LAB REPORT NO.

10
APPLIED PHYSICS
AC-DC ELECTRONICS

Submitted by Group (A-6)

BE ME-06 A
(a) Imad ud din Zawar
(b) Muhammad Owais
(c) Mohsin tanveer

Submitted to:
Mam Maryam Anees

School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

National University of Sciences and Technology
 D.C circuits

Abstract:
The purpose of this lab is to investigate the three variables involved in a mathematical relationship
known as Ohm’s Law i.e. voltage resistance and current. We used an electrical circuit to study the
relationship between current and voltage for different resistors. We compared the values of these
variables calculated from ohm’s law with that from the millimetre.

Theory:

To carry out the experiments, we made an already developed board, with different
connections for different resistors. A variety of combinations of resisters can be achieved
with this board. There is place to connect a cell also.

Ohm’s Law:

All the experiments are based on ohms law. Ohm's law states that the current through a
conductor between two points is directly proportional to the potential difference across the
two points. Introducing the constant of proportionality, the resistance, one arrives at the
usual mathematical equation that describes this relationship:

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
Where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential
difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the
conductor in units of ohms. More specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in this relation is
constant, independent of the current.

In the second experiment we calculated the tolerance and resistance of resistors using
colour code. And compared this value with the experimentally determined one. Moreover,
we determined the resistance of circuits in parallel and series.

Resistor Colour Code:

The Resistor Colour Code system is all well and good but we need to understand how to apply
it in order to get the correct value of the resistor. The “left-hand” or the most significant
coloured band is the band which is nearest to a connecting lead with the colour coded bands
being read from left-to-right as follows;

Digit, Digit, Multiplier = Colour, Colour x 10 colour in Ohm’s (Ω’s)

The fourth and fifth bands are used to determine the percentage tolerance of the resistor.
Resistor tolerance is a measure of the resistors variation from the specified resistive value
and is a consequence of the manufacturing process and is expressed as a percentage of its
“nominal” or preferred value.

Typical resistor tolerances for film resistors range from 1% to 10% while carbon resistors
have tolerances up to 20%. Resistors with tolerances lower than 2% are called precision
resistors with the or lower tolerance resistors being more expensive.

Combinations of resistors:

Series combination of resistors:

Series circuits are sometimes called current-coupled or daisy chain-coupled. The current in a
series circuit goes through every component in the circuit. Therefore, all of the components
in a series connection carry the same current. There is only one path in a series circuit in
which the current can flow.

Current

In a series circuit the current is the same for all elements.

Resistors

The total resistance of resistors in series is equal to the sum of their individual resistances:
Parallel combination of resistors:

If two or more components are connected in parallel they have the same potential difference
(voltage) across their ends. The potential differences across the components are the same in
magnitude, and they also have identical polarities. The same voltage is applicable to all circuit
components connected in parallel. The total current is the sum of the currents through the individual
components, in accordance with Kirchhoff’s current law.

The current in each individual resistor is found by Ohm's law. Factoring out the voltage gives

To find the total resistance of all components, add the reciprocals of the resistances of
each component and take the reciprocal of the sum. Total resistance will always be less than
the value of the smallest resistance:
 Experiment#01
Ohm’s Law:

Procedure:
Steps followed in this experiment are:

Choose one of the resistors given. Calculate its resistance using the colour code.
Connect the resistor in the board.
Make connections.
Put in the cell.
Use millimetre to find value of total current and voltage across the resistor.
Continue this process for all of the resistors.
Calculate the value of current from ohm’s law and calculate percentage difference
between this value and that calculated from the ammeter.

Data Analysis:

Resistance Current Voltage 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆⁄

𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
(ohms) (mA) (volts)
(mA)

2680 0.25 1.06 0.3

1000 1.04 1.06 1.06
220 0.55 1.06 0.48

%𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 =14%

%𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 =1.9%

%𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 11%

 Experiment#02
Resistances in Circuits:

Procedure:
Steps followed in this experiment are:

Choose three resistance.

Determine the resistance of each resistor using colour code.
Determine the tolerance of each resistor.
Connect the resistances in series and determine the resistances, individual and
collective.
Connect the resistances in parallel and determine the resistances, individual and
collective.
Connect some resistances in series and some in parallel and determine the
resistances, individual and collective.

Data Analysis:

1st 2nd 3rd 4th Coded Measured %Error Tolerance

colour colour colour colour Resistance resistance

Green Blue Brown Golden 560 555 0.9% 20%

Red Purple Red Golden 2700 2680 0.7% 20%
Brown Black Red Golden 1000 1011 1.08% 20%
Series Combination:

Parallel Combination:
Mixed Combination:
 Experiment#03
Voltages in Circuits:

Procedure:
Steps followed in this experiment are:

Choose three resistance.

Determine the resistance of each resistor using colour code.
Determine the tolerance of each resistor.
Connect the resistances in series and determine the voltages, individual and
collective.
Connect the resistances in parallel and determine the voltages, individual and
collective.
Connect some resistances in series and some in parallel and determine the voltages,
individual and collective.

Data Analysis:
Series combination:
Parallel combination:

Mixed Combination:
 DC Electronics
Lab Report

Abstract:
In experiment 6 we studied the variables that contribute to the functioning of
the electrical circuits. The purpose of experiment 7 was to verify the Kirchhoff ’s
Rules for electrical circuits. .

Theory:
Kirchhoff ’s Current Rule:

At any node (junction) in an electrical circuit, the sum of currents flowing

into that node is equal to the sum of currents flowing out of that node.

Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Rule:

The directed sum of the electrical potential differences (voltage) around

any closed network is zero i.e. total potential drop in a closed loop is zero.
We used a Wheatstone bridge. It is a circuit
shown in above figure. In this R1 = R2 = R3 = R4
and R5 >> R1 so no current flow through point C
and D. As R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 then current and
voltage across them will be same. The total
resistance of circuit is given by

We compared the value of RT found

experimentally and theoretically and found
percentage error.

APPLIED PHYSICS !2
 Experiment 6
Currents in Electrical Circuits

Equipment Required:

• AC/DC Electronics Lab Board (Wires and Resistances)

• Digital Multimeter
• D-Cell Battery

Procedure:

We connected the resistances in series and in parallel according to the

circuit diagrams and then noted the readings of voltages and currents by
respectively putting the digital multi-meter into voltage measuring mode or
current measuring mode. In series the resistances were connected as follows on
the AC/DC Electronics Lab Board:

And for parallel combination we used the following configuration:




APPLIED PHYSICS !4
Data Analysis:

Series Combination:

R1= 555 ohms Io= 0.42mA V1= 0.233 v

R2= 2680 ohms I1= 0.42mA V2= 1.123 v
R3= 332 ohms I2= 0.42mA V3= 0.140 v
I3= 0.42mA
R12= 3240 ohms V12= 1.35 v
R23= 3020 ohms V23= 1.26 v
R123= 3570 ohms V123= 1.495 v

Parallel Combination:

R1= 555 ohms Io= 7.40 mA V1= 1.495 v

R2= 2680 ohms I1= 2.65 mA V2= 1.495 v
R3= 332 ohms I2= 0.55 mA V3= 1.495 v
R123= 195 ohms I3= 4.35 mA V4= 1.495 v
I4= 7.40 mA

APPLIED PHYSICS !5
 Experiment 7
Verifying Kirchoff ’s Laws

Equipment Required:

• AC/DC Electronics Lab Board (Wires and Resistances)

• Digital Multimeter
• D-Cell Battery

Procedure:

We connected the circuit shown in Figure using any of the resistors. We

recorded the resistance values in the table. With no current flowing (the battery
disconnected), we measured the total
resistance of the circuit between points
A and B. We also calculated total
resistance from above given
formula.With the circuit connected to
the battery and the current flowing, we
measured the voltage across each of
the resistors and recorded the values in
the table. We measured the current
through each of the resistors. We
interrupted the circuit and placed the DMM in series to obtain our reading. We
made sure to record each of the individual currents, as well as the current flow
into or out of the main part of the circuit.

Data Analysis:

APPLIED PHYSICS !6
 Resistor Resistance (ohms) Current (mA) Voltage (v)

1 555 2.2 1.24

2 98 2.5 0.24

3 332 1.3 0.45

4 1000 1.04 1.037

5 2680 -0.3 -0.76

Total 417 3.5 1.495

Current Laws:

I T = I1 + I 3 ⇒ I T = 3.5mA, I1 + I 3 = 3.5mA
"
I1 = I 2 + I 5 ⇒ I1 = 2.2mA, I 2 + I 5 = 2.2mA
I T = I 2 + I 4 ⇒ I T = 3.5mA, I 2 + I 4 = 3.54mA
I 4 = I 2 + I 5 ⇒ I 4 = 1.04mA, I 2 + I 5 = 1.04mA

Hence Current Laws are verified.

Voltage Laws:

−V1 − V5 + V3 = 0
−1.24 + 0.7 − 0.45 = 0
0=0

−V2 + V4 + V5 = 0
−0.248 + 1.037 − 0.76 = 0
0=0

VT − V3 − V4 = 0
1.495 − 0.45 − 1.037 = 0
0=0
Hence voltage laws have been verified

APPLIED PHYSICS !7
Conclusion:
In these experiment, we verified the ohm’s law which states that if
voltage is kept constant, the dc circuit will show inverse relation
between current and resistance. The errors in this experiment is due
to some tolerance of resistor , some resistance of circuit box, wires
etc. ohm’s law is still well verified by this experiment
We also studied the behavior of resistors in series, parallel and
combined type of configuration. We saw that resistance is added in
series type of configuration while resistance is not added in parallel
type of configuration. In combined type of configuration, resistance
of whole circuit shows the combined property of series and parallel
combination.
In addition to this, we studied the behavior of voltage in series,
parallel and combined type of configuration. We saw that voltage
did not remain same across each resistance in series type of
configuration but varies in according with “Ohm’s Law”. But the
total voltage across all of the resistances is equal to the voltage of the
battery. While voltage remained same across each resistance in
parallel type of configuration that is the equal to the voltage of the
battery. In combined type of configuration it showed the combined
property of series and parallel combination, still total voltage across
all of the resistances is equal to the voltage of the battery.

APPLIED PHYSICS !8