English as a Lingua

Franca in Teacher
Education

A Brazilian Perspective

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Michele Salles El Kadri
Luciana Cabrini Simões Calvo
ISBN: 978-1-5015-1177-6
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Clarissa Menezes Jordão and Anderson Nalevaiko Marques
English as a lingua franca and critical
literacy in teacher education: Shaking off
some “good old” habits

1 Introduction
Most research produced until very recently in the area of English as a lingua
franca (ELF) has resulted in descriptive and analytic approaches to the matter,
evidencing the plurality of ways language users develop in order to adapt –
linguistically and/or pragmatically – to situations of language use, reaching for
different levels of intelligibility in English language interactions. Assuming that
other research investments are needed in the area of ELF, this chapter critically
(re)examines different ways such findings may impact English Language Teaching
(ELT) and Teacher Education in Brazil (both at pre and in-service levels), focus-
ing specially on how language, discourse, norm and pedagogic work, including
materials design, can be practiced in our context. Based on a posthuman (PH)
perspective for the conceptualizations of these aspects of language teacher edu-
cation, this chapter will discuss how the perspective of ELF may shake off some
good(?) old habits in the ELT classroom, shifting practice from a normative-driven
approach to language, learning and teaching, to the localized agency of partici-
pants upon meaning-making in discourse.
From the standpoint taken in this chapter, such shift happens when we con-
sider the tendency of some ELF studies to perceive language as a situated space
in which different linguacultural aspects are seen as fuelling meaning-making
(Cogo 2012; Canagarajah 2013; Dewey 2009). This way, we argue, ELF moves the
focus from the learning-teaching of preconceived norms to the creation of spaces
for negotiation, thus viewing contradiction and conflict as productive and mean-
ingful, conceptualizing them as positive in ELT settings.
The assumptions underlying such aspects of practice will be shown as being
closely aligned with contemporary views on critical literacy (CL) and posthuman-
ism, especially in the particular set of ELF studies that question the traditional
views of how language and communication are defined, understood and put into
practice and, by doing so, pose new dilemmas to language teaching-learning.

Clarissa Menezes Jordão, Universidade Federal do Paraná

Anderson Nalevaiko Marques, Instituto Federal do Paraná

DOI 10.1515/9781501503856-004
54   Clarissa Menezes Jordão and Anderson Nalevaiko Marques

Such questioning is, in our perspective, a productive space for the development
of CL in a PH view, a view whose ontology can produce different perspectives on
teacher-student interactions, allowing an approach to teaching-learning that is
different from mainstream EFL epistemology, perceiving meaning as a matter of
situated, multi-dimensionally dependent factors that can be productively ana-
lyzed in the light of PH. CL, PH and ELF therefore promote agency and localized
practices, thus allowing for a decolonization of EFL teacher education and lan-
guage teaching. As a result, we understand that ELF, CL and PH may converse
well together, especially in the sense that they constitute ways of conceiving
meaning-making as the focus of attention in ELT discursive practices, responding
to the demands of contemporary language learning-teaching contexts.
It has been widely stated that the contemporary world presents us with dif-
ferent ways of understanding how people communicate and construct meaning,
especially when such construction involves interactions between people from dif-
ferent linguacultural contexts through what they call “English”. When we look into
English from the perspective of a contact language in relation to its spread (ranging
from academic, scientific, migrational, commercial or any other social phenomena
in contemporary interactions), the concept of ELF opens up a whole new standpoint
for discussions involving language, discourse, norm and pedagogic work. Our aim
here is to critically (re)examine how some key points risen from ELF findings and
debates (and their implications in the learning and teaching scenario) encounter
practices of language learning and teaching in Brazil. Our contextualized and situ-
ated understandings seek to problematize ELT practices which, in our view, have
been taken for granted in our local context; we have been trying to find new routes
for the local learning and teaching of English, taking ELF as an important starting
point, especially for present and future action in teacher education.
When trying to find an opening argument to inform our position here, many
different possibilities seemed suitable. However, none reverberated more to us
than Firth’s (1996) paper titled The discursive accomplishment of normality  –
on lingua franca English and conversation analysis. In our perspective, for our
purpose in this text, his discussion presents a crucial point of departure.
In his investigation of conversations between speakers of other languages
in English, Firth (1996) successfully deviates our attention from what native-
speakers (or scholars) of English would call abnormalities and infelicities, towards
another possibility of understanding the phenomena. For him one should focus
on the rich and productive sets of “extra-linguistic”¹ resources that perfectly

1 “Extra-linguistic” in a mainstream, traditional view of language, which differs from our own,
as we will argue later on in this chapter.
 English as a lingua franca and critical literacy in teacher education   55

serve the main purpose of communicative interactions which, in our view, may
be simply defined as aiming to accomplish meaning-making.
Furthermore, his decision to embrace an argument placing real-world com-
munication beyond descriptions of what would traditionally count as normal and
meaningful renders priceless to our understanding of English language interac-
tions, including learning and teaching practices. He relates such contexts of
interaction to concepts such as letting it pass and making it normal which, in our
view, constantly take place in successful communication in general (regardless of
the geographical or linguacultural contexts of each language interaction), due to
the unpredictability of interactional demands, happening also and particularly
in teaching-learning scenarios. With these two concepts, Firth (1996) suggests
the need for an acknowledgement of grammar infelicities, prosodic and pronun-
ciation variants, for taking presumably unfamiliar (and supposedly wrong) con-
structions as part of the negotiation arena, placing contingency and unpredicta-
bility as important aspects of communication. Such perspective forces us to move
into different ways in the field of ELT, without possibilities of looking back.
What we see a bit differently from Firth (1996), however, is his choice of
excluding native speakers of English from his concept of ELF interactions: the
way we see it, both native and non-native speakers find themselves in a position
of meaning negotiation. As a result, we take the idea of ELF not as constituting
a language or a language variety in itself, but instead we see ELF as a specific
context of language use that produces language forms and ways of interacting
and communicating markedly different from those expected from traditional
interaction contacts (those taking the construct “native-speaker” as an abso-
lute reference). Conceptualized as a specific context of language use, ELF means
English used as a lingua franca, among multilingual speakers in contextualized
practices. This is to say that the ways we use language are context dependent,
context here understood as a much wider determinant than the usual concept
of context as “situation of use”. Context, therefore, points not only at physical
space or degrees of formality of particular cultures, but also at affective, histori-
cal, cognitive, spatial, perceptual, material, representational dimensions of our
ontologies and epistemologies, of how interlocutors understand and thus have
their interactional practices constructed.
Contemporary applied linguistics has only started to grasp the implica-
tions of such views to language “itself” and to its teaching-learning processes.
However, we can already associate them with concepts of language that claim
for a more integrative approach to what language is and does, such as Harris’
integrational linguistics (Harris 1998, 1990) and Pennycook and Makoni’s idea of
“desinventing and reconstituting languages” (Makoni and Pennycook 2007), as
well as to Latour’s (2005) reflections on the posthuman. These three perspectives
56   Clarissa Menezes Jordão and Anderson Nalevaiko Marques

have a lot in common, from their emphasis on the fluidity of our understandings
and the pervasiveness of power relations, to the notion of the impermanence and
provisionality of the categories we create to make sense of the world.

2 English as a lingua franca and meaning-making

We are aware of (some of) the new questions related to the spread of English
worldwide, particularly the new possibilities of understanding what counts as
language. This is even more significant when we examine the idea of the concen-
tric circles proposed in Kachru (1986, 1992), in which users of English are posi-
tioned in relation to their geopolitical connections with the language. But we are
also aware that, as pointed out by Jenkins (2009a), such a representation of our
landscape might be interpreted as too normative and colonial a view, especially
if we pay close attention to the level of uncertainty and complexity carried out in
specific practices of teaching and learning English.
For now, however, it suffices to recall that attempts at language description
are greatly based on a reified view of languages as objects, as essentialized and
autonomous systems for the expression of thought, purportedly functioning as
more or less transparent codes. This is a view that develops too easily into norma-
tivity, establishing binary patterns of right and wrong, correct and incorrect, pos-
sible and impossible. Such patterns produce hierarchized language forms in their
determination of better (or not so good) ways to use language and, consequently,
label users as better and worse in their knowledge of a language abstract(ed)
system.
This resembles very closely the colonial discourse founded on binaries of
belonging and not belonging, having and not having, being and not being. Colo-
niality, understood as system of unequal relations of knowledge, power, resources
and authority (among others), is not restricted to historical time, but “controlled
and reproduced in the name of development; it [the colonial system] defines which
knowledges are valued as knowledge and it establishes who is recognized as a
full citizen and who is not (Souza 2012)”. Such coloniality is pervasive and ever-so
present in applied linguistics and theories of language teaching and learning, most
of which reproduce ethnocentric perspectives of monolingual users, idealized as
efficient language learners (Pennycook 2010; Canagarajah 2005).
It sounds reasonable, therefore, to try to describe other discourses on ELF
that inform us; such discourses will help us establish what we understand as
fundamental for our theoretical-practical decisions as language users and teach-
ers. We agree with Jenkins, Cogo & Dewey (2011) that different versions of ELF
 English as a lingua franca and critical literacy in teacher education   57

have been depicted by specific researchers, and the ways ELF has been studied,
discussed and conceptualized have been informed by a wide range of theoretical
backgrounds. According to the authors, ELF in its modern sense has gone through
several scrutiny agendas, ranging from the emergence of studies of English as
a contact language in countries colonized by the British Empire, moving on to
the acknowledgement of different varieties of English worldwide, the latter align-
ing ELF with some of the arguments raised in the area of World Englishes (WE),
which is still seen as an umbrella term for such discussions. Our view of ELF,
therefore, disagrees with the views of the authors who treat ELF as WE.
Because of differences and similarities between some ELF views and some
WE standpoints, it seems important to mention what we consider as the main
ideas that approximate and distance these two perspectives. As both shed light
onto contemporary contexts where English is not (or has not been) a primary lan-
guage, along with matters of emphasis on non-native speakers’ identities rather
than focus on conformity to preconceived grammar structures/rules, we see that
both ELF and WE can be placed in neighboring positions.
On the other hand, the insistence from WE researchers, particularly influ-
enced by Kachru’s circles (Kachru 1986) in finding well-defined limits among dif-
ferent ‘specimens’ of English (as in Kachru, Kachru and Nelson 2006, for instance)
leads us to favoring ELF in its most recent, less normative considerations, since
we understand English as a fluid, hybrid and on-going process of meaning-
making. This way, we tend to reject attempts to place the learning-teaching of
English as conforming to specific varieties of the language, understood as
domains and properties of nation-states. On the contrary, we tend to favor the
understanding that English sets the stage for identity building and exchanging
around the globe, an idea that places more attention on the lingua franca element
of the ELF acronym (than it does to the English one), positioning English lan-
guage closer to multilingualism, as argued, for instance, by Rajagopalan (2002,
2003). Nor are we in favor of the need or spread of a supposed common core of
English (Jenkins 2000) as a basis for teaching-learning. Such core seems to us an
impossible and undesirable task: impossible due to the ever-changing nature of
languages, especially when we consider the movements of English in contem-
porary societies; undesirable because it could readily be assumed as a universal
code. It is important to point out here that we do understand that such endeavor
has been abandoned, as clearly stated in Baker and Jenkins (2015). At the same
time, we do identify some ELF research that favors the situated and contingent
process of learning-teaching of meaning-making in English, such as the ones that
inform our own views and are described in Canagarajah (2007), Jenkins (2009b),
Widdowson (2012), Leung (2013), Matsumoto (2014) among others. We depart
from traditional perspectives of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and their
58   Clarissa Menezes Jordão and Anderson Nalevaiko Marques

ingrained need for learners and teachers to approximate as much as possible to

idealized native varieties of English, towards a focus on the processes of making-
meaning in English, emphasizing the need to understand this language as it is
constructed in each context of use.
By taking up an approach to ELF from its most recent conceptualizations,
we are inclined to stand for the idea that, regardless the geopolitical origin of
the speakers, in ELF we all speak a non-native language, as early mentioned by
Jordão (2014), since even “native” users are expected to adapt and accommodate
to the communicative situation, as the responsibility for intelligibility lies on all
participants, speakers and listeners, writers and readers alike. Thus, any attempt
to base pedagogic procedures to English learning-teaching on descriptive and
normative approaches to language (particularly English) will prove lacking. In
other words, for the accomplishment of learning-teaching English from an ELF
perspective we ought to seek for the development of practices in which

speakers negotiate English according to their values, interests, and language repertoires²
in each interaction. What accounts for success is not the fact that they share a single
norm (whether British English, Nigerian English, or LFC³), but that they adopt context-
and interaction-specific communicative practices that help them achieve intelligibility
(Canagarajah 2014: 769).

Thus, learning and teaching English from an ELF perspective means we switch
focus from institutionalized grammar rules to the encouragement of negotiation
from diverse grammars and linguacultural collections that emerge from each and
every communicative encounter in English. Concerning ELT and Teacher Educa-
tion, classrooms must therefore be filled with as many possibilities of encounters
with as many meaning-making situations in English as possible. Only that way
can we start to grasp the productive potential of multiplicity and intelligibility
through negotiation in English, particularly if we highlight the contingency of
communication among identities in a transnational perspective.
In this sense, as pointed by Jordão (2014) referring to Pennycook (2007), such
perspective also reverberates in the ways the histories of English perpetuate. By
shaking off who and what counts for good communication in English, particularly
dislocating the ownership of the language in EFL interactions, we make room

2 As argued throughout this text, we see language as a space for meaning-making. In that sense,
language repertoires may encompass any meaning-making strategies that emerge in every single
communicative interaction, based on the histories of meaning-making (in English, or else) that
constitute each and every participant in the interaction.
3 Lingua Franca Core (Jenkins 2000).
 English as a lingua franca and critical literacy in teacher education   59

for relativizing social costumes and institutions, revealing the deep relations of
power that exist in communication in any language: meaning-making in ELF
may, in this way, foreground such power relations and thus make it impossible
to account for interactions in ELF as neutral or immune to political-ideological
implications.
This critical view of ELF is made possible by a poststructuralist perspective
that sees language as a locus for the negotiation of meanings, as an open, situ-
ated and contingent system of meaning-making. What counts as norm does not
come from abstract theorizations produced by linguists in their research labs,
but from each context of practice (context here understood as a set of variables,
from historical moments to personality traits, that exist and interact differently in
each specific situation of language use). These contexts provide their participants
with elements, dimensions, imaginaries that set the scene for language use based
on how the participants of the specific event constitute that particular moment
of interaction. Such imaginaries, however, are not established by each individ-
ual will alone, and cannot simply be transferred from one situation to another;
they need to be constantly translated (Bhabha 1994), reinterpreted, rewritten,
associated and resignified in relation to other individual and collective histories,
expected regularities and cultural norms. Each situation of language use is con-
stituted by multiple repertoires (Pennycook 2014) or resources that each partici-
pant brings to the scene. And more: the non-human dimension of the interaction
also needs to be taken into account as an active dimension of communication.

3 ELF, desinventions and posthumanism

According to Latour (2005), besides conferring to all things human a central
position in the world – and therefore ignoring the importance of the non-human
to our existence and to our social practices – humanism has created a series of
divisions and hierarchies that have proven to misdirect most of our research
and understanding about how the world organizes itself. Downplaying the non-
human can lead us, for example, into misconceived ideas about context (and for
us more specifically contexts of language use) and how humans (with their agen-
cies and will power) can control material reality. For Latour (2005), placing the
human in a central position to all that exists has created too many certainties that
need destabilizing before we can think differently. In his (2005) Reassembling the
Social, he defends that we need to face some “sources of uncertainty” if we are
to start grasping the deeper aspects of being in society. For us, the main lessons
Latour teaches with these uncertainties are (1) the idea that our reality is made up
60   Clarissa Menezes Jordão and Anderson Nalevaiko Marques

of conventional categories we ourselves have created; (2) such categories are pro-
ductive as long as we never forget they are not constitutive of the objects we place
under them; instead, they are provisional, fluid, impermanent, and (3) we need
to take risks by living, thinking, feeling and researching in uncertainty, since it is
uncertainty that brings about novelty, learning, cooperation.
Latour’s (2005) view, when brought to theories on language and discourse,
sheds a different light on some associations we tend to take for granted, so much
so that their arbitrariness becomes practically invisible. One of the most signifi-
cant of these artificial relations is the one between intelligibility and “correct”
(normative) language use for effective communication; another is between intel-
ligibility and the speaker or writer, rather than the listener or reader. Applied lin-
guistics studies have traditionally focused on how language has to be produced
correctly (grammatically) in order to be understood – intelligible. This has placed
an emphasis on the speaker/writer, that is, the producer of language forms, as
the only or most active element in charge of intelligibility: if the language they
produce does not come out right, then understanding is compromised. This
relates, of course, to another association: the idea of productive and passive
language skills that applied linguistics has already challenged extensively
(Widdowson 1978; Tarone 1983; Savignon 1983; Brown 2007, to mention a few).
In this view, the listener/reader is conceptualized as passive and not directly
(or maybe not even indirectly) responsible for the production of meanings, as
meanings are supposed to lie on the language items produced by the speaker/
writer, not on the language produced by the listener/reader. ELF theories, by
analysing what goes on in multi/transnational contexts of language use, have
demonstrated that both listeners and speakers are equally in charge of producing
intelligible language (Rajadurai 2007), and that intelligibility rates are context-
specific and depend on extra-linguistic resources as well as on linguistic ones,
negotiation and accommodation being very common strategies used by language
users in multinational situations, as already noted by Firth (1996), for instance.
In order to account for a more clear-cut notion of the ELF perspective that
informs this chapter we see the need for a more precise concept of language.
This way we think both conceptualizations will complement each other in the
quest for bringing insights on learning and teaching of English in our context that
would vary from what has, in our view, been traditionally and insistently taken
for granted in the ELT Brazilian scenario.
It may sound risky to admit this, particularly because it could appear sim-
plistic at a first glimpse, but the concept of language that supports our argument
is that language is discourse (Jordão 2006) and the locus of meaning-making.
In this sense, we view language-discourse from a poststructuralist perspective,
particularly based on Foucault’s (1983, 2002) ideas. That means we conceive
 English as a lingua franca and critical literacy in teacher education   61

language as permeated by relations of power and, consequently, as an arrange-

ment of socially constituted linguacultural interpretive mechanisms that allow,
justify and legitimate certain interpretations while, necessarily, force the exclu-
sion of others. Therefore, we cannot stand for a concept of language (and con-
sequently language learning and teaching) that accounts for the transmission of
meaning. What is left for us, in an optimistic view, is a concept of language that
tries to account for the negotiated establishment of contingent meanings.
Likewise, another important revision we need to make is when consider-
ing Makoni and Pennycook’s (2007) claim for new forms of (des)invention of the
concept of language. Our favoring of language as discourse aligns with the per-
spective we take on ELF, especially as we agree with the authors (2007: 99) when
they say that “English is subject to a set of discursive formations that are quite dif-
ferent from those at different historical moments. And this is where the notion of
myth is so important, since it draws our attention to the ways in which stories are
constantly being told about English”. In this sense, the authors argue for the reali-
zation of the fact that English has been referred to as a language of international
communication without necessarily being questioned in relation to its complex
associations with matters of globalization and its various domains. Therefore,
raising questions about how the reiteration of English, the myths surrounding it
and their effects on people’s identities and attitudes (especially towards English)
is paramount. As a result, we end up taking language-discourse from an anthro-
pological standpoint, in which

language is seen as a set of resources, means available to human beings societies. These
resources can be deployed in a variety of circumstances, but when this happens it never
happens in a neutral way. Every act of language use is an act that is assessed, weighed,
measured socially, in terms of contrasts between this act and others. In fact, language
becomes the social and culturally embedded thing it is because of the fact that it is socially
and culturally consequential in use (Blommaert and Jie 2010: 7–8).

In this perspective, language resources are not impervious to the context, nor
are they given objects independent from their use: resources change according
to the contexts where they are being used and who is using it. This understands
the set of resources that constitutes a language as emerging in specific situations
of practice, rather than as a collection of autonomous ready-made formulas to be
simply attached to each context by its users. Language here, as in Latour’s (2005)
view on objects, has agency, especially when an agent is defined, in Latour’s
words (2005: 71), as “anything that does modify a state of affairs by making a
difference”.
In respect to this, we tend to take the argument that in communication –
especially in ELF – different grammars come to play, emerging as situated,
62   Clarissa Menezes Jordão and Anderson Nalevaiko Marques

fluid and context-dependent, as pointed out by Canagarajah (2014). Thus,

what really matters IN ELF interactions is how much investment and focus on
negotiation and meaning-making interlocutors exercise in each context, since
“as speakers from two different backgrounds interact in English, they will use
resources from their first, second, or diverse other languages from their rep-
ertoire. As they collaborate with each other in attaining their communicative
objectives, they construct certain norms that make their interaction possible.
From this perspective, their shared norm or grammar is an intersubjective
achievement (2014: 770)⁴”.
This goes against the idea supported by mainstream EFL researchers that the
learning of preconceived structural elements for use in idealized communicative
situations would account for some kind of consensual, precise transmission of
meanings (Canale and Swaine 1980; Nunan 1989; Ur 1996). In fact, our posthu-
man perspective on language aligns with Latour’s (2005: 175) argument that “even
linguists need a room, an office, an institution, a department, boxes of archives,
a place to stay, a coffee pot, and Xerox machine so as to gather all the elements,
which have been extracted from thousands of local interactions and millions of
speech acts, and carefully fabricate a linguistic structure”.
This is to say that we linguists are mortals, living and working (and hope-
fully thinking as well) within specific contexts that inform, influence, deter-
mine and are determined by a multiverse of other beings, elements, dimensions,
contexts, times, spaces, etc. Latour’s point is that we linguists, just like other
scientists, mobilize such multiverse in order to construct (or “fabricate”) our sci-
ences, but we do not do it randomly or arbitrarily: we build our own objects
of analysis by creating and recreating associations among the multiplicity of
actors that inhabit and are made to inhabit our local interactions. Thus, the rosy
view once (and still often) rendered to communication is replaced by complex,
context-driven, productive, situated meaning-making opportunities that emerge
from contingent communication, especially brought to the fore in analysis of
ELF situations.

4 This is not to say that English would be a pidgin or a creole, neither is it to affirm that ELF would
be a dialect or a variant. We do not find productive the discussion around the status of English or
ELF as (in)dependent language(s), or sublanguages, so to speak, or even as varieties. What we are
trying to point out here, with Canagarajah, is that language users will resort to whatever they can
in order to build meanings and “attain their communicative objectives”(Canagarajah 2014: 770),
and their repertoire will inform their collaborative and contingent process of meaning-making.
 English as a lingua franca and critical literacy in teacher education   63

4 Critical literacy as a posthuman pedagogy

for ELF
In order to account for a pedagogical perspective that, from our point of view, con-
verses with our notion of ELF, we favor local understandings of Critical Literacy (CL),
especially in their acknowledgement of meaning-making as an on-going process of
dialogical dialogue (Bakhtin 1984; Voloshinov and Bakhtin 1986), searching for the
creation of spaces where different meanings can be negotiated. In this sense, CL,
along with all its theoretical assumptions and pedagogical implications, presents a
suitable alternative for the work in ELT from the perspective of ELF.
In a nutshell, CL perceives meanings as discourse in social practice. In other
words, for CL meanings are attributed to texts rather than extracted from them,
what confers to the reader/listener, in the spirit of Rajadurai’s (2007) stance on
intelligibility mentioned above, a shared responsibility with the writer/speaker
for meaning-making. Such process is marked by relations of power and negotia-
tion, thus not being neutral or independent of subjectivity. In a CL perspective,
we interpret reality from our individual and collective experiences in negotiation
with the context where and around which meaning-making takes place.
In situations of teaching-learning English in ELF contexts, we see CL working
as propulsion for the emergence of meaning-making strategies that focus on the
process of negotiation rather than investing much time and effort in the internali-
zation of structures or pre-conceived communicative situations, emphasizing the
understanding that meanings emerge (are constructed) during communicative
interactions. Our argument seems to see eye to eye with what Canagarajah (2014)
points out, particularly in terms of grammar issues and language awareness.
Despite the fact that he focuses his attention on multilingual interactions and we
talk from a supposedly monolingual classroom situation, we see deep connec-
tions between CL and the argument that every individual is language-aware and
that “this kind of awareness has helped successful multilingual users intuit the
grammar of the new speakers they interact with, adopt their grammars or borrow
their words for their purposes, and find a middle ground between the divergent
grammars of both parties in a communicative interaction (Canagarajah 2014: 772)”.
As a result, the practice of CL in an ELF perspective would break away with
the idea that meaning-making is a pre-given activity, established prior to commu-
nicative encounters: in the classroom, therefore, meaning is constructed as stu-
dents and teachers interact with English in their communicative opportunities,
both inside and outside school. In other words, language happens as students
and teachers make use of it, in the actual language practices people are involved
in. The development of language learning and teaching based on CL claims,
64   Clarissa Menezes Jordão and Anderson Nalevaiko Marques

therefore, for constant revisitations and revalidations of meanings to texts (verbal

and non-verbal alike). This defines communication spaces as those where the
participants agency is paramount. In other words, from a CL stance, everyone
and everything participating in the learning and teaching of English necessarily
bring their own perceptions of what English is and how communication can be
more effective. It is only by means of negotiating such perspectives that situated,
contextualized meanings will be made present, revealing the power relations that
surround language interactions.
From the ELF standpoint we assume in this paper there are important impli-
cations to the practices of teaching and learning of English in formal contexts.
Such implications might vary from the production of teaching materials that
evoke conceptualizations of English in contemporary meaning-making practices,
to the examination of how such conceptualizations may or may not reinforce
normative views (and especially their silences and exclusions) on the histories
of what counts as English. In our perspective, questioning those histories may
help transgression and post-normativity based on situated, negotiated meaning-
making practices.
In this sense, we view ELF as highlighting the importance of negotiation in
communication, particularly because, in theory, the idea of a common repertoire
shared by members of similar linguacultural scenarios is a construct that does
not materialize into practice, and that is precisely what makes communication
in ELF so interesting from a CL pedagogical perspective. This brings us also to
Latour’s notion of translating as the job of the scientist/teacher, rather than trans-
mitting knowledge or truth, an idea that can be approximated to what we see as
the role of the teacher in ELF and CL combined pedagogies.
For Latour (2005), the transmissive paradigm assumes a given reality to
be passed on, unaltered, untouched, and untainted, by a neutral, unintrusive
medium he calls “intermediary”. In his post-humanist sociology of associations,
however, every single unit of being (human or non-human) has agency and there-
fore modifies what it gets in contact with, makes it do things, transforms it, being
instead a “mediator”, i.e, that which “transforms, translates, distorts and modi-
fies the meaning or the elements they are supposed to carry (Latour 2005: 39⁵)”.

5 His example is the following: “A properly functioning computer could be taken as a good case
of a complicated intermediary while a banal conversation may become a terribly complex chain
of mediators where passions, opinions, and attitudes bifurcate at every turn. But if it breaks
down, a computer may turn into a horrendously complex mediator while a highly sophisticated
panel during an academic conference may become a perfectly predictable and uneventful inter-
mediary in rubber stamping a decision made elsewhere” (p. 39).
 English as a lingua franca and critical literacy in teacher education   65

It  follows that teachers of English may never have taught English as a specific
national idiom, focusing on standard pronunciation, grammar, lexicon; teachers
of English may never have taught textbook English. Each teacher, as a mediator,
as an agentive being, has probably been teaching transformed, translated, dis-
torted, modified Englishes or, as a teacher once told us, they may have been teach-
ing, in fact, “the English they can”.
This is to say that the teaching of English has been happening in a process
of translation where mediators (teachers, students, English, texts) are induced
into coexistence and thus transform one another in the process. To study this, we
need to trace the translations between mediators and the possible associations
perceived among them. Such study has to be always localized and situated, so
that other associations can be made, by other researchers/mediators, from their
particularities. From such perspective, the English language is a mediator with
agency, as it changes those who make contact with it.
This is no short of what is postulated by many ELF researchers: English
impacts its users, as much as its users impact English. In this sense, relating
spaces of mutual diversity that come to exist in the exact moments of discourse
encounters, in never-ending-translating environments – highlighted through
ELF interactions – demands for an attitude to teaching and learning that is
necessarily post-normative, as claimed by Dewey (2012). In other words, the
teaching-learning of language moves away from normativity as localized norms,
language and communication models, and informed strategies are called to
play.
Again, it seems arguable to us that, from a CL perspective, meanings cannot
pre-exist the discourse clashes that happen in teaching-learning environments.
Therefore, the only way communication might successfully occur is through the
negotiation of diverse repertoires that are brought into action in every single
interaction: when using language we are not using a monolithic, homogeneous
or stable system of structures – rather, we are putting in operation a complex
and ever-changing body of meaning-making, open systems informed by our per-
sonalities, experiences, emotions, cultures, histories, political views or, as Latour
(2005: 207) would put it, a series of clamps and plug-ins that allow connections to
be made and therefore meanings to be formed.
As a result, we see English Teacher Education, particularly in the
Brazilian scenario, in need of shaking off a few habits. We argue for such
move because, in our view, such habits seem to be missing the chance to
highlight the beauty and complexity of language interactions in the search for
structured, clear-cut notions of what it means to communicate in English. By
taking advantage of the locality of meanings and meaning-making, one might
reach the conclusion that
66   Clarissa Menezes Jordão and Anderson Nalevaiko Marques

there exists no global all-encompassing place where, for instance, the control room of the
Strategic Air Command, the Wall Street floor, the water pollution map, the census bureau,
the Christian Coalition, and the United Nations would be gathered and summed up. And if
someone tries to do so […] it is another place, another circuitous route loosely connected to
the others with no claim to ‘embed’ or ‘know’ them (Latour 2005: 191).

By being local in ELT, we can thus construct agency for teachers and students
of English, helping them to achieve ownership over ELF, to build awareness of
their own and other’s meaning-making practices, shortcomings and potentiali-
ties in language. Moreover, by co-constructing and ressignifying what language
(and English) can be and do in each communicative situation, posthuman CL
seems to be hand-in-hand with our understanding of ELF and its implications
to language education, especially in their view that language is more than just
the verb, that agents are more than just the doers, that students and teachers
are more than just the receivers of pre-conceived structures: languages, agents,
students and teachers are active meaning-makers, using, constructing and
deconstructing (in the Derridean sense⁶) varied, multiple and complex reper-
toires in constant negotiations that collectively assemble and disassemble asso-
ciations, meanings, truths.

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