Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

1 Open Channel Flow

1.1 Introduction
An open channel is a flow system in which the top surface of the fluid is exposed to the
atmosphere. The term open channel refers to liquid flow that is not completely enclosed
by solid boundaries (such as in a river). In open channel flow therefore, the flowing
liquid has a free surface, and thus the liquid is not under gauge pressure at the surface.
open channel is takes place due to slope of bed of the channel only. The Hydraulic grade
line of open channel flow is exactly conceding with the water surface but the total energy
lines lie at a distance of (V2/2g) above the hydraulic grade line at every section as in
closed channel.
Since the pressure on the top surface of water in a channel is constant, no pressure
difference can be built up between any two sections along the channel it will always be
subjected to same resistance. As such in order to overcome the resistance and to cause the
flow of water in a channel, it is constructed with its bottom sloping towards the direction
of flow, so that the component of weight of the flowing water in the direction of flow is
developed which causes the flow of water in channel.

Open channel flow occurs where ever the flow proceeds with the liquid surface exposed
to constant pressure. In practice this pressure is the atmospheric pressure, and the flow
proceeds with free surface (exposed to the atmosphere). Thus open channel flow may
occur regardless of the type of conduit in which it is occurring i.e. an open channel flow
may exist in a pipe, if it is flowing partially full. In practice flow in sewers, canals,
streams and gutters is exposed to atmospheric pressure and hence is an example of open
channel flow.

The longitudinal profile of the free surface in an open channel flow defines the hydraulic
gradient and determines the cross-sectional area of flow, as is shown in Figure 1.1. It also
necessitates the introduction of an extra variable, the stage, to define the position of the
free surface at any point in the channel.

In consequence, problems in open channel flow are more complex, and the solutions are
more varied, making the study of such problems both interesting and challenging.

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By Selam Belay AAiT Department of Civil Engineering
Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

Fig. 1.1 Flow in open channel

Flow classification

Recalling that flow may be steady or unsteady and uniform or non-uniform, the major
classifications applied to open channels are as follows:

Steady and Unsteady: Time is the criterion. Flow is said to be steady if the depth of
flow at a particular point does not change or can be considered constant for the time
interval under consideration. The flow is unsteady if depth changes with time.

Uniform and non-uniform Flow: Space as the criterion. Open Channel flow is said to
be uniform if the depth and velocity of flow are the same at every section of the channel.
Hence it follows that uniform flow can only occur in prismatic channels. Flow in
channels is termed as non-uniform or varied if the depth of flow y, changes from section
 y 
to section    0 . Non-uniform flow is rapidly varied flow If the depth of flow
 s 
changes a abruptly over a comparatively short distance; eg. Hydraulic Jump Non-
Uniform flow is gradually varied flow. If the change in depth of flow takes place
gradually in a long reach of the channel.

Steady uniform flow, in which the depth is constant, both with time and distance. This
constitutes the fundamental type of flow in an open channel in which the gravity forces
are in equilibrium with the resistance forces.

Steady non-uniform flow, in which the depth varies with distance, but not with time.
The flow may be either (a) gradually varied or (b) rapidly varied.

Type (a) requires the joint application of energy and frictional resistance equations. Type
(b) requires the application of energy and momentum principles.

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Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

Unsteady non uniform flow, in which the depth varies with both time and distance
(unsteady uniform flow is very rare). This is the most complex flow type, requiring the
solution of energy, momentum and friction equations through time. The various flow
types are all shown in Figure 1.2.

Laminar and turbulent flow

Flow is said to be laminar when adjacent fluid layer, move at the same (or nearly the
same) velocity and paths of individual fluid particles do not cross or intersect. If adjacent
layer move at different velocities and path, of individual fluid particles do cross and
intersect each other, the flow is said to be turbulent.
Just as in pipes, the flow in channels may also be characterized as laminar, turbulent or in
a transitional state, depending on the relative effect of viscose and inertia forces and like
pipes. SuchFlood wave (GVF)can be made by computing a dimensionless parameter known
a determination
as the Reynolds number, whichFig. is defined
1.2 Typesby the following equation.
of flow

VR
Re  , for open channel

DV
Re  , for closed channel


Where Re = Reynolds number

 = mass density of the fluid
D = Pipe diameter
V = Velocity of the fluid
 = dynamic viscosity of the fluid

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Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

R = hydraulic mean radius

R = A/p , where A – area of cross section of the channel
P – Wetted perimeter of the channel.
On this experimental data it has been found that

If RV 500 < Re < 600, the flow is considered laminar

If Re > 2000, the flow is considered turbulent

If 500 < Re < 2000, the flow is transition state.

Sub critical, critical and supercritical flow

Gravity is a predominant force in the case of channel flow. As such depending on the
relative effect of gravity the inertia forces, the channel flow may be designed as sub
critical, critical or supercritical.
Determination of such flow depend on the dimensionless parameter called fraud number
(Fr) which is defined as the ratio of inertia the gravity forces.
V
Fr  , Where V = the mean velocity of flow
gy
g = acceleration due to gravity
y = hydraulic depth of the channel
y = A/T, T = top width, A = cross sectional area
This experiment indicate that
When Fr = 1, the channel flow is said to be critical state
If Fr < 1, or V  gD , the flow is sub critical (tranquil or streaming )
If Fr > 1, or V  gD , the flow is said to be supercritical or rapid or shooting or
torrential flow.

1.2 Types of Open Channel

Channels where flow occurs under free surface can either be natural, such as rivers and
streams, or artificial. Artificial channels comprise all man-made channels, including
irrigation and navigation canals, spillway channels, sewers, culverts and drainage ditches.
They are normally of regular cross-sectional shape and bed slope, and as such are termed
prismatic channels. Their construction materials are varied, but commonly used


A prismatic channel is characterized by unvarying cross section, constant bottom slope, and relatively
straight alignment.

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Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

materials include concrete, steel and earth. The surface roughness characteristics of these
materials are normally well defined within engineering tolerances. In consequence, the
application of hydraulic theories to flow in artificial channels will normally yield
reasonably accurate results. Various terms are used to refer to channels built under
different conditions.

Canal: a channel built on ground, i.e excavated to the desired shape and slope with or
without lining, usually having a mild slope. The lining could be made of concrete, stone
masonry, cement, wood or bituminous material.

Flume: a channel built (or supported) above the ground to convey fluid from one point to
another. In the field flumes are made of concrete, wood, sheet metal or masonry.
Laboratory flumes are usually made of wood, metal, glass or a composite of these
materials.

Chute: is a channel of steep slopes. If the change in elevation in the direction of flow
occurs in a relatively short distance the channel is called a drop.

Culvert: is a relatively short and usually buried conduit that is commonly used for
drainage purposes, as in highways and embankments. Open channel prevails whenever
the culvert is flowing partially full.

In contrast, natural channels are normally very irregular in shape, and their materials are
diverse. The surface roughness of natural channels changes with time, distance and water
surface elevation. Therefore, it is more difficult to apply hydraulic theory to natural
channels and obtain satisfactory results. Many applications involve man-made alterations
to natural channels (e.g. river control structures and flood alleviation measures). Such
applications require an understanding not only of hydraulic theory, but also of the
associated disciplines of sediment transport, hydrology and river morphology.

Various geometric properties of natural and artificial channels need to be determined for
hydraulic purposes. In the case of artificial channels, these may all be expressed
algebraically in terms of the depth (y), as is shown in Table 1.1. This is not possible for
natural channels, so graphs or tables relating them to stage (h) must be used.

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Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

Figure 1.3 Definition sketch of geometric channel properties

1.3 Important terms in open channel flow

Depth (y) - the vertical distance of the lowest point of a channel section from the free
surface;

Stage (h) - the vertical distance of the free surface from an arbitrary datum;

Area (A) - the cross-sectional area of flow normal to the direction of flow;

Wetted perimeter (P) - the length of the wetted surface measured normal to the direction
of flow;

Surface width (B) - the width of the channel section at the free surface;

Hydraulic radius (R) - the ratio of area to wetted perimeter (A / P);

Hydraulic mean depth (Dm) - the ratio of area to surface width (A / B).

Table 1.1 Definition and sketches of some Geometric channel properties

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Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

1.4 Velocity distribution in open channels

The measured velocity in an open channel will always vary across the channel section
because of friction along the boundary. Neither is this velocity distribution usually
axisymmetric (as it is in pipe flow) due to the existence of the free surface. It might be
expected to find the maximum velocity at the free surface where the shear force is zero
but this is not the case. The maximum velocity is usually found just below the surface.
The explanation for this is the presence of secondary currents which are circulating from
the boundaries towards the section centre and resistance at the air/water interface. These
have been found in both laboratory measurements and 3d numerical simulation of
turbulence.

The figure below shows some typical velocity distributions across some channel cross
sections. The number indicates percentage of maximum velocity.

Fig. 1.5 velocity distribution in open channels

Determination of energy and momentum coefficients

To determine the values of α and β the velocity distribution must have been measured (or
be known in some way). In irregular channels where the flow may be divided into distinct
regions α may exceed 2 and should be included in the Bernoulli equation.

The figure below is a typical example of this situation. The channel may be of this shape
when a river is in flood - this is known as a compound channel.

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Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

Fig 1.6 compound channel with three regions of flow

If the channel is divided as shown into three regions and making the assumption that α =
1 for each then

 u dA  V A1  V23 A2  V33 A3 Vi Ai

3 3 3

 1
 3
V 3A V 3 ( A1  A2  A3 ) V  Ai
Where

V 
Q V1 A1  V2 A2  V3 A3
 
V A
i i

A A1  A2  A3  A i

Similarly,
u V12 A1  V22 A2  V32 A3 Vi Ai
2 2
dA
   2
V 2A V 2 ( A1  A2  A3 ) V  Ai

1.5 Uniform flow and its governing equations in open channel

Uniform flow can occur in long straight runs of constant slope and constant channel cross
section. Steady uniform flow is the simplest type of open channel flow to analyse,
although in practice it is not of such frequent occurrence as might at first be supposed.
Uniform conditions over a length of the channel are achieved only if there are no
influences to cause a change of depth, there is no alteration of the cross-section of the
stream, and there is no variation in the roughness of the solid boundaries.
Indeed, strictly uniform flow is scarcely ever achieved in practice, and even
approximately uniform conditions are more the exception than the rule. Nevertheless,
when uniform flow is obtained the free surface is parallel to the bed of the channel
(sometimes termed the invert) and the depth from the surface to the bed is then termed
the normal depth.

Uniform flow equations

The basic formula describing uniform flow is due to the French engineer Antoine de
Chezy (1718–98). He deduced the equation from the results of experiments conducted on
canals and rivers. The formula can be derived analytically.

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Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

In steady uniform (or normal) flow there is no change of momentum, and thus the net
force on the liquid is zero. Figure 1.7 represents a stretch of a channel in which these
conditions are found. The slope of the channel is constant, the length of channel between
the planes 1 and 2 is l and the (constant) cross-sectional area is A. It is assumed that the
stretch of the channel considered is sufficiently far from the inlet (or from a change of
slope or of other conditions) for the flow pattern to be fully developed. Now the control
volume of liquid between sections 1 and 2 is acted on by hydrostatic forces F1 and F2 at
the ends. However, since the cross-sections at 1 and 2 are identical, F1 and F2 are equal
in magnitude and have the same line of action; they thus balance and have no effect on
the motion of the liquid. Hydrostatic forces acting on the sides and bottom of the control
volume are perpendicular to the motion, and so they too have no effect.

The only forces we need consider are those due to gravity and the resistance exerted by
the bottom and sides of the channel. If the average stress at the boundaries is τ0, the total
resistance force is given by the product of τ0 and the area over which it acts, that is, by
τ0Pl where P represents the wetted perimeter

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Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

Fig. 1.7 Forces on a channel length in uniform flow

It is important to notice that P does not represent the total perimeter of the cross-section
since the free surface is not included. Only that part of the perimeter where the liquid is in
contact with the solid boundary is relevant here, for that is the only part where resistance
to flow can be exerted. (The effect of the air at the free surface on the resistance is
negligible compared with that of the sides and bottom of the channel.)

For zero net force in the direction of motion, the total resistance must exactly balance the
component of the weight W. That is

τ0Pl = W sin α = A*l*ρ*g sin α..........................Eqn 1.1

Hence,

For uniform flow, however, sin α = hf/l, the energy gradient. Denoting this by So we
may therefore write:

We now require an expression to substitute for the average stress at the boundary, τ0. In
almost all cases of practical interest, the Reynolds number of the flow in an open channel
is sufficiently high for conditions to correspond to the turbulent rough flow regime in
which the stress at the boundary is proportional to the square of the mean velocity.

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Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

Thus, we can therefore take

Where the value of the friction factor f depends on the roughness of the walls of the
channel and is independent of u. substituting for τ0 in eqn 1.2 gives:

Where R = A/P is termed the hydraulic radius.

Taking square roots in Eqn 1.3 and putting

We arrive at Chezy’s equation

Since u is the average velocity of flow over the cross-section, the discharge through the
channel is given by:

The factor C is usually known as Chezy’s coefficient. Its dimensional formula is

[g1/2] = [L1/2T-1]
Since f is dimensionless magnitude. It varies with channel roughness and hydraulic
radius.
Many attempts have been made to correlate the large amount of available experimental
data and so enable the value of C for a particular channel to be predicted. Representative
values of C are also estimated for different channel materials and presented in Table 1.1.
many formulae have been also derived to predict the value of C. All are based on
analyses of experimental results. The simplest expression, and one that is very widely
used, is Manning’s formula. This formula gives:

In other words, when combined with Chezy’s equation (1.6), Manning’s expression becomes:

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Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

This formula is often known as Strickler’s formula and 1/n as Strickler’s coefficient. It is
also known as Gauckler, Kutter, Gauguillet and Hagen formula.
The n in equation 1.7 is often known as Manning’s roughness coefficient. Representative
values of n are as given in Table1.2, but it should be realized that they are subject to
considerable variation.
Several other names have been associated with the derivation of this formula - or ones
similar and consequently in some countries the same equation is named after one of these
people. Some of these names are; Strickler, Gauckler, Kutter, Gauguillet and Hagen. The
Manning's n is also numerically identical to the Kutter n

The Manning equation has the great benefits that it is simple, accurate and due to it long
extensive practical use; there exists a wealth of publicly available values of n for a very
wide range of channels.

The value of C can also be estimated using the Ganguillet and Kutter formula, which has
been developed based on measurements in open channels of various types.

Table 1.2. Selected values of C

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Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

Table 1.3. Selected values of Manning's n

1.6 Conveyance
Channel conveyance, K, is a measure of the carrying capacity of a channel. The K is
really an agglomeration of several terms in the Chezy or Manning's equation:
Q  AC RS o
Q  KS o1 / 2

A5 / 3
So K  ACR 1 / 2 
nP 2 / 3

Use of conveyance may be made when calculating discharge and stage in compound
channels and also calculating the energy and momentum coefficients in this situation.

Computations in uniform flow

We can use Manning's formula for discharge to calculate steady uniform flow. Two
calculations are usually performed to solve uniform flow problems.

1. Discharge from a given depth

2. Depth for a given discharge

In steady uniform flow the flow depth is know as normal depth.

As we have already mentioned, and by definition, uniform flow can only occur in
channels of constant cross-section (prismatic channels) so natural channel can be
excluded. However we will need to use Manning's equation for gradually varied flow in
natural channels - so application to natural/irregular channels will often be required.

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Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

Example
Find the bed slope of trapezoidal channel of bed width 6 m, depth of water 3 m and side
slope of 3 horizontal to 4 vertical, when the discharge through the channel is 30 m3/s.
Take Chezy’s constant, C = 70.
Given: b = 6.0 m, d=3.Om, Side slope = 3 horizontal to 4 vertical
Discharge Q =30 m3/s, Chezy’s constant C =70
For depth of flow =3 m= CE: Distance BE = 3x3/4 = 9/4 =2.25m

Top width, CD=AB + 2BE=6.0+2x2.25= 10.50m

Wetted perimeter, P =AD+AB +BC = AB + 2BC

Area of flow, A = Area of trapezoid ABCD

A = [½ (AB +C D)X CE]
A = [½ (6 + 10.5)X 3]
A = 24.75 m2
Hydraulic mean depth, R = A / P = 24.75 m2 / 13.5m
. R =1.833m
V  C RS
S = V2/ C2R
S = V2/ C2R , V = Q/A
S = ( 30/24.75)2 / 702 X 1.833
S = 1/ 6133
Exercises
1) Prove that for a channel of circular section: the depth of flow
d = 0.81 D for maximum velocity.
d = 0.95 D for maximum discharge
Where D = Diameter of circular channel, d = depth of flow.
2) Consider a rectangular channel, built of rubble cement (Manning’s n _ 0.020)
which is 3 m wide, laid on a 1° slope. If the water depth is 2 m, what is the
uniform-flow rate?

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Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

1.7 Design of most economical section

A Channel section is considered to be the most Economical when it can pass a maximum
discharge for the given cross sectional area and when cost of construction of the channel
is minimum. But the cost of construction of the channel depends up on Excavation and
lining works.
To keep the cost of the excavation and lining minimum the wetted perimeter for a given
discharge should be minimum. This condition is utilized for determining the dimension
of economical section, of different forms of channels. Most Economical section is also
called the best hydraulic section (Most efficient section)
Q  AV , but, V  C RS , chezy' s formula
Q  AC RS
A
 AC S
P
For a given A, S, C, Q is maximum when P is minimum. This condition will be used for
determining the dimensions of most efficient section.

As such this condition determine the dimensions of economical sections of the following
1. Most economical Rectangular channel section
2. Most economical trapezoidal channel section
3. Most economical circular channel section.
Most efficient cross section
A cross-section having such a shape that the wetted perimeter is a minimum is thus, from
a hydraulic point of view, the most efficient. Not only is it desirable to use such a section
for the sake of obtaining the maximum discharge for a given cross-sectional area, but a
minimum wetted perimeter requires a minimum of lining material, and so the most
efficient section tends also to be the least expensive.
It may be shown that, of all sections whose sides do not slope inwards towards the top,
the semicircle has the maximum hydraulic radius. This mathematical result, however, is
not usually the only consideration. Although semicircular channels are in fact built from
prefabricated sections, for other forms of construction the semicircular shape is
impractical. Trapezoidal sections are very popular, but when the sides are made of a loose
granular material its angle of repose may limit the angle of the sides.
Another point is, the most efficient section will give the maximum discharge for a given
area and, conversely, the minimum area for a given discharge. This does not, however,
necessarily imply that such a channel, if constructed below ground level, requires the
minimum excavation. After all, the surface of the liquid will not normally be exactly
level with the tops of the sides. Nevertheless the minimum excavation may, in certain
instances, be an overriding requirement.

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Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

Factors other than the hydraulic efficiency may thus determine the best cross-section to
be used for an open channel. However, when the hydraulic efficiency is the chief
concern, determining the most efficient shape of section for a given area is simply a
matter of obtaining an expression for the hydraulic radius, differentiating it and equating
to zero to obtain the condition for the maximum. For example, for a channel section in
the form of a symmetrical trapezium with horizontal base (Fig. below), the area A and
wetted perimeter P are given by:
A = bh + h2 cot α and P = b + 2h cosec α
Since b = (A/h) − h cot α,

For a given value of A, this expression is a maximum when its denominator is a minimum
that is when:

(The second derivative, 2A/h3, is clearly positive and so the condition is indeed that for a
minimum). Thus,

Substituting this value in the expression for R gives Rmax = h/2

In other words, for maximum efficiency a trapezoidal channel should be so proportioned
that its hydraulic radius is half the central depth of flow. Since a rectangle is a special
case of a trapezium (with α = 90◦) the optimum proportions for a rectangular section are
again given by R = h/2; taking A = bh = 2h2 (from eqn 1.6) we get b = 2h. A further
exercise in differential calculus shows that, if α may be varied, a minimum perimeter and
therefore maximum R is obtained when α = 60◦. This condition in conjunction with the
first, shows that the most efficient of all trapezoidal section is half a regular hexagon
section. The concept of the most efficient section as considered here applies only to
channels with rigid boundaries. For channels with erodible boundaries, for example, of
sand, the design must take account of the maximum shear stress, τo, on the boundary.

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Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

Example
1) A trapezoidal channel has side slopes 1 to 1. It is required to discharge 13.75 m 3/s of
water with a bed gradient of 1 in 1000. If unlined the value of Chezy’s C is 44. If lined
with concretes, its value is 60. The Cost per m3 of excavation is four times the cost per m2
of lining. The channel is to be the most efficient one. Find whether the lined canal or the
unlined canal will be cheaper. What will be the dimensions of that economical canal.
Solution
Cost per m3 of excavation = 4 x cost per m2 of lining
Let the cost per m2 of lining = X
Then cost per m3 of excavation = 4X
As the channel is most efficient,
Hydraulic mean depth, R = D / 2, D = depth of flow
Also for the most efficient trapezoidal channel we have:
Half of top width = length of sloping side

D n2 + 1 = ( B + 2nD) / 2

D 12 + 1 = ( B + 2 x 1D) / 2

From this, B = 0.828D

A = ( B + nD) D = (0.828D + 1xD) D = 1.828D2
i) For the unlined channel: C = 44
Q = A V = A C RS
13.75 = 1.828D2 x 44 ( D / 2)(1 / 1000)
D = 2.256m
B = 0.828D = 0.828(2.256m) = 1.868m
Now cost of excavation per meter length of unlined channel
= Volume of channel x cost per m3 of excavation
=(Area of channel x 1) x 4X

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Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

=[(B + nD) D x 1] x 4X
=(1.868 + 1 x2.256)x 2.256 x 4X = 37.215X
ii) For the lined channel: C = 60
Q = A V = A C RS
13.75 = 1.828D2 x 60 ( D / 2)(1 / 1000)
D = 1.992 m
B = 0.828D = 0.828(2.256m) = 1.649m
In case of lined channel, the cost of lining as well as cost of excavation is to be
considered.
Now cost of excavation per meter length of lined channel
= Volume of channel x cost per m3 of excavation
=(Area of channel x 1) x 4X
=[(B + nD) D x 1] x 4X
=(1.649 + 1 x 1.992 )x 1.992 x 4X = 29.01X
Cost of lining = Area of lining x cost per rn2 of lining
= (Perimeter of lining x 1) X

= (2D n2 + 1 + B) X

= 2x1.992 12 + 1 + 1.649) X

= 7.283X
Total cost = 29.01X + 7.283X = 36.293X
The total cost of lined channel is 36.293X whereas the total cost of unlined channel is
37.215X.
Hence, lined channel will be cheaper. The dimensions are b = 1.649 m and d = 1.992

Exercise
1) A trapezoidal channel has side slopes of 1 horizontal to 2 vertical and the slope of
the bed is 1 in 2000. The area of the section is 42 m2. Find the dimensions of the
section if it is most economical. Determine the discharge of the most economical
section if C = 60
2) Derive the design equation for the case of efficient triangular cross-section.
3) Why do we optimize wetted perimeter while deriving design equations for most
economical and efficient section?

Specific Energy

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Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

Specific energy, Es, is defined as the energy of the flow with reference to the channel bed
as the datum. The concept of
specific energy was first
introduced by Bakmenteff
(1918). With reference to the
figure below the total energy of
flow with respect to the channel
bottom is given by
Fig. 1.10 Specific energy (definition sketch)
p1 V12
E s1  ( y  y1 )  
g 2 g

V12
 y
2g

Thus the specific energy at an open channel section is equal to the sum of the flow depth
and the velocity head. In the above equation V1 denotes the velocity of flow at the point
of interest, in the figure above at point 1. In practice it is easier to use the average
velocity of flow at the section and speak about the specific energy of the flow at a
section. How ever the velocity of flow changes from point to point with in the flow and
as a result the specific energy changes from stream line to stream line. It is common to
use the average velocity of flow with a correction factor. The specific energy computed
using the average velocity is taken to apply for all points in the section, i.e. is taken as the
specific energy of the section. For steady flow this can be written in terms of discharge
Q
 (Q / A) 2
Es  y 
2g

For a rectangular channel of width b, Q/A = q/y

q 2
Es  y 
2 gy 2
q 2
( E s  y) y 2   cons tan t
2g
cons tan t
( E s  y) 
y2

It can be observed that the specific energy is a function of depth of flow, y, only. If one
plots the depth of flow as ordinate against the specific energy for a constant Q, the energy
diagram is obtained, which is a very useful curve in open channel hydraulics.

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Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

For each value of E other than the minimum it is seen that there are two possible values
of h, one greater and one less than hc. These two values are known as alternative depths.
The conditions for the critical depth, for a channel of rectangular section, are those for
minimum E which, for a channel of rectangular section, may be found by differentiating
the specific energy equations for specific cross section.

This expression is zero when q2/gh3 = 1 that is when h = (q2/g)1/3. This value of h is the
critical depth hc and is written as:

Em = hc + gh3c/2gh2c = 3/2hc
Since u = Q/bh = q/h, the velocity (critical velocity) corresponding to the critical depth
may be determined from eqn 1.9.
uc = q/hc = (ghc3)1/2/hc
Critical flow and its computation
It can be seen from the specific energy curve that, there is one point C on the curve which
has a minimum specific energy, thereby indicating that below this values of the specific
energy the given discharge cannot occur. The depth of flow at which the specific energy
is minimum is called critical depth yc. Similarly the velocity of flow at the critical depth
is known as critical velocity, Vc.
For a given discharge the condition for minimum specific energy can be obtained by

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Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

Fr = 1.

For the channel sections of different shapes the computation of critical flow may be
carried out by adopting the procedure as indicated below.

a. Critical flow in Rectangular channel

Since for a channel of rectangular section the top width T is equal to the bottom width B,
equation 2 can be further simplified. If it is assumed that q represents the discharge per
unit width of the channel section then the total discharge Q passing through a channel of
rectangular section of bottom width B may be expressed as Q=B*q or q= Q/B.
Corresponding to a critical depth of flow yc the area of rectangular channel section
A=Byc.
By substituting these values in equation 2 it becomes

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Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

b. critical flow in channel sections of other shapes

i. Triangular channel section
For a channel of triangular section with side slope z horizontal to 1 vertical the critical
depth yc is given by the following expressions

ii. Parabolic channel section

For a channel of parabolic section if the top width at the water surface is expressed as ,
the critical depth yc is given by the following expressions. 21 ky T

iii. Trapezoidal channel section

For a channel of trapezoidal section no explicit expressions for yc can be obtained, but
the following expressions in terms of dimensionless parameters may be developed which
can be used for the computation of the critical depth yc. Thus for a channel section of
bottom width B and side slope z horizontal to 1 vertical, we have

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By Selam Belay AAiT Department of Civil Engineering
Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

Example1
For a constant specific energy of 1.8 N.m/N, calculate the maximum discharge that may
occur in a rectangular channel 5m wide.
Solution
For a given specific energy the discharge is maximum when the flow is in critical state.

Flow in channel transition

Rapid changes in stage and velocity occur whenever there is a sudden change in cross-
section, a very steep bed-slope or some obstruction in the channel. This type of flow is
termed rapidly varied flow. Typical examples are flow over sharp-crested weirs and
flow through regions of greatly changing cross-section (Venturi flumes and broad-crested
weirs).
Rapid change can also occur when there is a change from super-critical to sub-critical
flow (see later) in a channel reach at a hydraulic jump.

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Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

In these regions the surface is highly curved and the assumptions of hydro static pressure
distribution and parallel streamlines do not apply. However it is possibly to get good
approximate solutions to these situations yet still use the energy and momentum concepts
outlined earlier. The solutions will usually be sufficiently accurate for engineering
purposes.

Flow over a raised hump – revisited: Application of the Specific energy equation.

The specific energy equation may

be used to solve the raised hump
problem. The figure below shows
the hump and stage drawn
alongside a graph of Specific
energy Es against y.

The Bernoulli equation was

applied earlier to this problem and
the equation from that example
may be written in terms of specify
energy:
Es1 = Es2 +∆z
These points are marked on the figure. Point A on the curve corresponds to the specific
energy at section 1 in the channel, but Point B or Point B' on the graph may correspond to
the specific energy at point 2 in the channel.

All point in the channel between point 1 and 2 must lie on the specific energy curve
between point A and B or B'. To reach point B' then this implies that Es1 - Es2 > ∆z which
is not physically possible. So point B on the curve corresponds to the specific energy and
the flow depth at section 2.

Critical, Sub-critical and super critical flow

The specific energy change with depth was plotted above for a constant discharge Q, it is
also possible to plot a graph with the specific energy fixed and see how Q changes with
depth. These two forms are plotted side by side below.

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Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

From these graphs we can identify several important features of rapidly varied flow.

For a fixed discharge:

1. The specific energy is a minimum, Esc, at depth Yc, This depth is known as
critical depth.
2. For all other values of Es there are two possible depths. These are called
alternate depths. For
subcritical flow y > yc
supercritical flow y < yc
For a fixed Specific energy :
1. The discharge is a maximum at critical depth, Yc.
2. For all other discharges there are two possible depths of flow for a particular Es
i.e. there is a sub-critical depth and a super-critical depth with the same Es.
An equation for critical depth can be obtained by setting the differential of Es to zero:
 (Q / A) 2
Es  y 
2g
dE s Q 2 d  1  dA
 0  1  
dy 2 g dA  A 2  dy
Since δA=Bδy, in the limit dA/dy = B and
Q 2
0  1 Bc 2 Ac3
2g
Q 2 Bc
1
gAc3

For a rectangular channel Q = qb, B = b and A = by, and taking α = 1 this equation
becomes

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Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

1/ 3
 q2 
yc   
 g  as Vc yc = q
 
Vc  gy c

Substituting this in to the specific energy equation

V c2 y
E sc  y c   yc  c
2g 2
2
yc  E sc
3
The Froude number

The Froude number is defined for channels as:

V
FN 
gD m

Its physical significance is the ratio of inertial forces to gravitational forces squared
Inertial Force
FN2 
Gravitational Force

It can also be interpreted as the ratio of water velocity to wave velocity

Water Velocity
FN 
Wave Velocity

This is an extremely useful non-dimensional number in open-channel hydraulics.

Its value determines the regime of flow - sub, super or critical, and the direction in which
disturbances travel
Fr < 1 sub-critical
 water velocity > wave velocity
 upstream levels affected by downstream controls

Fr = 1 critical

Fr > 1 super-critical
 water velocity < wave velocity
 upstream levels not affected by downstream controls

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By Selam Belay AAiT Department of Civil Engineering
Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

The Hydraulic jump

The hydraulic jump is an important

feature in open channel flow and is an
example of rapidly varied flow. A
hydraulic jump occurs when a super-
critical flow and a sub-critical flow meet.
The jump is the mechanism for the two
surfaces to join. They join in an
extremely turbulent manner which
causes large energy losses.

Because of the large energy losses the energy or specific energy equation cannot be use
in analysis, the momentum equation is used instead.

Resultant force in x- direction = F1 - F2

Momentum change = M2 – M1

F1- F2 =M2 –M1

Or for a constant discharge

F1 +M1 =F2 +M2 = constant

For a rectangular channel this may be evaluated using

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Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

y1 y2
F1  g y1b F2  g y2b
2 2
M 1  QV1 M 2  QV 2

Q Q
 Q  Q
y1b y2b
Substituting for these and rearranging gives
y1  
y2   1  8 FN 1  1
2
2  
or
y2  
y1   1  8 FN 2  1
2
2  
So knowing the discharge and either one of the depths on the upstream or downstream
side of the jump the other - or conjugate depth - may be easily computed.

More manipulation with the above equation and the specific energy give the energy loss
in the jump as

 y 2  y1 3
E 
4 y1 y 2

These are useful results and which can be used in gradually varied flow calculations to
determine water surface profiles.

A hydraulic jump will only occur if the upstream flow is super-critical. The higher the
upstream Froude number the higher the jump and the greater the loss of energy in the
jump.

Purposes of hydraulic jump:-

 To increase the water level on the d/s of the hydraulic structures
 To reduce the net up lift force by increasing the downward force due to the
increased depth of water,
 To increase the discharge from a sluice gate by increasing the effective head
causing flow,
 For aeration of drinking water
 For removing air pockets in a pipe line

Analysis of hydraulic jump

Assumptions

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By Selam Belay AAiT Department of Civil Engineering
Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

1) The length of the hydraulic jump is small, consequently, the loss of head due to
friction is negligible,

2) The channel is horizontal as it has a very small longitudinal slope. The weight
component in the direction of flow is negligible.

3) The portion of channel in which the hydraulic jump occurs is taken as a control
volume & it is assumed the just before & after the control volume, the flow is
uniform & pressure distribution is hydrostatic.
Let us consider a small reach of a channel in which the hydraulic jump occurs.
The momentum of water passing through section (1) per unit time is given as:

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Now from eqn. (Vii) above:

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By Selam Belay AAiT Department of Civil Engineering
Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

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By Selam Belay AAiT Department of Civil Engineering
Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

Energy dissipation in a Hydraulic Jump

Types of Hydraulic jump

Hydraulic jumps are classified according to the upstream Froude number and depth ratio.

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Example
1) A sluice gate discharges water into a horizontal rectangular channel with a velocity of
6 m / s and depth of flow is 0.4 m. The width of the channel is 8 m. Determine whether a
hydraulic jump will occur, and if so, find its height and loss of energy per kg of water.
Also determine the power lost in the hydraulic jump.
Solution
Discharge per unit width, q = Q / b = (V1 x b x d1) / d1 = V1 x b
q = V1 x b = 6 x 0.4= 2.4m2/s
V1
Froude number on the upstream side, Fr1  ,
gd1
6
Fr 1  ,
9.81x0.4
Fr 1 3.09
As Froude number is more than one, the flow is shooting on the upstream side.
Shooting flow is unstable flow and it will convert itself into streaming flow by raising
its height and hence hydraulic jump will take place.
Let the depth of hydraulic jump = d2
d2 1
d1 2
  
1  8 F 21  1

d2 1

0.4 2

1  8 x3.092  1 
d2 = 1.525m
Height of hydraulic jump = d2 — d1 = 1.525 —0.4 = 1.125 m.

Loss of energy per kg of water is, E 

 y 2  y1 3
4 y1 y 2

E 
1.525  0.43
4(1.525)(0.4)
E  0.5835 m-kg/kg of water.
Power lost in kW, P = ρgQhL/ 1000,
Where Q = V x area=V1xd1xb= 6x0.4x 8=19.2m3/s

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By Selam Belay AAiT Department of Civil Engineering
Lecture note on Open Channel Flow 2020 A.C.

Power lost in kW, P = (1000 x 9.81 x 19.2 x 0.5835) / 1000

Power lost, P = 109.9 kW.

Exercise
1) A sluice gate controls the flow in a channel of width 800 mm. When the flow rate is
1.65 m3 s–1 supercritical flow occurs just downstream of the gate which undergoes
transition almost immediately through a hydraulic jump to a depth of 1.16 m. Assuming
no energy loss through the gate, calculate:
(a) The depths just upstream and downstream of the gate;
(b) The total head through the gate and the total head downstream of the hydraulic jump.

2) A rectangular channel carrying 10 m3 s–1 undergoes an abrupt expansion from width 4

m to width 8 m, triggering a hydraulic jump. The upstream depth is 0.5 m. Stating
assumptions clearly, find the downstream depth.

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