4. History of artificial intelligence
5. Subfields and applications
6. Conclusions

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Overview
 Artificial Intelligence (AI) tries to build
intelligent entities
 It is possible, we only need to understand
ourselves
 We need to find the right goals
 Computers allow the implementation of ideas
 AI has shown significant progress in the past
few years

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Introduction to Artificial Intelligence
1. Overview
2. Intelligence and artificial intelligence
3. Definitions of artificial intelligence
4. History of artificial intelligence
5. Subfields and applications
6. Conclusions

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Artificial Intelligence
 Artificial (easy to define)
 Man-made, non-natural, manufactured
 AI is the science of making machines
do things that would require intelligence
if done by people

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Intelligence: what it is
 Intelligence is much harder to define
 It is actually an umbrella term for many related abilities
 The ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think
abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly
and learn from experience (Mainstream Science of
Intelligence, 1994)
 Understanding
 Learning, perceiving relationships
 Reasoning

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Multiple intelligences
 Psychologist Howard Gardner identified 7 distinct
types of intelligence (Frames of Mind, 1983), and
more recently another 2 (1995)
 Linguistic
 The ability to communicate well, both orally and in writing,
perhaps in several languages

 Which word does not belong to the group?

 Tree, Mouse, Man, Paper

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Multiple intelligences
 Logical-mathematical
 The ability to learn higher mathematics, to handle complex
logical arguments
 Manifested in solving arithmetic problems or in strategy
games

 What is the next number in the series?

 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 14, 18, 20, 24, 30, 32, 38, ?

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Multiple intelligences
 Spatial
 The ability to accomplish tasks requiring three-dimensional
visualization
 Manifested in solving spatial geometry problems, finding
the path in a maze, the talent for drawing or building Lego
shapes

 What image is next? ?

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Multiple intelligences
 Bodily-kinesthetic
 The ability to use one’s physical body well, to identify and process
physical information, e.g. to “feel” the rhythm of a dance
 Musical
 The ability to learn, perform, and compose music, e.g. to “have an
ear” for music, to perceive and distinguish sounds that seem to be
the same for other people
 Interpersonal
 The ability to sense the others’ feelings and be in tune with others,
e.g. leadership, ease of communication, empathy (to understand
the others’ feelings)
 Intrapersonal
 Self-awareness, the ability to know one’s own feelings and
possibilities
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Multiple intelligences
 Naturalistic
 The ability to recognize patterns in nature, understand

different species, and classify natural objects: biologists,

naturalists
 Existential
 The ability to handle philosophical issues of life. People who

learn best by thinking about analytical questions: readers,

writers, religious speakers, philosophers
 2016: in an interview, Gardner mentioned that he thinks about
including the pedagogical intelligence

 Every cognitive area may have its own type of intelligence?...

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Types of intelligence
1. Linguistic 6. Interpersonal
2. Logical-mathematical 7. Intrapersonal
3. Spatial 8. Naturalistic
4. Bodily-kinesthetic 9. Existential
5. Musical 10. Pedagogic?

 Classical IQ tests usually address the first 3 types

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Intelligence: what it needs
 Perception
 The ability to make complex observations about the environment
 Information processing
 The ability to handle and transform information, all forms of reasoning
 Memory
 The ability to store and reuse information
 Learning
 The ability to develop new knowledge and capabilities and use the
accumulated experience
 Adaptability
 The ability to flexibly adapt one’s behaviour to current situations
 Input-output process: get – filter – store – generalize – act

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Intelligence: what it does
 The ability to use limited resources, including time,
in an optimal way in order to achieve goals
 Greater intelligence means reaching objectives more
often or quicker
 The ability to solve new problems or to solve
problems in new, more efficient ways
 The ability to adapt to the environment by changing
oneself or the environment

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Discussion
 Humans are less physically adapted; they had to
compensate
 Intelligence is a potential

 Difference types of intelligence: octopuses

 Evolutionary intelligence of the species: cockroaches,
tardigrades

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Intelligence
 Intelligence is a measure of the capability
to achieve goals (to solve problems) in a
complex, dynamic environment

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Introduction to Artificial
Intelligence
1. Overview
2. Intelligence and artificial intelligence
3. Definitions of artificial intelligence
4. History of artificial intelligence
5. Subfields and applications
6. Conclusions

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Approach #1
Acting humanly
 AI is: “The art of creating machines that
perform functions that require intelligence
when performed by people” (Kurzweil)
 It can be tested by the Turing test (1950)

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The Turing test
 A human judge engages in a natural
language conversation with two other
parties, one a human and the other a
machine
 If the judge cannot reliably tell which
is which, then the machine is said to
pass the test

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In practice
 It needs:
 Natural language processing
 Knowledge representation
 Automated reasoning
 Machine learning

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The Chinese room
 Searle (1980), counter-argument against defining intelligence by
the results of the Turing test
 A person uses the set of rules of a computer that passes the
Turing test to answer questions in Chinese
 The person doesn’t know Chinese
 A program that manipulates symbols, even if it behaves
intelligently, does not understand and has no mental states

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Approach #2
Thinking humanly
 AI is: “[The automation of] activities that we
associate with human thinking, activities such
as decision-making, problem solving,
learning…” (Bellman)
 The goal is to build systems that function
internally in some way similar to the human
mind

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Cognitive modelling
 Cognitive science tries to model the human mind based on
experimentation
 The cognitive modelling approach to AI assumes intelligent action
while internally mimicking the human mind
 We should know how the human mind works
 Introspection
 Psychological experiments
 Programs should not only solve problems, but solve them in the
same way as people do
 Minsky, The Society of Mind (1988)
 The mind is a collection of agents representing different, possibly
concurrent processes

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Approach #3
Thinking rationally
 AI is: “The study of the computations that make it possible
to perceive, reason and act” (Winston)
 Using logic to make complex decisions
 Aristotle: syllogisms (4th century B.C.)
 Rigorous formalization, power of representation and
reasoning
 We can find the truth by manipulating symbols
 How can knowledge be represented logically, and how
can a system make deductions?
 Difficulties: uncertain knowledge, informal knowledge
(e.g., “I think I love you”), learning from noisy data

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Approach #4
Acting rationally
 AI is: “...concerned with the automation of intelligent
behaviour” (Luger, Stubblefield)
 Acting rationally means doing the right thing
 Emphasis is on behavior
 Inference is useful, but not always necessary
 Reflex actions can be rational

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Acting rationally
 Acting rationally is emphasized by most AI today
 Rational agents
 In solving actual problems, the result is what
really matters
 Rather than imitating humans trying to solve
hard problems, just try to solve hard problems

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Difference in approaches
 Thought vs. behavior
 Human vs. rational

 Behavior is observable and more scientifically

testable than thought
 Rationality is clearly defined: optimal actions
 In some complex environments, it may not be
possible to always find the optimal actions

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Natural and artificial intelligence
 Electronic computers have a different architecture
than biological systems
 They have each different types of performance
 Language recognition vs. complex computations
 Common sense is an immense, hidden quantity of
implicit knowledge accumulated from experience
 The ultimate challenge for building a human-like machine
 This knowledge cannot be programmed, it must be learned

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General artificial intelligence
 Potential directions that should be merged
into a single mechanism:
 Connectionist methods (deep networks)
 Can learn from data, possibly noisy
 Typical application: image recognition
 Symbolic methods (logic methods, ontologies)
 Can combine knowledge, can reason
 Typical application: automated theorem proving, in the
sense of applying general knowledge to particular cases

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General artificial intelligence
 Potential directions that should be merged
into a single mechanism:
 Connectionist methods (deep networks)
 Symbolic methods (logic methods, ontologies)
 Probabilistic methods (Bayesian networks)
 Evolutionary methods (genetic/evolutionary
algorithms)
 Analogy methods (transfer learning)

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Introduction to Artificial
Intelligence
1. Overview
2. Intelligence and artificial intelligence
3. Definitions of artificial intelligence
4. History of artificial intelligence
5. Subfields and applications
6. Conclusions

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The beginnings
 1943: first model of an artificial neuron
(McCulloch & Pitts)
 1949: neural learning (Hebb)
 1950, 1951: studies about chess games
(Shannon, Turing)
 1951: SNARC, the first neural computer
(Minsky & Edmonds)

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 The birth of AI
 1956: “Artificial Intelligence” term: McCarthy, Dartmouth College
workshop
 Logical Theorist (Newell & Simon)
 Early enthusiasm
 1957: General Problem Solver
 1958: Lisp, time sharing, theoretical Advice Taker (McCarthy)
 1959: Geometry Theorem Prover
 1965: resolution method
 Checkers program that learns from playing
 Calculus program
 “Microworlds”
 Predictions that AI would eventually do almost anything

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Perceptrons
 Rosenblatt (1957)
 Linear classifier
 Perceptron convergence theorem (1962)
 Training algorithm

Only linearly separable problems

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A dose of reality
 The programs that worked well for the microworlds failed when
applied to real-life problems
 Solving in principle is not the same as solving in practice
 Combinatorial explosion
 Automatic translation from Russian to English
 The spirit is willing but the flesh is weak
 The vodka is good but the meat is rotten
 Minsky and Papert’s Perceptrons (1969)
 Non-linearly separable problems (e.g. XOR) cannot be modelled by
a perceptron
 The Lighthill Report (1973) cancelled AI funding in UK except
for three universities
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Knowledge-based systems
 Dendral, the first expert system (1965)
 Used for spectrometry

 Later versions included the idea of Advice Taker:

separating knowledge (rules) from the program
that performs reasoning
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Eliza
 The computer therapist (Weizenbaum & Colby, 1966)

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Other achievements
 1965: Fuzzy logic (Zadeh)
 1968: Knowledge representation with semantic networks
(Quillian)
 1970: Prolog (Colmerauer)
 1970: MYCIN expert system (Shortliffe et al.)
 Written in Lisp, 450 rules
 Blood infections, explanations (“why?”), confidence factors
 EMYCIN (1979), expert system shell
 1973: Genetic algorithms (Holland)
 1975: Knowledge representation with frames (Minsky)
 1980: Prospector, detection of mineral deposits
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AI becomes an industry
 1978: XCON, commercial expert system for the
configuration of VAX computers
 $40 million savings a year in 1986
 750 rules in 1979, 5500 rules in 1995

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Success stories: the 80s
 1984: The Cyc project (Lenat), collection of common sense
knowledge. In 2006: 47,000 concepts, 306,000 facts
 1985: Bayesian networks (Pearl), probabilistic reasoning
 1986: The back-propagation algorithm for training multilayer
perceptron neural networks (Rumelhart, Hinton & Williams),
actually discovered in 1969 (Bryson & Ho)
 1987: SOAR (Newell, Laird & Rosenbloom)
 1988: The Society of Mind (Minsky)
 1988: HiTech (CMU) defeats chess grandmaster Denker

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NetTalk
 Neural network that learns to read texts in English
(Sejnowski & Rosenberg, 1986)
 309 neurons, 18,629 connections

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Success stories: the 90s
 1991: During the Gulf war, the DART system is used to
optimize and schedule the transportation of supplies and
personnel involving over 50,000 vehicles and people
 1995: TD-Gammon (Tesauro), backgammon
 1995: ALVINN, autonomous vehicle (4585 km across USA)
 1995: A.L.I.C.E. chatterbot
 1996: Robbins conjecture from Boolean logic, unsolved for
decades, is proven with an automated theorem prover

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Robot soccer

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Chess
 1997: Deep Blue, developed by IBM, defeats world
champion Garry Kasparov

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Expressive robots
 Cog Project  Kismet
(Brooks, MIT) (Breazeal, MIT)

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Explorers
 2000: Nomad, meteorite search in Antarctica

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“Massive” algorithm (2000)
 Visual effects with a very large number of agents

The Lord of the Rings, 2001-2003

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Computer art
 Aaron (Cohen, Kurzweil CyberArt Technologies, 2001)

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And more...
 1999: Real-time expert system for handling routine self-repair
spacecraft tasks (Remote Agent for Deep Space 1)
 2002: Kramchik and Deep Fritz make a draw (latest version,
Fritz 16 was released in 2017)
 2006: Google Translate, now over 100 languages
 2007: Urban Challenge, driverless cars, with a prize of
2 million $ (96 km urban area course)
 2009: Google introduces automatic subtitles in YouTube videos
 2014: “Eugene Goostman”, a program claiming to be a
13 year old Ukrainian boy passes the Turing test, deceiving 33%
of the judges

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Answers in natural language
 IBM Watson
 Jeopardy! (2011)

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Military applications
 X-47B drone, USA (2011)
 First autonomous aircraft entirely controlled by an AI
 Flight autonomy: 6 hours, 3900 km without refuelling
 Cost: 813 million $

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Google car
 Google self-driving car on city streets (2014)

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Deep Reinforcement Learning
 Google DeepMind (2015)
 Learned to play 49 Atari 2600 games by only
watching the display and the score

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AI “dreams”
 Google, deep learning (2015)

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Image identification
 Wolfram (2015)

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 Artificial paintings
 Neural artistic style (2015)

Subject (photo) + Style (van Gogh) → Generated painting

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New Rembrandt painting
 “The Next Rembrandt”
project
 Computer analysis of
168,263 painting
fragments from 346
original paintings
 April 2016: new painting
revealed, 3D printed

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AlphaGo
 Google DeepMind
 March 2016: won 4-1 against Lee Sedol, professional go player
of 9-dan rank, prize: 1 million $
 May 2017: won against Ke Jie, the world’s best go player

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AlphaZero
 AlphaGo Zero (2017) learned go by self-play,
without learning from expert human plays
 AlphaGo Zero defeated AlphaGo (100-0)
 AlphaZero (Dec. 2017) learned chess in 4 hours and
defeated Stockfish (28 wins, 72 draws, 0 losses)
 AI has clearly achieved super-human abilities for
virtually all games

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Poker
 Libratus, developed at Carnegie Mellon university
 January 2017: defeated four of the best players in the world
 120,000 games/hands in 20 days
 Won the equivalent of 1,766,250 $
 Pluribus (Facebook & Carnegie Mellon University)
 July 2019: defeated top human playes in a multi-player
format (5 people + 1 AI)
 Won the equivalent of over 1 million $

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Google Duplex
 Conversations in natural language (2018)

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The Atlas robot
 Boston Dynamics (2018)

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Text generation
 GPT-2 (OpenAI, 2019)
 https://talktotransformer.com/

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In România
 Antivirus software
 BitDefender, Kaspersky, RAV (now in Windows Defender)
 Classification and clustering methods
 GECAD ePayment
 Detection online payment fraud
 Procter & Gamble
 Data mining for sale optimization
 Ropardo
 Production optimization solutions, business intelligence
 Research institutes
 Automatic translation for Romanian
 Traffic flow optimization

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Introduction to Artificial
Intelligence
1. Overview
2. Intelligence and artificial intelligence
3. Definitions of artificial intelligence
4. History of artificial intelligence
5. Subfields and applications
6. Conclusions

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AI principles
 Bounded rationality implies oportunistic search
 A physical symbol system has the necessary and
sufficient means for general intelligent action
 The magical number 70.000 ± 20.000
 Search compensates for the lack of knowledge
 Knowledge compensates for the lack of search

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AI subfields Computer
vision

Speech
recognition

Natural
language
processing

Robotics
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 AI subfields Fuzzy logic Neural
Reasoning networks

Game
playing

Genetic
Search
algorithms
heuristics

Expert
systems
Artificial
life (?) Machine
learning Intelligent
agents

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Conclusions
 Intelligence is a measure of the capability to achieve goals (to
solve problems) in a complex, dynamic environment
 Intelligence is a collection of strategies used to optimize the
interaction with the environment
 There are AI approaches based on thought or behaviour,
modelling the human mind or rationality
 AI has made substantial progress in:
 Pattern recognition and learning
 Planning and reasoning problems
 More recently, image and language recognition
 Many problems are still unsolved
 AI is an interesting research field!

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