Essential Math

Student Workbook

Developed by
Halliburton Energy Institute

© 2003 Halliburton Company, All rights reserved

Printed in the United States of America
Notices

Confidentiality
All information contained in this publication is confidential and proprietary property of
Halliburton Energy Services, a division of Halliburton Company. Do not transfer this
document outside of Halliburton without approval from the Intellectual Property Group
of the Law Department.

Document History
First Release: June 2001
Revised: October 2002
Revised July 2003
Revised August 2005
Revised May 2006

Acknowledgements
HEI would like to thank the following for their contributions to this manual (in
alphabetical order):
Greg Ash, Robert Brewer, Kathy McAdoo, Kathy Mead, Von Parkey, and
Sherry Snyder
 Essential Math
Table of Contents

Section Subject
1 Introduction
2 Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division
3 Using the Calculator
4 Fractions and Decimals
5 Percentages, Ratios, and Proportions
6 Formulas
7 Surface Area and Volume Calculations
8 Fluid Calculations
Section 1

Introduction

Table of Contents
Introduction................................................................................................................................................1-3
How This Course is Organized ..............................................................................................................1-3
Study Suggestions ..................................................................................................................................1-3
Course Overview....................................................................................................................................1-4

1•1 Essential Math

 Introduction

Introduction
Take time to carefully read this introduction. It For more information on a subject covered in
will acquaint you with this course and suggest your workbook, let your resource personnel
ways to get the most out of it. know of your interest — they can direct you to
more information.
This workbook allows you to learn at your own
speed, without an instructor, and at any time or
place that may be convenient for you. Your Study Suggestions
immediate supervisor is normally responsible for
your enrollment and can assist you in
completing the course. This course was planned to make learning as
easy as possible. However, to retain the
knowledge, you must put forth effort.
How This Course is Organized Remember, the responsibility for learning this
course is yours.
Familiarize yourself with the way this workbook Keep your workbook available at all times; you
is organized. You will find a table of contents at never know when you might have the
the beginning of each section, followed by an opportunity to work on a unit. Try and set aside
introduction, a list of topic areas, and the enough time to complete an entire unit during a
learning objectives for that section. study period.
Each section in this workbook contains several Some study suggestions include
units. Each unit contains all the information you
• Review both the section and unit
need to learn. Other manuals or catalogs are not
introductions. They will very briefly
necessary, with the possible exception of a
describe what is in the unit.
dictionary. Each unit is made up of text, figures
to help explain the text (pictures, drawings • Skim through the unit. Look at the figures
charts, etc.), and a unit quiz. When you complete and headings to see what's familiar to you
all the units in a section, you complete a self- and what isn't. They will tell you what to
check test. Both the quizzes and tests will help expect.
you check your personal progress. The time you
spend on each unit is not important; it is • Read the content carefully. Go back to the
important that you learn and retain the content. beginning of the unit and read the content,
paragraph by paragraph. Study the figures. If
At the end of every section are the answers to all you are unfamiliar with the meaning of a
unit quizzes and the self-check tests. After you word, look it up in a dictionary.
complete a quiz or a test, refer to the appropriate
answer key. Let your supervisor know when you • Check your understanding. Try to put into
complete a section. Then you will take a written your own words the paragraph you have just
test that is graded. This section test is based read. Go back and underline or make notes
solely upon the information in your workbook. of important points. This will help you to
However, you cannot use your workbook as a review the content of the unit later.
reference while taking the test. • Review the unit. At the end of each unit, take
Successful completion of all the section tests and a few minutes to look over your notes.
a comprehensive final examination makes you • Take the unit quiz. Try not to refer to the
eligible to attend the next level course. text when you are filling in the blanks in the

1•3 Essential Math

 Introduction

unit quiz. Write your answers in your Upon completion of a section, ask your
workbook. supervisor any questions you might have before
taking the in-class section test. Successful
• Check your answers against the answer key.
completion of the test enables you to move on to
Reread the parts of the text that relate to the
the next section. Remember that successful
items you are unsure about or you have
completion of all in-class section tests and the
answered incorrectly. Don't forget, if you
comprehensive course final examination enables
are having trouble, or if you feel your
you to be enrolled in the appropriate next level
response is equally correct, consult your
school.
resource personnel.
When you work through all the units in a
section, you will be ready to take the self-check Course Overview
test for that section. Go back through all the
units to review what you have learned. Your The Essential Mathematics course is made up
completed unit quizzes should also be helpful of eight sections. This introduction is Section 1,
here. and Section 2 through 8 are designed to present
If you are having trouble choosing or calculating you with how to deal with calculations
an answer, go to the next question. At the end of associated with various aspects of your work in
the test, go back to the questions you didn't the oilfield.
answer and try again. Remember, you are not Section 2 Addition, Subtraction,
competing with anyone but yourself. Take your Multiplication, and Division
time and do your best. Section 3 Using the Calculator
When you finish a self-check test, turn to the Section 4 Fractions and Decimals
answer key at the end of the section to check Section 5 Percentages, Ratios, and
your answers. References are provided as to Proportions
where the answers can be found. Make sure that
you understand the correct answers before Section 6 Formulas
proceeding to another section. Check with your Section 7 Surface Area and Volume
resource personnel if you feel the response you Calculations
gave is correct. Don't forget to let your program Section 8 Fluid Calculations
coordinator know that you have completed the
section. Now proceed to Section 2. Good luck with
Essential Mathematics!

1•4 Essential Math

Section 2

Addition, Subtraction,
Multiplication and Division

Table of Contents
Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division..................................................................................2-3
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................2-3
Learning Objectives ...............................................................................................................................2-3
Unit A: Addition and Checking Addition ..................................................................................................2-3
Rules of Addition ...................................................................................................................................2-3
Arranging the Numbers ..........................................................................................................................2-3
Checking Addition .................................................................................................................................2-4
Unit A Quiz ............................................................................................................................................2-5
Unit B: Subtraction and Checking Subtraction.........................................................................................2-6
Rules of Subtraction ...............................................................................................................................2-6
Subtraction .............................................................................................................................................2-6
Checking Subtraction .............................................................................................................................2-7
Unit B Quiz ............................................................................................................................................2-8
Unit C: Multiplication and Checking Multiplication ................................................................................2-9
Multiplication .........................................................................................................................................2-9
Checking Multiplication.......................................................................................................................2-10
Unit C Quiz ..........................................................................................................................................2-11
Unit D: Division and Checking Division................................................................................................2-12
Division ................................................................................................................................................2-12
Checking Division................................................................................................................................2-13
Unit D Quiz ..........................................................................................................................................2-14
Self-Check Test for Section 2 ..................................................................................................................2-15
Answer Key .............................................................................................................................................2-18

2•1 Essential Math

 Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division

Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division

Introduction Learning Objectives

This section discusses four basic mathematical Upon completion of this section, you should be
operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, familiar with how to:
and division. These operations provide the
• perform the basic operations of arithmetic
foundation for all the calculations you will
accurately
perform in the course of your work in the
oilfield. • check your work to make sure that you've
Checking your work is an important task. To done the operation correctly
ensure your calculation's accuracy, you must
redo the work.

Unit A: Addition and Checking Addition

The process of uniting two or more numbers or 3+4=7
groups of objects of the same kind is referred to
4+3=7
as addition. The number obtained by adding is
called the sum or total. The sign used to indicate When you add several numbers, you can group
this operation is a “+” which is read “plus.” them together in various ways and not change
the sum. For example, you want to find the sum
of 2 and 4 and 5. You could add the 2 to the 4
first and then add that sum to the 5. Or you
could add the 4 and 5 first then add that sum to
the 2. You will still come up with the same sum
in both cases, 11.
3 plus 2 equals 5 Always check your work to make sure you have
not made a mistake. In a real life situation, the
Remember, only like quantities can be added; "answer" is seldom given to you, but the correct
that is, it would not be possible to add 3 dollars result is always essential.
to 94 pounds of cement, or 4 pump trucks to
1000 gallons of acid.
In this unit, you will learn some basic rules of Arranging the Numbers
addition, how to add numbers, and how to check
your sums for accuracy. In addition, arrange the numbers uniformly in
vertical columns. In other words, the units digit
of each number should be in the right-hand or
Rules of Addition units column, the tens digit of each number
should be in the next column to the left or tens
When you add two numbers, the order in which column, etc. Regardless of the lengths of the
you add them is not important. For example: numbers to be added, the last digit to the right in

2•3 Essential Math

 Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division

each number should be in a vertical column, so 1

that 7145 + 224 + 746 would be written as 7145
follows: 224
Thousands + 746
Hundreds 5
Tens
Units Now add the numbers in the tens column:
7 1 4 5 1 + 4 + 2 + 4 = 11
2 2 4 Write the 1 in the tens column and carry 1 to the
hundreds column.
+ 7 4 6
1
7145
To add several numbers, first add the numbers in 224
the right hand column. If the sum can be + 746
expressed in one digit, write it under the column. 15
If the sum contains more than one digit (10 or Add the hundreds column:
more), write the right hand digit of the sum
under the column added, then add the remaining 1 + 1 + 2 + 7 = 11
digit or digits to the next column to the left. For Write the 1 in the tens column and carry the 1 to
example, if the sum of the column is 42, write 2 the thousands column:
under the column and add 4 to the sum of the 1
digits in the next column to the left. The 7145
common way to say this is to "put down the 2 224
and carry the 4."
+ 746
115
Sample Problem
Add the thousands column:
Add the following numbers: 7145, 224, and 746. 1+7=8
Write the 8 in the thousands column:
Solution
7145
Arrange the numbers for addition in vertical 224
columns: + 746
7145 8115
224 Therefore, your sum is 8115.
+ 746

Checking Addition

Starting with the right-hand column (the units You should, of course, be careful while you are
column): adding. Check your work to make sure the sum
is correct.
5 + 4 + 6 = 15
Checking addition can be done by several
Write the 5 and carry 1 to add to the next (tens) methods. The first method is to add the column
column: totals separately:

2•4 Essential Math

 Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division

7145 8115
224 7145
+ 746 224
15 + 746
10 8115
10 If there is a difference in the totals, both
7 sequences should be added again to locate your
8115 error.
You can also add the column numbers in reverse
sequence (add 6 + 4 + 5 in the units column,
etc.):

Unit A Quiz

Solve the following problems using addition. Show two methods of checking addition for each of the
problem's accuracy.

1. 31 + 112 + 3644 + 42,651

2. 64,270 + 7412 + 112,344

3. $3754 + $55 + $375 + $4195

Now, check your answers in the Answer Key.

2•5 Essential Math

 Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division

Unit B: Subtraction and Checking Subtraction

Subtraction is the process of finding out how subtract, the number to be subtracted, and the
much is left after one number has been taken remainder.
away from another number. The number that Most people make more mistakes in subtraction
represents the result of subtraction is called the than in addition. One way to help prevent
difference or remainder. The sign used to common mistakes is to practice.
indicate subtraction is
“–” which is read “minus.”
Sample Problem

Subtract 83 from 795.

Solution

5 minus 3 equals 2 First, arrange the numbers uniformly in vertical

columns as you did in addition:
As in addition, only like quantities can be
subtracted (for example, you cannot subtract 10 795
pounds of cement from 1000 gallons of acid). - 83
In Unit B you will learn some of the rules Beginning with the right-hand column, figure
associated with subtraction, how to subtract out what number must be added to the 3 in the
numbers, and how to check your remainders for bottom number to add up to the 5 above it. Write
accuracy. the difference between 5 and 3, which is 2,
under the line.
795
Rules of Subtraction - 83
2
In subtraction, 9 minus 5 is not the same as 5
minus 9. You cannot change the order of the Continue with the other two columns. The result
numbers. is found to be a remainder of 712.
Also, you cannot group the numbers in any 795
order. You must keep them in order. As such, if - 83
you have 18 – 9 – 2, you cannot first subtract 2 712
from 9 to get 7 and then subtract that remainder
from 18. You would end up with 11 instead of Sample Problem
the correct remainder of 7. You must first
subtract 9 from 18 to get 9 and then subtract 2
from 9 to get 7. Subtract 86 from 273.

Solution
Subtraction
273
Subtraction is a comparatively simple operation - 86
that only involves three numbers. These
numbers are; the number from which you are to Since 6 is obviously too large to be a part of 3,
take 1 from the 7 in the tens column (this is

2•6 Essential Math

 Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division

taking one 10 and adding it to the number in the

units column). We'll then call the number in the
units column 13 instead of 3, and the number in Checking Subtraction
the tens column 6 instead of 7. Then 6 from 13
leaves 7, because 6 plus 7 equals 13. Therefore, The fact that subtraction is the reverse of
7 is written in the units column in the remainder: addition makes it very easy to tell whether your
6 answer is correct. To check subtraction, add
273 your remainder to the number that was
- 86 subtracted. If your remainder is correct, this sum
7 will equal the first number.

Likewise, since 8 in the tens column is larger 273

than 6, so take 1 from the hundreds column. Call - 86 Add
these
the 2 in the hundreds column 1. Subtracting 8 +187 two
from 16 leaves 8 which is written in the tens 273
column of the remainder:
1 6 Adding the remainder of 187 to 86 checks the
273 solution; their total must be 273.
- 86
87

In the hundreds column, 0 subtracted from 1

equals 1:
1 6
273
- 86
187
The solution to this problem is 187.

2•7 Essential Math

 Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division

Unit B Quiz

Answer the following questions to check your progress in Unit B.

1. Subtract 232 from 989.

2. Subtract 291 from 776.

3. Subtract 1497 from 6992.

4. Subtract 3766 from 5749.

Now, check your answers in the Answer Key.

2•8 Essential Math

 Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division

Unit C: Multiplication and Checking Multiplication

Multiplication is the process of taking one of would multiply dollars (rate of pay per person)
two given numbers, as many times as there are by the number of cementers working (abstract)
units in the other number. The number that is to and get a product in dollars - a concrete number.
be multiplied called the multiplicand. The Thus, $50 × 6 (number of cementers working)
number you multiply by is called the multiplier. equals $300.
The result of multiplication is called the product.
The numbers that are multiplied together are Sample Problem
called the factors of their product. The sign of
multiplication is “×” and is read as “times.” Multiply 232 by 3.

Solution
2 Write down the two figures as shown:

3 times 2 equals 6 232

× 3
Checking your work in multiplication is just as Start with the right-hand figure in the
important as checking your work in addition and multiplicand, 2. Multiply it by 3, the multiplier,
subtraction. Frequently, the same error you and bring down the product, 6, under the line:
made when you first multiplied is repeated when
you check your answer. Therefore, use a method 232 (multiplicand)
different from the one you used to obtain your × 3 (multiplier)
first answer. 6 (product)
In Unit C, you will learn how to multiply Proceed in the same way with each of the other
numbers and how to check your work for figures of the multiplicand to the left of 2,
accuracy. recording the products from right to left.
232
Multiplication × 3
696
As you may know, multiplication is a quick way
of adding several equal numbers. Multiplication
shortens the process of addition. For example, 4 Sample Problem
+ 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 would give a sum equal to the
product of 4 × 5: Multiply 25 by 16.
4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 = 20 or 4 × 5 = 20
The product will always be the same kind of Solution
number as the original number. It is impossible
to multiply 8 trucks by 4 horses because both are 25
concrete numbers. Likewise, it is impossible to ×16
multiply dollars by cementers. But it is possible
First, multiply 6 × 5. This gives 30, a number
to find how many dollars are paid a given
with 2 digits.
number of cementers at so much per day. You

2•9 Essential Math

 Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division

25 This solution illustrates the method to be used

6 x 5 = 30
when the last figure to the right in the multiplier
×16
is a zero: bring down the zero and then start
The 0 is entered below the line, and the 3 is multiplying with the next number.
carried.
3 Sample Problem
25 6 x 5 = 30
×16 Multiply 345 by 302.
0
Solution
Next, 6 × 2 is 12; to this 12, we add the 3, which
was carried. This sum, 15, is written to the left 345 (multiplicand)
of the 0: × 302 (multiplier)
3 690
25 1035
× 16 104190 (product)
150 When the multiplier has a zero between two
other figures, move the partial product over two
Then multiply 1 by 25 and write the product in places instead of one.
the correct place (always align the right with the
current number in the multiplier):
Checking Multiplication
25
× 16 In checking multiplication, use a method that is
150 different from the one you used to obtain your
25 first answer. Switching the multiplicand and the
multiplier (using the multiplicand as the
Then add for the final product: multiplier, and vice versa) is the most common
way of checking a multiplication problem.
25 345 (multiplicand)
× 16 × 302 (multiplier)
150 690
1035
25 104190 (product)
400
302 (multiplicand and
Sample Problem × 345 multiplier switched)
1510
Multiply 305 by 20. 1208
906
Solution 104190 (product checked)
Another way to check multiplication is to divide
305 305 either the multiplicand or the multiplier in to the
× 20 × 20 product. The resulting answer must be the same
or as the multiplier or the multiplicand,
0 6100 respectively. This checking method will become
+610 obvious after we complete the next unit or
6100 division.

2 • 10 Essential Math
 Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division

Unit C Quiz

Solve the following problems using the operation of multiplication. Check your multiplication for
each of the problems' accuracy.
1. Multiply 50 by 37.

2. Multiply 400 by 512.

3. Multiply 397 by 700.

4. Multiply 4753 by 900.

5. Multiply 31 by 20.

Now, check your answers in the Answer Key.

2 • 11 Essential Math
 Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division

Unit D: Division and Checking Division

Division is the reverse operation of
multiplication. Division is the method of finding Solution
out how many times one number is contained in
another. The number to be divided is called the Arrange your numbers like this:
dividend, and the number that does the dividing
is called the divisor. The result or answer quotient
obtained by division is called the quotient. The divisor 23 552 dividend
sign for division is “÷” and is read as “divided
by.” Since 23 is bigger and cannot go into 5, consider
how many times it is contained in 55. The
answer is 2; therefore, 2 is the first digit of the

2
quotient:

2 quotient
6 divided by 2 equals 3 divisor 23 552 dividend

Multiplying the answer or quotient by the Multiply 23 by 2 and bring down the product,
divisor is the method for checking division, 46, under the 55 in the dividend.
since it is the reverse of multiplication. The
2 quotient
product of this multiplication must be the same
as the dividend. divisor 23 552 dividend
46
In Unit D, you will learn how to divide numbers.
You will also practice a simple method for Then subtract 46 from 55, obtaining a remainder
checking your work for accuracy. of 9. Bring down the next digit in the dividend,
2, beside the 9:
Division 2 quotient
divisor 23 552 dividend
Division is the process of separating a number 46
into equal parts or factors. As you learned 92
before, the number to be divided is the dividend,
the number by which we divide is the divisor, Divide the 92 by 23. 23 is contained exactly 4
and the complete result is the quotient. If the times in 92. Place 4 to the right of the 2 in the
division is not exact, that part of the dividend quotient:
left over is called the remainder.
24 quotient
Sample Problem divisor 23 552 dividend
46
Divide 552 by 23. 92
Multiply the 4 by the 23 and write the product
below 92. Then, subtracting 92 from 92, you
obtain a remainder of zero, which shows that the
division process is complete.

2 • 12 Essential Math
 Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division

24 quotient obtain should be the same as the dividend. For

example, to check the last problem (387 divided
divisor 23 552 dividend by 55), multiply the quotient you obtained (7) by
46 the divisor (55), then add the remainder (2).
92 7 (quotient)
92 × 55 (divisor)
0 remainder 35
35
385
Sample Problem + 2 (remainder)
387 (check-equal to
Divide 387 by 55. dividend)
Here is another example of how to check your
Solution work in division:

7 quotient 27
438 11826
divisor 55 387 dividend
385 876
3066
2 remainder
3066
In this answer, note that you end up with a 0
remainder, 2, since 55 does not divide evenly
into 387. 27
× 438
216
Checking Division 81
108
11826 (check-equal to
A simple way to check division is to multiply
dividend)
the quotient by the divisor, then add any
remainder to that product. The answer you

2 • 13 Essential Math
 Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division

Unit D Quiz

Solve the following problems using the operation of division, check your work.
1. Divide 64 by 4.

2. Divide 8918 by 26.

3. Divide 2832 by 12.

4. Divide 65109 by 478.

Now, check your answers against the Answer Key.

2 • 14 Essential Math
 Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division

Self-Check Test for Section 2

Answer the following questions. Show all calculations.
1. Add the following numbers. Check your work by adding in the direction opposite to the one used to
obtain the sum the first time.
171 + 388 + 963 + 111

2. Add the following numbers.

1277 + 2772 + 7600 + 3635

3. Add the following numbers and check your work.

567 + 6491 + 8866 + 320

4. Add the following numbers and check your work.

6777 + 25 + 2299 + 9709

2 • 15 Essential Math
 Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division

5. Subtract the following numbers. Check your answer by adding the difference to the subtrahend.
79567 – 37005

6. Subtract the following numbers and check your answer.

59678 – 30583

7. Subtract the following numbers and check your answer.

2996 – 1492

8. Subtract the following numbers and check your answer.

677 – 322

9. Multiply the following problem. Check your product by exchanging numbers used as the multiple and
multiply again.
424 × 205

10. Multiply the following problem and check your product.

675 × 25

11. Multiply the following problem and check your product.

345 × 122

2 • 16 Essential Math
 Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division

12. Multiply the following problem and check your product.

64 × 8

13. Divide the following numbers. Check your division by multiplying the quotient by the divisor and
adding the remainder (if applicable).
2832 ÷ 12

14. Divide the following numbers and check your work.

2046 ÷ 66

15. Divide the following numbers and check your work.

1950 ÷ 13

16. Divide the following numbers and check your work.

81 ÷ 9

Now, look up the answers in the Answer Key.

2 • 17 Essential Math
 Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division

Answer Key
Refer to the pages provided as references if you answered any of the questions incorrectly or if you
were unsure of your answers. Then proceed to the next section.

Refer to
Items from Unit A Quiz Page
1. 46438 2 - 3, 4

2. 184026 2-3

3. $8379 2 - 3, 4

Refer to
Items from Unit B Quiz Page
1. 757 2 - 6, 7

2. 485 2 - 6, 7

3. 5495 2 - 6, 7

4. 1983 2 - 6, 7

Refer to
Items from Unit C Quiz Page

1. 1850 2 - 8, 9

2. 204800 2 - 8, 9

3. 277900 2 - 8, 9

4. 4277700 2 - 8, 9

5. 620 2 - 8, 9

Refer to
Items from Unit D Quiz Page
1. 16 2 - 11, 12
2. 343 2 - 11, 12
3. 236 2 - 11, 12
4. 136.2 2 - 11, 12

2 • 18 Essential Math
 Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division

Refer to
Self-Check Test Page

1. 1633 2 - 3, 4

2. 15284 2 - 3, 4

3. 16244 2 - 3, 4

4. 18810 2 - 3, 4

5. 42562 2 - 6, 7

6. 29095 2 - 6, 7

7. 1504 2 - 6, 7

8. 355 2 - 6, 7

9. 86920 2 - 8, 9

10. 16875 2 - 8, 9

11. 42090 2 - 8, 9

12. 512 2 - 8, 9

13. 236 2 - 11, 12

14. 31 2 - 11, 12

15. 150 2 - 11, 12

16. 9 2 - 11, 12

Refer to the pages provided if you answered any of the questions incorrectly, or if you were unsure
of your answers. Then proceed to Section 3.

2 • 19 Essential Math
Section 3

Using the Calculator

Table of Contents
Using the Calculator ..................................................................................................................................3-3
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................3-3
Learning Objectives ...............................................................................................................................3-3
Unit A: Choosing a Calculator...................................................................................................................3-3
Calculator Features.................................................................................................................................3-3
Types of Logic .......................................................................................................................................3-4
Unit B: Understanding Calculator Functions.............................................................................................3-6
Basic Operations ....................................................................................................................................3-6
Memory Functions .................................................................................................................................3-7
Scientific Functions................................................................................................................................3-8
Unit C: Operating the Calculator .............................................................................................................3-10
Solving Problems with the Arithmetic Calculator................................................................................3-10
Using the Algebraic Calculator ............................................................................................................3-12
Unit A, B and C Quiz ...........................................................................................................................3-16
Self-Test: Using the Calculator................................................................................................................3-17
Answers Key............................................................................................................................................3-19

3•1 Essential Mathematics

 Using the Calculator

Using the Calculator

Introduction Learning Objectives

A calculator can be a valuable tool for solving Upon completion of chapter three, the student
mathematical problems related to industrial will be able to:
operations. In drilling, if a kick occurs, a driller
• choose a calculator that matches calculation
uses a calculator to quickly determine new mud
needs with calculator design
weight, circulating pressures, and surface-to-bit
strokes. Pipeline construction workers can use it • explain the differences and similarities
to figure pipe buoyancy, while refinery between arithmetic and algebraic logic
employees use it to determine heat transfer and based calculators
material balance. In virtually every industry, the • describe the functions of commonly used
calculator is used in estimating and costing calculator keys
materials and labor for a job. • solve simple addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division problems with a
calculator
• solve square root and percentage problems
using a calculator
• perform chain calculations using the
memory function of a calculator

Unit A: Choosing a Calculator

Calculators are available in a variety of sophisticated model than those needed to
capabilities and prices. The least expensive calculate the four basic operations. The
models perform the four basic operations along following features need to be considered in
with percentages, square roots, and a single selecting a small desk or pocket calculator (often
memory. More expensive models offer referred to as a handheld calculator):
trigonometric and logarithmic functions. Some
models are equipped with memory that can store 1. Power supply choices
multiple instead of single bits of information
while some models are programmable. The • AC power (AC adapter/charger)
calculator can even perform other functions not • Regular penlight batteries
included in the given selection. • Rechargeable penlight batteries, or
battery pack, with AC adapter/charger
Calculator Features • Solar cell - powered by light
• Mercury or silver oxide disk cells
When choosing a calculator, it is important to
2. Keyboard with conventional symbols (+,
match calculation needs with calculator design.
-,×, ÷, =) that permit calculations to be made
Very involved calculations warrant a more
in the same order they are normally written.

3•3 Essential Mathematics

 Using the Calculator

3. Full-floating decimal point, a function that

places the decimal point automatically and
displays the maximum number of places
possible
4. Constant operation, which allows a constant
number to be added to, subtracted from,
multiplied by, or divided into a series of
variable numbers with minimum keystrokes
5. Easy-to-read display--size, color, intensity,
and visibility
The three main parts of a small calculator
include:
• displays where lighted or liquid crystal
display (LCD) symbols appear. A paper
tape, on which characters are printed, may
also appear, depending on the model;
• keyboards that offers a selection of keys;
• one or more registers that cannot be seen in
which numbers are stored during
calculations. The symbols can be found
printed directly on the keys, printed on the
case near the keys, or both. In this chapter,
Figure 3.1
reference to a key will be by its symbol
regardless of its printed location.
A typical calculator keyboard is shown in Figure Scientific calculators should provide at least the
3.1. The calculator to be used in conjunction following keys:
with this text should show eight or more digits
in the display and must have the following: yx x2 xy SIN cos TAN +/-
, , , ,
• Number keys, which include the ten digits or CHS
,
LOG
,
LN
and the decimal point:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Types of Logic
• Operation keys for the four basic arithmetic
operations: A major consideration in the selection of a
calculator is the method of entry, that is, the
+ – × ÷ language or logic. Basically, three major types
of logic used in calculators are: arithmetic,
algebraic, and reverse polish. This workbook
• An equals = key. will only cover the first two.
• Most small calculators also offer the square
Arithmetic Logic
root √ and percent % keys, which
will be useful for this text. The arithmetic logic calculator is easy to use and
is identifiable by its simple keyboard.
Operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division are done in the same

3•4 Essential Mathematics

 Using the Calculator

order in which the keys are pressed. (Keys

2 + 4 x 3 x2 = 38
pressed are shown in boxes; unboxed numbers
are the displayed answers.) For example,
pressing the following keys in the order shown
will result in the answer 35 appearing in the Entry Display
display (Figure 3.2):
2 2
4 + 3 x 5 = 35 + 2
4 4
× 4
Entry Display
3 3
4 4
×2 9
+ 4
= 38
3 3
× 7
Figure 3.3
5 5
= 35
Figure 3.2 When the = key is pressed, the calculator
begins to work, but does not perform the
operations in the order entered. First, the
The 4 and 3 are added together then multiplied calculator computes 3 to the 2nd power,
by the 5. Arithmetic logic is common in less producing 9. Next, it multiplies the 9 and 4,
expensive models and may contain percentage, resulting in 36, and then adding 2 to get the
square root, and memory functions in addition to answer 38.
the four basic operations.
Calculators with algebraic logic range from
inexpensive, medium-priced, to expensive,
Algebraic Logic
depending on their capabilities. In addition to
the four basic operations, percentage, and square
A calculator with algebraic logic operates in the root, many models can square numbers,
same way as one with arithmetic logic with one calculate the inverse of the number displayed,
exception - it performs operations in a specific perform operations within parentheses thus
order. Powers (yx) are done first, then changing its content into one unit, and even
multiplication (×) and division (÷), and finally change the sign of a displayed number.
addition (+) and subtraction (-). For example, to
compute: An algebraic calculator may have a different
kind of memory system. Some calculators store
2 + 4 × 32 single and multiple pieces of information by
press the keys in the following order (Figure pressing location keys after the memory storage
3.3): key. Information can be recalled at any time.

3•5 Essential Mathematics

 Using the Calculator

Unit B: Understanding Calculator Functions

In using a calculator, the two most important
considerations are how to: Clear all
1. enter numbers into the calculator
Clears all or erases whatever was in the
2. tell the calculator which operation to
calculator, so a new problem can be started.
perform.
Essential to the successful operation of any C or CA
calculator is reading and following the
instructions provided by the manufacturer. Clear entry or Clear display
Knowing exactly how the calculator functions
will save time and frustration as well as prevent
Clears only what is in the display or the last
damage to the instrument through improper use.
entry, enabling the user to correct any mistake
made during entry. This function may be
Basic Operations combined with the clear-all function for a dual-
duty key: touched once, it clears the last entry;
touched again, it clears all.
The following basic operating functions are
found on the majority of small calculators in use CE or CD
today. The corresponding keys are shown on the
following pages:
Period
Power Switch
The period inserts a decimal point in the number
string.
The power switch turns the calculator on and
off. It also clears the display and erases whatever •
is stored in memory unless the calculator has a
continuous memory.
Addition
ON
AC
OFF
The + key Instructs the calculator to add the next
entered (or previously entered) number to the
Numbers number displayed.

0-9. Displays the number pressed and keeps it +

for calculations.

7 8 9
OFF OFF Subtraction
4 5 6
OFF OFF
The – key instructs the calculator to subtract the
1 2 OFF
OFF 3 next (or previously entered) number to the
number displayed.
0 OFF 6

3•6 Essential Mathematics

 Using the Calculator

Multiplication
Memory Functions
The x key multiplies the displayed number by
the next entered number.
Most calculators today come with memory.
Some models have only one level, so the
× calculator can remember only one piece of
information. Other models allow the storage of
Division many pieces of information by pressing location
keys after the memory key. Information can be
stored and recalled at any time. The following
The ÷ key divides the displayed number by the
are memory functions found on various
next entered number.
calculators.
÷ Memory addition

Equals Adds the displayed number to a number already

stored in the memory, leaving the result in
The = key completes previously entered memory.
operation and displays the result. This key is
used in arithmetic and algebraic logic M+ or Σ
calculators.
Memory subtraction
=
Subtracts the displayed number from a number
Percent already stored in the memory, leaving the result
in memory.
The % key shifts the decimal point of the M-
number shown in the display two places to the
left.
Memory multiplication
%
Multiplies a number already stored in memory
by the number shown in the display, leaving the
Square Root result in memory.

This key finds the square root of the displayed M× or PROD

number.

√ Memory division

Divides a number already stored in memory by

the number shown in the display, leaving the
result in memory.

M÷

3•7 Essential Mathematics

 Using the Calculator

Recall from memory Exchange

Recalls and displays memory contents but does Swaps the displayed number with one stored in
not change the contents. memory.
RM or MR EXC or X=M

Clear memory Clear memory level

Clears numbers stored in memory. Clear data stored in a specific level as indicated
by its two-digit location number.
CM or MC
CM and X X

Store in memory
Scientific Functions
Stores a displayed number in a specific place, or
level, in memory as indicated by a two-digit
number (referred to as location number and The scientific or slide-rule calculator provides
shown at right as xx). many additional functions including
trigonometric and logarithmic operations. What
STO and X X follows is the most commonly used functions
found on scientific calculators.
Recall from memory level
Square
Recalls numbers stored for calculation to the
display from specific levels in memory but This key squares the displayed number.
retains the number in memory for further use.
x2
RCL and X X
Reciprocal
Add to memory
Calculates and displays the reciprocal of the
This key adds a displayed number (negative or displayed number.
positive) to a number in memory in a specific
1/x
level.
SUM and X X
x/y interchange

Multiply by number in memory Changes the order within the calculator so the
number entered first, or a previous result, is
Multiplies a displayed number by a number interchanged with one entered second or a
stored in memory in a specific level. displayed result.

PRD and X X x y

3•8 Essential Mathematics

 Using the Calculator

Parentheses or brackets Logarithm

These keys perform the operation within the Calculates and displays the logarithm to base 10
parentheses first so that the contents will be of the displayed number.
treated as one unit.
log
( ) or
PROD [ ]
Antilogarithm
Change sign
Calculates and displays the antilogarithm of the
This key changes the sign of the displayed displayed number.
number from positive to negative or vice versa.
10x
+/- or CHS

Natural logarithm
Pi
Calculates and displays the natural logarithm of
Recalls to display the value of the constant, the displayed number.
3.14159265359, to the number of significant In
figures allowed by the accuracy of the
calculator; for example, 3.1416 is five
significant figures, abbreviated to 5 s.f. Exponential function

π Calculates and displays the natural antilogarithm

of the displayed number.
Enter exponent ex

Allows exponential notation to cope with the

display of very large or very small numbers. Shift

EE or EEX Accesses a second function of a key.

2nd or F
Trigonometric functions

Allows entries of angles in all four quadrants. Power

sin cos tan Raises the first number entered (y) to a power
determined by the second number entered (x).
Inverse trigonometric functions The first number must be positive; second may
be negative.
Calculates the inverse functions of angles. yx

sin-1 cos-1 tan-1

xth root

Calculates the xth root of the first number

entered (y) provided the number is not negative.

3•9 Essential Mathematics

 Using the Calculator

x
√y R↓ and R↑

Roll stack

Allows the user of a reverse polish calculator to

review the contents of the working registers or
to reposition numbers.

Unit C: Operating the Calculator

Most calculators are easy to operate if the
instructions furnished by the manufacturer are
followed. Many operations may be obvious.
However, some valuable features may be
available but not shown by looking at the
keyboard. So, the first step in operating any
calculator is to read the instructions from the
manufacturer.
As pointed out earlier, a calculator functions
according to its logic, or operating system. The
simplest, is the arithmetic operating system.
More involved calculations require the algebraic
or reverse polish operating systems. Figure 3.4

Solving Problems with the For example, to add two numbers, the keys are
Arithmetic Calculator pressed in this sequence:

On an arithmetic logic calculator (Fig. 3.4), 6 + 3 = 9

addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division of two numbers are done in logical The display will show 9 as soon as the = is
order with the operation key pressed between pressed. Likewise, to subtract, multiply, or
entries of the numbers. divide, press the keys in order of operation:

6 3 = 3

6 x 3 = 18

6 ÷ 3 = 2
In chain calculations, the sequence of operations
is also the same as entered. For example, in the
sequence

6 4 x 5 = 10

3 • 10 Essential Mathematics
 Using the Calculator

4 will be subtracted from the 6 first, and then the In the above sequence, the calculator stores the
resulting 2 will be multiplied by 5 to give the sum of the first two numbers in its memory,
answer 10. A chain calculation where performs the subtraction in the next set, then
multiplication or division precedes addition or multiplies this difference by the sum in its
subtraction will also be treated in the same memory to get the answer 323. Note that the
sequence. For example, in the problem:
= does not need to be pressed to complete the
4 x 5 + 9 = 29 subtraction; the x key activates the operation.
The 4 will be multiplied by the 5 to give 20, and Also, most calculators have some way of noting
then the 9 will be added to 20 to give the answer when a number other than zero is in the
29. memory. Usually a small M appears on the
display.
To calculate a chain of operations that requires
algebraic logic with an arithmetic logic The calculator percent key % is useful for
calculator, memory capability is helpful. Most dividing numbers by 100 and for calculating
calculators today have a memory. In the less markup and markdown percentages. Dividing a
expensive models, the memory has only one number by 100 merely moves the decimal point
level, so the calculator can remember only one of that number two places to the left. Most
piece of information. The memory is used to calculators require the percentage number to be
solve one part of a problem, hold it, solve entered last. For example, to find 60% of 200,
another part of the problem, retrieve the result of the keys would be pressed in the following
the first problem, and then perform a final order:
operation using the results of both parts. For
example, to work the problem 2 0 0 x 6 0 % 120
(12 + 5) × (23 - 4), In effect, 200 is multiplied by 0.6 to give 120.
the entry sequence must be as follows (Fig. 3.5):
Sample Problem
1 2 + 5 = M +
A businessman has borrowed $5,000. How
2 3 4 x MR = 323
much interest will he pay at 7.75%?

Solution:
Entry Display
12 12 Enter as follows:
+ 12
5 5 5 0 0 0 x 7 • 7 5 %
= 17
387.5.
M+ 17
23 23 The businessman will pay $387.50 in interest.
- 23
4 4 For a markup or add-on problem, the + key
× 19
MR 17 is used instead of the x key.
= 323
Figure 3.5

3 • 11 Essential Mathematics
 Using the Calculator

Sample Problem
Solution
You have bought a carload of tires for $34.50
each. How much would you have to sell each First, find the cost of the lunch without the wine:
tire for in order to make a 35% profit? 6.93 - 1.50 = 5.43.

Solution: Then, find the tax on 5.43 and add it to the total:
5.43 × 0.05 = 0.2715 + 5.43 = 5.70.
To work this problem without a % key, you Next, add 5.70 to 1.50 and add 15% to all for the
would multiply $34.50 times 0.35 and add the total amount:
product to $34.50 to get $46.58. With a 5.70 + 1.50 = 7.20
calculator, you would enter: 7.20 × 0.15 = 1.08
1.08 + 7.20 = 8.28
3 4 • 5 0 + 3 5 %
Handle these calculations using the percent key
46.575. by entering the following:
You would have to sell each tire for $46.58 to
make a 35% profit. 6 • 9 3 1 • 5 0

For a markdown or discount problem, the 5.43 + 5 % 5.7015 + 1 • 5

key is used instead of the + key.

0 = 7.2015 + 1 5 % 8.2817.

Sample Problem So the total cost of the luncheon is $8.28.

Many arithmetic logic calculators also have the
You normally sell an item for $398.99, but you capability of finding the square root of a
want to discount the item by 16%. What will be number. To do this, enter the number into the
the new selling price? display, then press the key with the radical sign
Solution (√). The calculator will show the answer in the
display. To find the square root of 84, press the
3 9 8 • 9 9 1 6 % keys in the following order:

355.15 8 4 √ 9.1651513.
The new selling price would be $335.15.
Again, the = key does not have to be pressed
Using the percent key greatly simplifies an
to obtain the result.
operation.

Sample Problem Using the Algebraic Calculator

Find the tax (5%) and tip (15%) on a $6.93 In the algebraic calculator (Fig. 3.6), two-
luncheon bill. $1.50 of the luncheon was for a number operations are performed in the same
glass of wine that is not taxable, but you want to sequence as in the arithmetic calculator--
pay the tip on the total. How much money will numbers and operations are entered as they
you have to pay? appear. Chain calculations are also entered as
they appear. However, the sequence of
operations actually taking place follows the
algebraic logic: (1) powers, (2) multiplication
and division, and (3) addition and subtraction.

3 • 12 Essential Mathematics
 Using the Calculator

location keys after the memory key. To use this

type of memory, the following keys can be used:
STO RCL SUM and PRD
If the memory has many levels (storage places),
the calculator must be told at what level to store
the information. If the levels are designated by
two-digit numbers, two digits must be entered
(01, 12, etc.). To bring back a number stored in
the memory, the RCL key and the keys for
two-digit location where the number is stored
are pressed. To add a displayed number to a
Figure 3.6
number in memory, the SUM key and the two
digit memory location keys are pressed.
For example, the problem Likewise, to multiply a displayed number by a
number in memory, the PRD key and two
2 + 4 × 32 =
digits are pressed. With single-level memory,
would be entered as follows: the same keys are used without the location
keys, or some calculators simply
2 + 4 x 3 yx 2 = have STO and RCL keys.

When the = key is pressed, the calculator Some problems require both parentheses and
memory functions to reach the correct answer.
will begin to work, but will not perform the
In this type of problem, it is especially important
operations in the order given. It will first
to clear the memory and the display before
calculate 3 to the 2nd power, producing 9; next,
starting calculations.
it will multiply the 9 by 4 to give 36; then
finally, it will add 36 to the 2 to give the answer,
38. Sample Problem
Some algebraic calculators have parenthesis
32.64 + 18 44.9 + 16.33
keys, allowing the proper grouping of × =?
5.32 81
expressions. For example, the problem:
(2 + 3) × (4 + 5) = 45 Solution
If this string were entered without parentheses in
the order shown, the calculator as would The problem below must be treated as two parts.
interpret it: The first part written for the calculator would be
2 + (3 × 4) + 5 = 19. (32.64 + 18) ÷ 5.32.
Of course, 19 would be the wrong answer. By Enter the keys in the following order after the
entering the parentheses as well as the numbers display and memory have been cleared (Fig.
and operational signs in their proper order, the 3.7):
calculator will come up with the right answer,
45.
The algebraic calculator can have a single-level
memory system or one that allows the storage of
more than one piece of information by pressing

3 • 13 Essential Mathematics
 Using the Calculator

x RCL =
Entry Display
ON/C 0 The answer is 7.1955054, or rounded off to two
places, 7.20.
( 0
When solving more complicated problems, keep
32.64 32.64
in mind that a calculator with algebraic logic
+ 32.64 performs operations in a specific order. Since
18 18 many calculators do not have parenthesis keys, it
is necessary to solve parts of an involved
) 50.64 problem in a specific order--not necessarily in
÷ 50.64 the order of appearance. The following example
problem will be solved without the use of
5.32 5.32
parentheses.
= 9.518797
STO 9.518797 Sample Problem
M
C or CE 0 30 + 12 - (4 × 2)
8+ =?
( 0 7 + (2 × 3) 2

44.9 44.9
Solution
+ 44.9
16.33 16.33 Solve the part of the problem in the denominator
) 61.23 first and store it in the memory for later use.
Multiply 2 times 3 so that the answer can be
÷ 61.23
squared. If the 2 is not multiplied by the 3 first,
81 81 the calculator will square the 3 and get a wrong
= 0.755925 answer. Once the problem in parentheses is
solved, add the 7 and store the answer, 43, in
× 0.755925 memory. To solve for the denominator, press the
RCL 9.518797 keys in this order:
= 7.1955054
2 x 3 = x2 + 7 = STO
Figure 3.7
Now solve the numerator part of the problem.
The parentheses do not pose a problem here
because the calculator automatically does
( 3 2 • 6 4 + 1 8
multiplication first. Solve the part of the
problem under the radical sign, then add the
)
÷ 5 • 3 2 = STO
answer to 30:
The answer to the first part of the problem is x
now stored in memory. Proceed with the second
1 2 4 2 = √ +
part in the same manner: 3 0 =
( 4 4 • 9 + 1 6 • 3 The answer, 32, does not need to be stored in
memory because this numerator is going to be
3 ) ÷ 8 1 = divided by the denominator, 43, which is
recalled from memory:
To multiply the two answers, press

3 • 14 Essential Mathematics
 Using the Calculator

the answer:
÷ RCL =
+ 8 = 8.744186,
Be sure the = key is pressed before the ÷
or rounded off to two places, 8.74.
key in this step. If it is not entered, the calculator
will complete the division before the addition
and give a wrong answer. Finally, add the 8 for

3 • 15 Essential Mathematics
 Using the Calculator

Unit A, B and C Quiz

The following problems can be solved by any of the calculator types discussed. Experiment with
your calculator, read your calculator instructions, and discover how its logic works. Then solve
these problems, rounding off the answers to two decimal places. After you complete this practice,
look up the suggested answers in the Answer Key.

1. 32.4 + 68.3 + 17.1 = ________________________

2. 981.503 + 576 + 834.334 - 1,000 = ________________________

3. 5,621 - 5.86 - 7.90 - 3 - 569 = ________________________

4. 53.85 × 28 + 40.75 = ________________________

5. (91 - 52) × 48 = ________________________

6. 8.9 × 0.87 × 0.065 = ________________________

7. (575 × 286) ÷ 300 = ________________________

8. 2,500 × (25 ÷ 50)2 = ________________________

9. 350 + 3,368 - 4 = ________________________

10. 46% of 3,500,152 = _________________________

11. 72 - [(530 - 468) ÷ (95 × 0.052)] = ________________________

12. A car gets 22 miles per gallon and its tank holds 14 gallons of
gasoline. How far can the car be expected to travel without a refill? ________________________

13. If 9.8 pounds of peaches cost $12.65, what was the selling price per
pound? ________________________

14. A bag of nails selling for $3.50 at regular price was advertised at 20%
off. If you bought 5 bags at the sale price and paid a 5% sales tax,
what would be the total? ________________________

3 • 16 Essential Mathematics
 Using the Calculator

15. 14.9 × (13 − 12.2) × 1,450 = ________________________

35.5 - 13.5

Self-Test: Using the Calculator

Multiply each correct answer by five to arrive at your percentage of competency.
Solve the following problems using a calculator. Show all places.

1. Find the sum of 8, 9, 7, 5, 4, 6, 2, 1, and 3 ________________________

2. How much is 30.1 plus 3.01 plus 0.301 plus 0.031? ________________________

3. Add 4.3, 6.75, 8.67, 12.0, and 0.16. ________________________

4. What is 10 minus 1.67? ________________________

5. 6 + 5 - 14 + 4.5 - 0.5 = ________________________

6. 734 - 30.6 + 90.3 - 428.1 = ________________________

7. (5,200 × 3) - 1,300 = ________________________

8. $1.00 + 36¢ - $0.21 - 15¢ + $1.00 = ________________________

9. 0.052 × 11.2 × 4,000 = ________________________

10. 2,329.6 ÷ 4,000 ÷ 0.52= ________________________

11. 13.2 + 290 ________________________

=
0.052 × 5,500

12. (12.3 – 9.5) × 3,000 × 0.052 = ________________________

13. (3,090 ÷ 1.32) - (9.5 - 9.3) + 3,000 × 0.052 = ________________________

14. 6.103 ÷ (4.38 + 3.25)2 = ________________________

3 • 17 Essential Mathematics
 Using the Calculator

15. 0.624 + 3,481 - (600 - 490) ÷ 240 = ________________________

16. 1,000 + 4.52 × (0.8 × 680) = ________________________

17. 72 + 530 − 468 - (95 × 0.052) = ________________________

18. 12.45 + 15% = ________________________

19. 6% of $1,195 = ________________________

20. 3,454 minus 33.3% = ________________________

Now look up the suggested answers in the Answer Key.

3 • 18 Essential Mathematics
 Using the Calculator

Answers Key
Items from Unit A, B, and C Quiz Self-Check Test
1. 117.8 1. 45
2. 1,391.84 2. 33,4411
3. 5,035.24 3. 31.88
4. 1,548.55 4. 8.33
5. 1,872 5. 1
6. 0.50 6. 365.6
7. 548.17 7. 14,300
8. 625 8. $2.00
9. 408 9. 2,329.6
10. 1,610,069.92 10. 1.12
11. 59.45 11. 14.213986
12. 308 mi 12. 436.8
13. $1.29 13. 2,496.7091
14. $14.70 14. 3.898885
15. 785.6363 15. 59.16567
16. 12,016
17. 74.934007
18. 14.3175
19. $71.70
20. 2,303.818

3 • 19 Essential Mathematics
Section 4

Fractions and Decimals

Table of Contents
Fractions and Decimals..............................................................................................................................4-3
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................4-3
Learning Objectives ...............................................................................................................................4-3
Unit A: Fractions........................................................................................................................................4-3
Adding Fractions ....................................................................................................................................4-3
Subtracting Fractions..............................................................................................................................4-4
Multiplying Fractions .............................................................................................................................4-5
Dividing Fractions..................................................................................................................................4-6
Adding Mixed Numbers.........................................................................................................................4-6
Subtracting Mixed Numbers ..................................................................................................................4-6
Multiplying Mixed Numbers..................................................................................................................4-7
Dividing Mixed Numbers.......................................................................................................................4-7
Converting Simple Fractions to Decimals..............................................................................................4-8
Converting Mixed Numbers to Decimals...............................................................................................4-8
Converting Decimals to Fractions..........................................................................................................4-8
Unit A Quiz ..........................................................................................................................................4-10
Unit B: Decimals......................................................................................................................................4-12
Adding Decimals..................................................................................................................................4-12
Subtracting Decimals ...........................................................................................................................4-12
Multiplying Decimals...........................................................................................................................4-13
Dividing Decimals................................................................................................................................4-14
Unit B Quiz ..........................................................................................................................................4-15
Unit C: Rounding and Significant Digits.................................................................................................4-17
Rounding ..............................................................................................................................................4-17
Significant Digits..................................................................................................................................4-17
Rounding with Significant Digits.........................................................................................................4-17
Unit C Quiz ..........................................................................................................................................4-19
Unit D: Working with Exponents ............................................................................................................4-20
Algebraic Rules for Exponents.............................................................................................................4-20
Scientific Notation................................................................................................................................4-21
Unit D Quiz ..........................................................................................................................................4-22
Unit E: Working with Roots ....................................................................................................................4-23
Roots Written as Exponents .................................................................................................................4-23
Unit E Quiz...........................................................................................................................................4-24
Self-Check Test for Section 4 ..................................................................................................................4-25
Answer Key .............................................................................................................................................4-28

4•1 Essential Math

 Fractions and Decimals

Fractions and Decimals

Introduction Learning Objectives

A mixture of fractions and decimals is still used Upon completion of this section, you will be
in today's oilfield. While most calculations are able to:
much easier when using decimals, many things
• add, subtract, multiply, and divide fractions
are still measured in fractions: halves, quarters,
eighths, sixteenths, thirty-seconds, and • add, subtract, multiply, and divide decimals
sixty-fourths. Both fractions and decimals can be
added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided. • convert decimals to fractions
However, the pocket calculator makes it easier • convert fractions to decimals
to calculate in decimals. Generally, fractions
used in the field should be converted to decimals
for use in calculations.

Unit A: Fractions
As mentioned in the introduction to this section, two numbers; the numerator is the dividend and
many things in the oilfield are still measured in the denominator is the divisor.
fractions. Working with items such as tubular Fractions can be added, subtracted, multiplied,
goods, wire rope, bolts, nuts, and chokes and divided. However, since it is normally easier
requires knowledge of how to use common to calculate decimals, you will learn how to
fractions. convert fractions to decimals in this unit.
Every fraction must have two numbers. One is In this unit, you will learn how to
usually written below the other and a short line
separates them. (Fractions can also be written • add, subtract, multiply, and divide fractions
with a slash [/] between two numbers on the • add, subtract, multiply, and divide mixed
same line.) The number above the line is called numbers
the numerator of the fraction, while the one
below the line is referred to as the denominator. • convert simple fractions to decimals
• convert mixed fractions to decimals
• convert decimals to fractions
Taking one of four
equal items means we
have 1/4 of the total Adding Fractions

The denominator of a fraction shows into how If two or more fractions have the same
many parts a thing is divided. The numerator denominator, adding them is a simple matter of
shows how many of these equals parts are being adding the numerators:
considered. A fraction indicates the division of

4•3 Essential Math

 Fractions and Decimals

1 3 1 5 (numerators) multiplying both top and bottom by the same

+ + = number that makes the denominator 16:
8 8 8 8 (denominators)
If the fractions to be added have different 3 4 12
× =
denominators, they must be reduced to a 4 4 16
common denominator, that is, they must be
changed so that they have the same 7 2 14
denominator. When both the numerator and × =
8 2 16
denominator of a fraction are multiplied or
divided by the same number, the value of the Then:
fraction is not changed.
12 14 13 39
+ + =
Sample Problem 16 16 16 16
The fraction 39/16 is called an improper fraction
Add 1/4 and 3/16.
because the numerator is larger than the
denominator. A fraction should always be
Solution reduced to a number less than one. In this case,
39/16 reduces to 2-7/16 (7/16 is a proper
Because 4 is a factor of 16, you can multiply fraction), which was found by dividing 16 into
both terms of the fraction 1/4 by 4 (4/4 = 1, and 39.
multiplying any number by one does not change
the number):
Subtracting Fractions
1 4 4
× =
4 4 16 As with addition, the first step in subtracting
fractions is to find a common denominator.
Now the two fractions can be added, since they Then, subtract one numerator from the other and
have a common denominator: write the difference over the common
denominator.
4 3 7
+ =
16 16 16
Sample Problem

Sample Problem Subtract 5/8 from 3/4.

Add 3/4 + 7/8 + 13/16. Solution

Solution The LCD is 8. So change 3/4 as follows:

3 2 6
To express these fractions with the same × =
4 2 8
denominator so that they can be added, you must
find the least common denominator (LCD). This Then,
means that you want to find the smallest number
that all of the denominators will divide evenly.
6 5 1
- =
Often, the largest denominator of the fractions 8 8 8
will also be the LCD.
In this case, 16 is the LCD. Sample Problem
Now change each of the first two fractions so
that they have 16 as a denominator by Find the difference between 15/16 and 19/64 .

4•4 Essential Math

 Fractions and Decimals

Solution Cancellation is the method of shortening the

multiplication of fractions by striking out
The LCD is 64. So change 15/16 as follows: identical factors in the numerator and denomi-
nator. Cancellation will save time when finding
15 4 60 the solution to this problem.
× =
16 4 64
Sample Problem
Then,
60 19 41 Multiply 5/12, 3/15, and 3/8. Reduce the answer
- = to its lowest terms.
64 64 64

Solution
Multiplying Fractions
5 3 3
× ×
When one fraction is multiplied by another, the 12 15 8
numerators are multiplied together to get a new 5 is contained in the numerator 5 one time, and
numerator and the denominators are multiplied in the denominator 15 three times.
together for a new denominator.
The new fraction obtained should be reduced to
its lowest terms; in other words, it should be 1
divided by numbers that will be contained in 5 3 3
× ×
both numerator and denominator until they are 12 15 8
as small as it is possible to reduce them. 3
For example, in the fraction 15/25, divide both
3 is contained in the numerator 3 one time and in
terms by 5 and the fraction becomes 3/5. There
the denominator 12 four times. 3 will be
is no number except 1 that will evenly go into
contained in the 3 in the numerator in the 3 in
both 3 and 5, so reducing 15/25 to its lowest
the denominator.
terms means reducing it to 3/5.
1 1 1
Sample Problem 5 3 3
× ×
12 15 8
Multiply 3/4 by 2/7. Reduce the answer to its 4 3
lowest terms. 1

Solution This leaves three ones to multiply together for a

new numerator, and 4, 1, and 8 to multiply
together for a new denominator.
3 2 6
× = 5 3 3 1 1 1 1
4 7 28 × × = × × =
12 15 8 4 1 8 32
The answer, 6/28, is not reduced to its lowest
terms as yet. The number 2 can be used to divide Notice that the result, 1/32, is already reduced to
both the numerator and denominator: its lowest terms.
6 ÷2= 3
Sample Problem
28 ÷ 2 = 14

There is no number except 1 that will evenly go Multiply 16, 3/4, 7/16, and 4/42.
into both 3 and 14, so this fraction has been
reduced to its lowest terms.

4•5 Essential Math

 Fractions and Decimals

Solution 15 3/8

16 3 7 4 1 1 1 1 1
× × × = × × × = Subtracting Mixed Numbers
1 4 16 42 1 1 1 2 2
As in the case of adding mixed numbers, first
Dividing Fractions change the fractions so that they have the same
denominator. Then subtract the numerators.
Dividing 12 by 3 is the same as multiplying 12
by 1/3. When division is indicated, Sample Problem
interchanging the numerator and denominator of
the divisor and multiplying can carry out the Subtract 3-5/8 from 12-3/4.
process; that is, the divisor is inverted and used
as a multiplier. Solution

Sample Problem 12
3
= 12
6
4 8
Divide 3/16 by 9/64.
12 6/8
Solution
- 3 5/8

3 9 3 64 4 1 9 1/8
÷ = × = = 1
16 64 16 9 3 3 In subtracting one mixed number from another,
the fractions and the whole numbers should be
considered together. This is because the fraction
Adding Mixed Numbers in the subtrahend may be larger than the fraction
of the minuend, in which case it will be
A mixed number is a number composed of a necessary to convert one unit in the whole
whole number and a fraction. For example, 18- number of the minuend into a fraction.
1/4 is a mixed number. This type of number is
read as if the word "and" were between the Sample Problem
whole number and the fraction (e.g., eighteen
and one-fourth). Subtract 7-5/16 from 18-1/8.

Sample Problem Solution

Find the sum of 3-1/4 and 12-1/8. Find the lowest common denominator of the
fractions:
Solution
LCD = 16
Change the fractions so they will have a 1 2
18 = 18
common denominator: 8 16
1 2
3 =3
4 8 18 2/16
- 7 5/16
3 2/8
+ 12 1/8

4•6 Essential Math

 Fractions and Decimals

It is obvious that 5/16 cannot be taken from Solution

2/16, so it will be necessary to convert one unit
(16/16) of the whole number 18 into a fraction 2 50
16 =
and add it to the fraction, 2/16. 3 3
2 18
18 = 17
16 16 50 3 150 1
× = = 12
Now the two numbers can be subtracted: 3 4 12 2

17 18/16
- 7 5/16 Sample Problem
10 13/16
Multiply 18 by 6-1/3.

Multiplying Mixed Numbers

Solution
The simplest way to multiply mixed numbers is
to reduce the mixed numbers to improper
1 19
fractions (not reduced to their lowest terms) and Method 1: 6 =
then multiply. To reduce a mixed number to an 3 3
improper fraction, multiply the whole number by 19
the denominator of the fraction and add the 18 × = 114
3
product to the numerator. This sum is then
written over the denominator for the improper
fraction. Method 2: 18 × 6 = 108
1
Sample Problem 18 × = 6
3

Multiply 18-1/4 by 6-1/8. 108 + 6 = 114

Solution Dividing Mixed Numbers

1 73
18 = Division of mixed numbers is performed in the
4 4 same manner as with simple fractions. However,
reduce mixed numbers to improper fractions
first.
1 49
6 =
8 8
Sample Problem
73 49 3577 25
× = = 111 Divide 203-7/16 by 24-1/8.
4 8 32 32

Solution
Sample Problem
7 3255
203 =
Multiply 16-2/3 by 3/4. 16 16

4•7 Essential Math

 Fractions and Decimals

1 193
24 =
8 8 Sample Problem

Convert 2-3/8 to a decimal.

3255 193 3255 8 3255 167
÷ = × = =8
16 8 16 193 386 386
Solution

Converting Simple Fractions to Convert the fractional part to a decimal:

Decimals
.375
8. 3.000
Fractions can easily be converted to decimals (a
number written with a decimal point "."). This 24
can be done by dividing the top number 60
(numerator) by the bottom number 56
(denominator). Remember, if you are converting 40
a proper fraction, the conversion to a decimal 40
will always be less than one.
0

Sample Problem
Then add the whole number:
Convert 3/4 to a decimal.
2 + 0.375 = 2.375

Solution
Converting Decimals to
3
=4 3 Fractions
4
We will discuss two methods of converting
Since there are no decimal points written in decimals to fractions.
fractions, the decimal point in the division above
automatically goes to the right of all figures. As The first method simply converts the decimal to
many zeros as necessary can be placed to the a fraction by first writing the decimal as a
right of the decimal point of the dividend in fraction (e.g., 0.625 = 625/1000) and then
order to carry the answer out as many decimal reducing the fraction. That is, divide the top and
places as needed. bottom of the fraction by the same number until
no number will divide into both. (Remember, as
long as both are divided by the same number,
the value of the fraction does not change.

Therefore, 3/4 converted to a decimal is 0.75. Sample Problem

Convert 0.625 to a fraction and reduce the

Converting Mixed Numbers to fraction as much as possible.
Decimals
Solution
To convert a mixed number to a decimal, first
work with the fractional part and convert the 625
fraction. Once converted, add the whole number. .625 =
1000

4•8 Essential Math

 Fractions and Decimals

0.625 is 62.5% of one. When you want to

625 ÷ 5 125 convert a decimal to a fraction with a specific
= denominator, simply multiply the decimal by the
1000 ÷ 5 200
desired denominator to yield the numerator of
the fraction.
125 ÷ 5 25
=
200 ÷ 5 40
Sample Problem
25 ÷ 5 5
= Approximate 0.94 inches to the nearest 16th.
40 ÷ 5 8

Solution
Because there is no number that will divide into
both 5 and 8 evenly, this is as far as this fraction
can be reduced. 0.94 in. × 16 = 15.04 in.

The second method approximates a decimal

with the nearest fraction. If a desired choke Since fractions do not contain decimals in either
diameter is calculated in decimals, it is better to the numerator or denominator, drop the .04. The
convert it to the nearest sixty-fourth of an inch symbol ≈ means approximately equal to.
since oilfield chokes are available in sixty-fourth Therefore:
inch increments. Keep in mind that a decimal is
a fraction with a denominator of 10, 100, 1000,
0.94 in. ≈ 15/16 in.
etc. Therefore, a decimal actually represents the
percentage of a whole number. For example,

4•9 Essential Math

 Fractions and Decimals

Unit A Quiz

Find the solutions to the problems to check your progress in Unit A.

1. Add 1/2, 26/32, 18/32, 1/16, 5/32, 3/64, and 1/4.

2. Subtract 9/64 from 26/32.

3. Multiply 3/4 by 8/9 and reduce the answer to its lowest terms.

4. Divide 6-3/64 by 1/16.

5. Add 8-1/8, 3-1/2, and 12-1/2.

6. Subtract 3-1/4 from 6-3/4.

7. Multiply 2-7/8 by 3-1/2.

4 • 10 Essential Math
 Fractions and Decimals

8. Divide 6-3/4 by 3-3/8.

9. Convert 7/16 to a decimal.

10. Convert 2-7/8 to a decimal.

Now, look up the suggested answers in the Answer Key.

4 • 11 Essential Math
 Fractions and Decimals

Unit B: Decimals
A decimal is a fraction whose bottom number
(denominator) is ten, one hundred, one thousand,
or some other power of ten. The top number of Adding Decimals
this fraction (numerator) is the number to the
right of the decimal point written without the The key to adding decimals is to arrange them in
decimal point. As you move right from the a vertical column with the decimals points in a
decimal point, each place value is divided by 10: straight line. Zeros may be added to the right of
the decimal to make the entire columns even, if
you so desire. Add the numbers just as you
123.456 would whole numbers, carrying across the
decimal point just like it was not present. The
decimal point in the answer should be located
directly under the decimals in the problem.

Sample Problem

Add 6.35, 7.68, 9.625 and 6.8.

One figure to the right of the decimal point
indicates the number of tenths being discussed. Solution
For example, let's take the number 0.3. This
decimal equals 3/10. The denominator (10) Arrange the decimals in a vertical column,
indicates that the item is divided up into ten keeping the decimal points in a straight line:
equal parts and the numerator (3) represents 6.35
three of those ten parts. Two figures to the right 7.68
of the decimal point represent hundredths; three 9.625
figures to the right indicate thousandths, etc. + 6.8 .
Thousandths is generally the smallest increment
used in oilfield applications. If you so choose add zeros to even up the
columns and carry out the addition:
If there is a whole number to the left of the
6.350
decimal point, it is then called a mixed decimal.
7.680
A number such as 9.37 means that there are nine 9.625
whole items and 37/100 of another item. This + 6.800
number may be read as "nine and thirty-seven 30.455
hundredths," or "nine point three seven."
In this unit, you will learn how to
Subtracting Decimals
• add decimals
• subtract decimals Subtracting decimals is done in much the same
way as adding them. Keep the decimals in a
• multiply decimals straight line and subtract just like they were
• divide decimals. whole numbers. Borrow across the decimal point
just like it was not there. Locate the decimal
point in the answer directly under the points in
the problem.

4 • 12 Essential Math
 Fractions and Decimals

Sample Problem
Multiplying Decimals
Subtract 6.784 from 7.63.
Decimals are multiplied like whole numbers.
Solution Once the answer is obtained, the decimal point is
located by adding the number of figures to the
7.630 right of the decimal point of both numbers being
- 6.784 multiplied together.
0.846
Sample Problem

Multiply 3.767 by 2.54.

Solution

Multiply just like the decimals are whole

numbers:
3.767
× 2.54
15068
18835
7534 .
956818
To determine where the decimal point should be
located in the answer, add the number of figures
to the right of the decimal point in both
numbers. In 3.767, there are 3 figures to the
right of the decimal point, and in 2.54 there are
two, and 3 + 2 = 5, so locate the decimal point 5
figures to the right of the decimal point.
9.56818

4 • 13 Essential Math
 Fractions and Decimals

Sample Problem
Dividing Decimals
Divide 8.1675 by 3.267
Division involving decimals is like division of
whole numbers with one exception - the decimal Solution
point must be accurately located. Move the
decimal point of the number to be divided 3.267 8.1675
(divisor) all the way to the right, making it a
whole number. Next, move the decimal point of
the number to be divided into (dividend) the
same number of figures to the right. The decimal 2.5
in the quotient is then located directly above the 3267 8167.5
corrected decimal point of the dividend. If 6534
necessary, add zeros to the right of the 1633 5
dividend's decimal point before locating the 1633 5
decimal in the quotient. 0

4 • 14 Essential Math
 Fractions and Decimals

Unit B Quiz

Find the solutions to the problems below to check your progress in Unit B.

1. What is 9.2 + 7.6 + 9.87 + 6.275?

2. Convert 11/16 to a decimal.

3. Convert 2-7/8 to a decimal.

4. Write the decimal 0.375 as a fraction then reduce to its lowest terms.

5. Approximate 0.126 to the nearest 16th of an inch.

6. Find the total of 0.904, 1.354, and 0.008.

7. Subtract 0.093 from 6.272.

4 • 15 Essential Math
 Fractions and Decimals

8. Subtract 3.5 from 4.25.

9. What is 42.1 × 673.845?

10. Multiply 2.75 by 3.26.

11. Divide 9.625 by .625.

12. Divide 80.2 by 9.673 (round off answer to three decimals).

Now, look up the answers in the Answer Key.

4 • 16 Essential Math
 Fractions and Decimals

Unit C: Rounding and Significant Digits

1000 has one significant digit because we are
Rounding uncertain about the accuracy of the number.
However, the number 1000.0 has five significant
digits; the digit ".0" tells us something
To round a number, first find the rounding digit, interesting about the presumed accuracy of the
or the digit occupying the place value you're measurement being made. It says the
rounding to. Then look at the digit to the right of measurement is accurate to the tenths place, but
the rounding digit. If it is less than 5, then leave that there happen to be zero tenths. 1000 is
the rounding digit unchanged. If it is more than accurate to the thousands place while 1000.0 is
five, add one to the rounding digit. If it is five, accurate to the tenths place. 1006 has four
the rule is to always round up (add one to the significant digits; the digit 6 defines the
rounding digit). If you're dealing with a decimal accuracy of the number and makes the zeros in
number, drop all of the digits following the between significant.
rounding digit. If you're dealing with a whole
number, all the digits to the right of the rounding 0.00035 has two significant digits (only the 3
digit become zero. and 5 tell us something; the other zeroes are
placeholders). 0.000350 has three significant
Rounding Examples digits (that last zero tells us that the
measurement was made accurate to that last
Round 742,364 if the rounding digit is the digit, which just happened to be zero). 0.00035
number 6. Answer: 742,360 is accurate to the hundred-thousandths place
while 0.000350 is accurate to the millionths
Round 742,366 if the rounding digit is the place.
number 6. Answer: 742,370
The basic rules for counting significant digits
Round 742,365 if the rounding digit is the are:
number 6. Answer: 742,370
1. All non-zero digits are significant
Round 0.07284 if the rounding digit is the
number 2. Answer: 0.073 2. All zeros between significant digits
are significant

Significant Digits 3. All zeros that lie to the right of the

decimal point and the last non-zero
Many times the amount of rounding is not digit from the right are significant.
specified, but is left up to the “appropriate
number of significant digits.” The significant
digits making up a number include the leftmost Rounding with Significant Digits
non-zero digit to the rightmost digit. They can
be thought of as the “important” digits. How do you round answers to the “appropriate”
number of significant digits? Suppose you
For example:
measure a block with a tape measure. You
3.14159 has six significant digits because all the determine the length is 5 ¾ inches, the width is 4
digits say something about the accuracy of the ¼ inches, and the thickness is 1 ¾ inches, or as
number. 3.14159 is accurate to the hundred- best as you can tell from your tape measure. To
thousandths place. find the volume, you would convert the fractions
into decimals and multiply the three dimensions

4 • 17 Essential Math
 Fractions and Decimals

together to get 42.765625 cubic inches. Now is 13.214 + 234.6 + 7.0350 + 6.38
your measurement really that accurate? No, your
Looking at the numbers, I see that the second
measurement was only accurate to three
number, 234.6, is only accurate to the tenths
significant digits (5.75, 1.25, or 1.75). Therefore,
place, so the answer will have to be rounded to
you can only claim three significant digits in
the tenths place:
your answer. The “appropriate” number of
significant digits is three making the answer 13.214 + 234.6 + 7.0350 + 6.38 = 261.2290
42.8 cubic inches. Rounding to the tenths place, I get:
When you add or subtract numbers round the 13.214 + 234.6 + 7.0350 + 6.38 = 261.2
answer to the same decimal place as the least-
accurate number. When you multiply or divide Simplify, and round to the appropriate number
numbers together, round the answer to the same of significant digits:
number of significant digits as the least-accurate 16.235 × 0.217 × 5
number.
First, I would note that 5 has only one
Final answers should be rounded off based on significant digit, so I will have to round my final
the number with the fewest significant digits. answer to one significant digit. The product is:
The final answer cannot be more accurate
(contain more significant digits) then the least 16.235 × 0.217 × 5 = 17.614975
accurate number in the data (number with the ...but since I can only claim one accurate
fewest significant digits). significant digit, I will need to round 17.614975
to 20, which is accurate to one significant digit.
Rounding with Significant Digits
16.235 × 0.217 × 5 = 20
Examples
Find the product of 0.00435 and 4.6 to the
Round 742,396 to four, three, and two appropriate number of digits.
significant digits: First I will multiply:
742,400 (four significant digits) 0.00435 × 4.6 = 0.02001
742,000 (three significant digits) Looking at the original numbers, 4.6 has only
740,000 (two significant digits) two significant digits, so I will have to round
0.02001 to two significant digits. In other words,
Round 0.07284 to three significant digits: I would report the answer as being 0.020.
0.0728 (three significant digits) 0.00435 × 4.6 = 0.020
Round 231.45 to four significant digits: Don't try to say that the answer should be 0.02,
231.5 (four significant digits) because this is only one significant digit (the
"2"). The trailing zero indicates that "this is
Round to the appropriate number of significant accurate to the thousandths place", and is
digits: therefore a necessary part of the answer.

4 • 18 Essential Math
 Fractions and Decimals

Unit C Quiz

Find the solutions to the problems below to check your progress in Unit C.

1. Round 10,143 to the hundredths place.

2. Round 201,837 to the thousandths place.

3. Round 0.05195 to the thousandths place.

4. Round 0.1199041 to the tenths place.

5. 0.05195 has how many significant digits?

6. 5,195 has how many significant digits?

7. 4,000 has how many significant digits?

8. Round 10,143 to four significant digits.

9. Round 0.05195 to three significant digits.

10. Round 231.5 to three significant digits.

Now, look up the answers in the Answer Key.

4 • 19 Essential Math
 Fractions and Decimals

Unit D: Working with Exponents

Exponents are a shorthand way of showing how
many times a number, called the base, are Product Rule
multiplied times itself. The base can be any type
of number--a whole number, a decimal number, The "product rule" says that, when multiplying
or a fraction can all have an exponent. two powers that have the same base, you can
add the exponents.
A number with an exponent is said to be "raised
to the power" of that exponent. Any number y m × y n = y m+n
raised to the power of zero (except 0) is equal to
1. Any number raised to the power of 1 is equal 4 2 × 4 3 = 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 = 4 2+3 = 4 5
to itself. If two numbers with exponents have the
same base, you can multiply them by adding the Power Rule
exponents.
When we deal with real numbers we will usually The "power rule" says that to raise a power to a
simply the expression since “27” is easier to deal power, just multiply the exponents.
with than “33.” However, when dealing with
variables, we need the exponent since “x6” is (y ) = y
m n mn

much easier than “xxxxxx.”

(5 ) = 5
2 3 2×3
= 56

Algebraic Rules for Exponents Quotient Rule

Exponents are used in many mathematical The quotient rule says that we can divide two
problems, so it's important to understand the powers with the same base by subtracting the
rules for working with exponents. exponents as long as the base is not zero.
y m ÷ y n = y m−n if y ≠ 0
Rules of 1
4/ × 4/ × 4 × 4 × 4
45 ÷ 4 2 =
There are two "rules of 1." 4/ × 4/
5− 2
4 ÷ 4 = 4 = 43
5 2
First, any number raised to the power of "one"
equals itself. This makes sense, because the
power shows how many times the base is Zero Rule
multiplied by itself. If it's only multiplied one
time, then it must equal itself. The zero rule says that any nonzero number
raised to the power of zero equals 1.
Secondly, one raised to any power is one. This,
too, makes sense because one times one is y 0 = 1 if y ≠ 0
always one regardless of the number of times
you multiply it.
Negative Exponents
y1 = y
31 = 3 The negative exponents rule says that any
nonzero number raised to a negative power
1m = 1 equals its reciprocal raised to the opposite
14 = 1 × 1 × 1 × 1 = 1 positive power.

4 • 20 Essential Math
 Fractions and Decimals

1 anbn = (ab)n
y −m =
ym an/bn = (a/b)n
1 1 (an)m = anm
4 −2 = 2 =
4 16
anam = a(n+m)

Common Mistakes with Exponents an/am = a(n-m)

a-n = 1/an
Do not multiply the base and the exponent.
Example: 26 is not equal to 12, it's 64!
Scientific Notation
The multiplication rule only applies to
expressions with the same base. Example: Four
squared times two cubed is not the same as 8 Exponents help us deal with very large or small
raised to the power two plus three. numbers in a simpler fashion. The format for
writing a number in scientific notation, or E
y m × z n ≠ yz m+ n notation on a calculator (“E” stands for
exponent) is fairly simple. For example, to write
4 2 × 23 ≠ 83+ 2
127,680,000 in scientific notation, move the
(4 × 4) × (2 × 2 × 2) ≠ 85 decimal point to the left until the number is a
128 ≠ 32,768 number between 1 and 10. Then multiply it by
10 raised to the power of the number of places
The multiplication rule applies just to the you had to move the decimal point. By moving
product, not to the sum of two numbers. the decimal point 8 places to the left, we get
1.27 x 108. This is the same as saying 1.27 e8;
y m + y n ≠ y m+ n
the e means “10 raised to the following power.”
2 2 + 2 3 ≠ 2 3+ 2
The exponent on the number 10 is the number of
(2 × 2) + (2 × 2 × 2) ≠ 2 5 spaces you moved the decimal; the sign on the
12 ≠ 32 power is the direction you moved the decimal. If
you have a number smaller than one then the
decimal is moved from the left to the right and
Rules for Exponents Summary the power is negative; if it's larger than 1, then
the decimal is moved from the right to the left
a1 = a and the exponent is positive.
a0 = 1 (except when a = 0).

4 • 21 Essential Math
 Fractions and Decimals

Unit D Quiz

Find the solutions to the problems below to check your progress in Unit D.

1. Give the quantity of 23.

2. Give the quantity of 32 x 33.

3. Give the quantity of z4 x z2.

4. Give the quantity of (32)3.

5. Give the quantity of (z4)2.

6. Give the quantity of 32 ÷ 33

7. Give the quantity of z4 ÷ z2

8. Give the quantity of 20.

9. Give the quantity of 2-3.

10. Write 7,157,010,373 in scientific notation.

Now, look up the answers in the Answer Key.

4 • 22 Essential Math
 Fractions and Decimals

Unit E: Working with Roots

Many mathematical operations have an inverse, means "y squared"; if you have just plain old
or opposite, operation. Subtracting is the inverse "y", you know that the exponent is "1".
of addition. Division is the inverse of Whenever there is no exponent, the exponent is
multiplication. Roots are the inverse of understood to be "1". To indicate other roots,
exponents. For instance, the square of a number you insert a number, called the "index", inside
is that number times itself: 22 = 2 x 2 = 4. The the "hook" on the front of the radical symbol.
square root of 4 is 2. For instance:
a square (second) root is written as
The symbol for square-rooting is , the
"radical" symbol. It is used like this: a cube (third) root is written as

a fourth root is written as

Squaring any whole number will result in a a fifth root is written as: ...and so on.
whole number. However, taking the square root Note: When writing a square root, you can put a
of a whole number will not necessarily result in
"2" in, but this would be considered non-
a whole number. Think about 3 . There is no standard notation.
nice neat number that squares to 3. The square
root of 3 is: 3 ≈ 1.732050808 , which would
then be rounded to the appropriate number of Roots Written as Exponents
decimal places.
Roots can, and often are, expressed as
Since any number can be used as an exponent
exponents. The exponent of a root is the
non-square-root radicals need a number to
reciprocal of the index. For instance the square
indicate which root is meant. By default, and
root of 4 is equal to 4 raised to the one-half.
simple radical symbol, " ", is assumed to
mean "the square root". This is similar to
exponents: if you have "y2", you know this

4 • 23 Essential Math
 Fractions and Decimals

Unit E Quiz

Find the solutions to the problems below to check your progress in Unit E.

21. Give the quantity of 9.

21. Give the quantity of 3

27 .

21. Give the quantity of 1001/2.

21. Give the quantity of 100-1/2.

21. Give the quantity of 641/3.

21. Give the quantity of 64-1/3

21. Give the quantity of 81 + 3 216 +491/2+49-1/2+1251/3+125-1/3

Now, look up the answers in the Answer Key.

4 • 24 Essential Math
 Fractions and Decimals

Self-Check Test for Section 4

Answer the following questions. Show all calculations.
1. What is 9.1 + 6.235 + 8.72 + 6.3?

2. What is 2.44 + 21 + 7.3 + 42.93?

3. What is 9.678 - 6.3?

4. What is 2.875 - 2.441?

5. What is 9.600 × 3.214?

6. What is 4.728 × 9.214?

7. Divide 6.35 by 0.5.

4 • 25 Essential Math
 Fractions and Decimals

8. What is 1.26 ÷ 1.2?

9. Convert 3/8 to a decimal.

10. Convert 13/64 to a decimal.

11. Convert 9-5/8 to a decimal.

12. Convert 1-11/16.

13. Convert 0.382 to a fraction and reduce the fraction as much as possible.

14. Convert 0.1875 to a fraction and reduce the fraction as much as possible.

4 • 26 Essential Math
 Fractions and Decimals

15. Approximate 0.88 to the nearest 8th inch.

16. Approximate 0.98 to the nearest 64th inch.

17. Multiply 1/4 by 5/13. Reduce the answer to its lowest terms.

18. Divide 1/6 by 3/4 and reduce the answer to its lowest terms.

19 Subtract 5/8 from 15/16.

20 Add 9/16, 1/4 and 1/3.

21 What is 10,143 + 0.05195 + 231.5 rounded to the least significant digit?

22 What is (43 x 44)/92 rounded to the least significant digit?

23 What is (
3
)
27 + 9 / 3 64 rounded to the least significant digit?

Now, look up the answers in the Answer Key.

4 • 27 Essential Math
 Fractions and Decimals

Answer Key
Refer to Items from Unit A Quiz
1. LCD = 64

1 32
=
2 64

26 52
=
32 64

18 36
=
32 64

1 4
=
16 64

5 10
=
32 64

3 3
=
64 64

1 16
=
4 64

32 52 36 4 10 3 16 153
+ + + + + + =
64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64

2
64 153 = 2 − 25 / 64
129
25

26 52
2. =
32 64 (LCD)

52 9 43
− =
64 64 64
3 8 24 2
3. × = =
4 9 36 3
4. 387 1
÷ =
387 16 387
× = = 96 − 3 / 4
64 16 4 64 1 4

4 • 28 Essential Math
 Fractions and Decimals

1
8
8
4
3
8
5.
4
12
8
9
23 = 24 − 1 / 8
8
3
6
4
1
6. 3
4
2
3 = 3 −1 / 2
4
7 23
7. 2 =
8 8

1 7
3 =
2 2

10
23 7 161
× = = 16 161 = 10 − 1 / 16
8 2 16
160
1
1 2
27 27 27 8
8. ÷ = × = 2
4 8 4 27
1 1

.4375
9. 16 7.0000
64
60
48
120
112
80
80
0

4 • 29 Essential Math
 Fractions and Decimals

.875
10. 8 7.000
64
60
56
40
40
0

2 + .875 = 2.875

Refer to Items from Unit B Quiz

1. 9.200
7.600
9.870
+ 6.275
32.945

2. 0.6875
16 11.0000
9 6
1 40
1 28
120
112
80
80
0

3. 0.875
2.875
8 7.000
6 4
60
56
40
40
0

4. 375 75 15 3
= = =
1000 200 40 8

5. 0.126 × 16 = 2.016
0.126 in. ≈ 2/16 in.

4 • 30 Essential Math
 Fractions and Decimals

6. 0.904
1.354
+ 0.008
2.266

7. 6.272
-0.093
6.179

8. 4.25
-3.50
0.75

9. 673.845
× 42.1
673845
1347690
2695380
283688745
28368.8745

10. 2.75
×3.26
1650
550
825 .
89650
8.9650

11. 15.4
.625 ^ 9.625 ^ 0
6 25
3375
3125
250 0
250 0

12. 8.291
9673 80200.000
77384
2816 0
-1934 6
881 40
-870 57
10 830
-9 673
1 157

4 • 31 Essential Math
 Fractions and Decimals

Refer to Items from Unit C Quiz

1. 10,100
2. 202,000
3. 0.052
4. 0.1
5. Four
6. Four
7. One
8. 10,140
9. 0.0520
10. 232

Refer to Items from Unit D Quiz

1. 2 x 2 x 2 = 8
2. 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3 = 243
or
32+3 = 35 = 243
or
9 x 27 = 243
3. z4+2 = z6
4. (9)3 = 729
or
36 = 729
5. z4x2 = z8
6. 9 ÷27 = 0.33
or
32-3 = 3-1 = 1/3 = 0.33
7. z4-2 = z2
8. 1
9. 1/23 = 1/8 = 0.125h
10. 7.16 x 109

Refer to Items from Unit E Quiz

1. 3
2. 3
3. 10
4. 1/1001/2 = 1/10 = 0.1
5. 4
6. 1/641/3 = ¼ = 0.25
7. 9 + 6 + 7 + 1/7 + 5 + 1/5 = 9 + 6 + 7 + 0.1429 + 5 + 0.2 = 27.3

4 • 32 Essential Math
 Fractions and Decimals

Self-Check Test Answers

1. 30.355
2. 73.67
3. 3.378
4. 0.434
5. 30.854400
6. 43.563792
7. 12.7
8. 1.05
9. .375
10. .203125
11. 9.625
12. 1.6875
13. 191/500
14. 3/16
15. 0.88 ≈ 7/8
16. 0.98 ≈ 63/64
17. 5/52
18. 2/9
19. 5/16
20. 1-7/48
21. 10,370
22. 43+4/92 = 47/92 = 200
23. (3 + 3)/4 = 6/4 = 2

4 • 33 Essential Math
Section 5

Percentages, Ratios, and

Proportions

Table of Contents
Percentages, Ratios, Proportions................................................................................................................5-3
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................5-3
Learning Objectives ...............................................................................................................................5-3
Unit A: Percentages ..................................................................................................................................5-3
Converting Percent and Decimals ..........................................................................................................5-3
Finding Percentages ...............................................................................................................................5-3
Applying Base, Percent and Percentage.................................................................................................5-4
Unit A QUIZ ..........................................................................................................................................5-6
Unit B: Ratios ...........................................................................................................................................5-7
Calculating Ratios ..................................................................................................................................5-7
Unit B Quiz ............................................................................................................................................5-8
Unit C: Proportions ...................................................................................................................................5-9
Calculating Proportions..........................................................................................................................5-9
Unit C Quiz ..........................................................................................................................................5-11
Self-Check Test for Section 5 ..................................................................................................................5-12
Answer Keys............................................................................................................................................5-14

5•1 Essential Math

 Percentages, Ratios, and Proportions

Percentages, Ratios, Proportions

Introduction Learning Objectives

Percentages, ratios and proportions are used When you complete this section, you should be
daily in the oil industry. The amounts of material familiar with:
used in a cement blend or additives used in a
• the use of percentages in calculating the
stimulation job are often expressed as a
volume of additives
percentage, ratio, or proportion.
Percent is the business name for hundredths. • ratio and proportion calculations as applied
Ratio indicates a relationship while proportion is to using additives
an expression of equality between two ratios.

Unit A: Percentages
Percent is the business name for hundredths. 100
is a very easy number to work with - it is simple Solution
to multiply or divide by 100. Percent means per
hundred and the symbol is %. Percentage is the Shift the decimal point two places to the left and
product of the percent (or rate) and the base (the drop the percent symbol:
number you want to find a percent of).
75% 0.75
In this unit, you will learn how to:
• convert from percent to decimals and vice Sample Problem
versa
Convert 0.12 to a percent.
• find a percentage given to a base number
and a percent
Solution
• apply the relationships between base,
percent and percentage to your work Move the decimal point two places to the right
and add the % symbol:
Converting Percent and
Decimals 0.12 12%

To change a percentage to hundredths, shift the Finding Percentages

decimal point two places to the left and drop the
percent symbol.
To find the percentage of a number, change the
percent to a decimal, then multiply by the
Sample Problem number.

Convert 75% to a decimal.

5•3 Essential Math

 Percentages, Ratios, and Proportions

Sample Problem • percent when base and percentage are

known
Find 14% of 430. • base when percent and percentage are
known
Solution
The following are sample problems that reflect
the above situations. In each of the solutions,
Convert percent to decimal: 14% = 0.14 you will use the equation presented previously:
Then multiply: 0.14 × 430 = 60.2 Base × Percent (expressed as a decimal) =
Percentage (expressed as a decimal)
Sample Problem
Sample Problem
Find 4-1/2% of 85.
Find the percentage if the base and percent are
Solution known:
A total mixture of 1000 gallons contains 10%
4-1/2% = 4.5% = 0.045 MUSOL by volume. What is the percentage of
0.045 × 85 = 3.825 MUSOL by volume?

Solution
Applying Base, Percent and
Percentage Base is 1000 gallons
Percent is 10%
The three numbers involved in every percent 10% = 0.10 percent
problem you will work on are: 1000 gallons base × 0.10 = 100 gallons
• percent MUSOL
• base In this problem, the percentage is 100 gallons.
• percentage
Sample Problem
Numbers representing percent are easy to pick
out since either using the word “percent” or the Find the percent if the base and percentage are
symbol “%” always states it. Percent is also known:
called the "rate."
A total mixture of 1000 gallons contains 30
Base is the number to which the percent or rate gallons of Morflo II. What is the percent of
is applied. When you multiply a number by a Morflo II?
percent, that number is the base.
Percentage is the product of the percent and the Solution
base. Relationships among base, percent and
percentage can be written as: Base is 1000 gallons
Percentage is 30 gallons
Base × Percent (expressed as a decimal) =
Percentage (expressed as a decimal) 30 gallons ÷ 1000 gallons = 0.03 = 3%
Morflo II
The three basic types of problems involving
percent that you will encounter are:
• percentage when base and percent are
known

5•4 Essential Math

 Percentages, Ratios, and Proportions

Sample Problem Percentage is 600 barrels

Percent is 55%
Find the base when the percentage and percent 55% = 0.55
known: Total fluid production =
An oil well produces 45% water with a monthly
percentage 600 bbl
allowable oil production of 600 barrels. Water = = 1090.90 bbl
percent 0.55
comprises 45% and oil 55% of the total fluid.
What is the total fluid production required to
produce this volume of oil?

5•5 Essential Math

 Percentages, Ratios, and Proportions

Unit A QUIZ

Find the answers to the following problems to check your progress in Unit A.

1. 43.75 is 5% of what number?

2. What percent of $500 is $125?

3. If a person earns $2700 and saves 12-1/2%, what amount does that person save?

Now check your answers in the Answer Key.

5•6 Essential Math

 Percentages, Ratios, and Proportions

Unit B: Ratios
The term ratio means relationship. When two
quantities are compared by dividing one quantity Solution
by the other, it is not always necessary to do the
indicated division. This indicated division of one First, express both of these distances in the same
quantity by another is called a ratio. Remember units:
that two, and only two, numbers are compared
36 inches = 3 feet
by the use of a ratio.
or
The symbol for a ratio is ":" (a colon) which is
read as "to." Another way to express a ratio is in 2 feet = 24 inches
the form of a fraction. Then ratios can be established:
In this unit, we will discuss how to determine 36 inches: 24 inches
ratios.
or
3 feet: 2 feet
Calculating Ratios
Sample Problem
The two numbers or quantities being compared
in a ratio must be of a similar nature. Thus, if
one quantity is a volume, the other quantity must What is the ratio of 10 lb to 100 lb?
also be a volume; if one is a weight, the other
must be a weight. In addition, the units involved Solution
in the compared quantities must be the same. For
instance, you cannot find the ratio of a certain Applying the definition for ratio, divide 10 by
number of ounces to a certain number of pounds. 100.
You'd first need to convert the amount of pounds
to ounces before determining the ratio. 10 1
or or 0.1
100 10
Sample Problem The ratio, reduced to its lowest terms, is 1:10 or
1/10.
What is the ratio of 36 inches to 2 feet?

5•7 Essential Math

 Percentages, Ratios, and Proportions

Unit B Quiz

Write each of the following ratios first with a colon, and then in the form of a fraction.
1. 6 ft to 3 ft

2. $9 to $5

3. 20 min. to 50 min.

Now look up the answers in the Answer Key.

5•8 Essential Math

 Percentages, Ratios, and Proportions

Unit C: Proportions
A proportion is an expression of equality
between two ratios. When you know that two Sample Problem
ratios are equal, you can write an equation by
putting an equality sign between the two ratios. Find the value of x in the equation 2:3 = 8:x
As an example, the ratio 7:21 is equivalent to
28:84. This is because each has the same value Solution
when reduced, 1:3.
You can write proportions with colons or as To find the missing term, which will be
fractions. To continue the above example, you symbolized by x, find the product of the means
could write the proportion in either of these two (second and third terms), then divide by the first
ways: term:
• 7:21 = 28:84 3 × 8 (product of means) =
24 × x (product of extremes)
• 7/21 = 28/84
x = 24 ÷ 2 = 12
This is read as "7 is to 21 as 28 is to 84"
regardless of which way the proportion is Therefore, the value of x is 12 (2:3 = 8:12).
written.
In this unit, you will learn more about how to Sample Problem
deal with proportions.
A pump discharges 30,000 gallons of water in
12 hours. How many hours will be needed to
Calculating Proportions pump 120,000 gallons?

The first and last terms of a proportion are called Solution

the extremes, and the middle terms (second and
third) are called the means. Let's take the The fourth term, x, of the proportion will be a
following example: number of hours, so the third term of the
3:6 = 12:24 or 3/6 = 12/24 equation must be the given number of hours
(12). When you analyze the problem, reason
3 and 24 in this example are the extremes, while tells you that more time will be needed to pump
6 and 12 are the means. In any proportion, the the larger quantity of water (120,000 gallons)
product of the extremes is equal to the product than the smaller quantity. Therefore, the fourth
of the means. Therefore: term must be greater than the third term. In
3 × 24 = 72 (product of the extremes) addition, the second term must be greater than
6 × 12 = 72 (product of the means) the first term. The proportion would be:

To solve problems by using proportions, three of 30,000:120,000 = 12:x

the terms in the proportion must be known. Another way to express this proportion is in
There is a simple way to find the fourth or fraction form:
missing term by applying the rule "the product
of the extremes is equal to the product of the 30,000 12
=
means." 120,000 x

5•9 Essential Math

 Percentages, Ratios, and Proportions

To find x, multiply the means and divide the 240 = 5x

product by the first term:
240 ÷ 5 = x
120,000 × 12 = 1,440,000
48 = x
1,440,000 ÷ 30,000 = 48
The second truck would need 48 hours to pump
Therefore, the time to pump 120,000 gallons the same volume.
will be 48 hours.
Sample Problem
Sample Problem
The areas of two circles are proportional to the
If 12 barrels of 11 lb/gal S-D cement spacer cost squares of their radii. If the area of a circle
$576, how much will 50 barrels of 11 lb/gal S-D having a radius of 2 in. is 12.56 sq in., what is
cement spacer cost? the area of a circle having a radius of 3 in.?

Solution Solution

12:50 = $576:x The area of the circle with the larger radius is
12 × x = 50 × $576 greater than the area of the circle with the
12x = 28,800 smaller radius. The fourth term, x, of the
x = $28,800 ÷ 12 proportion will be the area of the larger circle.
x = $2400 The third term is the area of the smaller circle.
Since x is larger than the third term, the second
Sample Problem term of the proportion must be larger than the
first term. Therefore, the proportion is:
One pump truck can pump 8 bbl while another 2 2 : 3 2 = 12.56:x
pump truck pumps 5 bbl. If the first truck needs
30 hours to pump a certain volume of drilling or
mud, how much time would the second truck 22 12.56
need to pump the same volume? 2
=
3 x

Solution Note: If you are not familiar with squares (that

is, what 32 equals), you might want to skip ahead
Here the fourth term, x, will be a number of to Unit D to read about them.
hours, to the third term must be 30. By looking Solving parts of the proportion:
at the pump rates, you will note the second
4:9 = 12.56:x
pump truck will require more time. The fourth
term (x) must therefore be greater than the third or
term. The second term will be greater than the
4 12.56
first term. The proportion would be written as: =
9 x
5:8 = 30:x
Then:
or
9 × 12.56 = 113.04
5 30
= 113.04 ÷ 4 = 28.26
8 x
To find the value of x: The area of the circle with the radius of 3 in. is
28.26 sq in.
8 × 30 = 5x

5 • 10 Essential Math
 Percentages, Ratios, and Proportions

Unit C Quiz

Answer the following questions to check your progress in Unit C.

1. If a pump that discharges 6 gallons of water per minute can fill a tank in 20 hours, how long will a
pump that discharges 15 gallons per minute (gal/min) take to fill the same tank?

2. If 75 lb of soda ash cost $6.75, how much will 125 lb cost?

3. Joe does as much work in 4 days as Bill does in 7 days. How long will it take Joe to do what Bill does
in 63 days?

Now, look up the answers in the Answer Key.

5 • 11 Essential Math
 Percentages, Ratios, and Proportions

Self-Check Test for Section 5

Calculate the answers to the following questions.

1. If 120 pounds of salt solution has 6 pounds of salt in it, what is the percent salt by weight of the
solution?

2. What is 62% of 310?

3. What percent is 8 of 64?

4. What percentage is obtained by taking 30% of 130?

5. What is the ratio of 6 cu. ft. to 27 cu. ft?

6. What is the ratio of 18 lb to 94 lb?

7. A mechanic works 12 days, 8 hours per day to complete a job. How many days will he require to
complete the job if he works 10 hours each day?

5 • 12 Essential Math
 Percentages, Ratios, and Proportions

8. A mud pump making 33 strokes per minute discharges 660 gallons of water per minute. If the speed
is increased to 36 strokes per minute, what will be the discharge (in gallons per minute)?

9. Find the value of x in the equation: 2:5 = 6:x.

10. A pump discharges 30,000 gallons of water in 10 hours. How many gallons can be pumped in 20
hours?

Now, look up the answers in the Answer Key.

5 • 13 Essential Math
 Percentages, Ratios, and Proportions

Answer Keys
Refer to the pages provided as references if your answered any of the questions incorrectly, or if
you were unsure of your answers. Then proceed to the next section.
Refer to
Items from Unit A Quiz Page
1. 875 5-3
2. 0.25 or 25% 5-3
3. $337.50 5-3

Refer to
Items from Unit B Quiz Page
1. 2:1 or 2/1 5-5
2. 9:5 or 9/5 5-5
3. 2:5 or 2/5 5-5

Refer to
Items from Unit C Quiz Page
1. 8 hours 5-7, 8
2. $11.25 5-8
3. 36 days 5-8

Refer to
Self-Check Test Page
1. 5% 5-3
2. 192.2 5-3
3. 12.5% 5-3
4. 39 5-3
5. 2:9 or 2/9 5-5
6. 9:47 or 9/47 5-5
7. 9.6 days 5-7
8. 720 gal/min 5-7
9. 15 5-8
10. 60,000 gal

5 • 14 Essential Math
Section 6

Formulas

Table of Contents
Formulas ....................................................................................................................................................6-3
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................6-3
Objectives...............................................................................................................................................6-3
Unit A: Working with Formulas ................................................................................................................6-3
Solving Addition and Subtraction Equations .........................................................................................6-3
Solving Multiplication Equations...........................................................................................................6-4
Solving Division Equations....................................................................................................................6-4
Multiple Operation Equations ................................................................................................................6-5
Transposing Formulas ............................................................................................................................6-5
Order of Operations................................................................................................................................6-7
Examples ................................................................................................................................................6-8
Unit A Quiz ............................................................................................................................................6-9
Unit B: Oilfield Formulas .......................................................................................................................6-10
Area of Circle .......................................................................................................................................6-10
Capacity of Vertical Cylindrical Tank .................................................................................................6-10
Volume of Oil in Tank .........................................................................................................................6-10
Hydraulic Horsepower .........................................................................................................................6-11
Oil Recovery ........................................................................................................................................6-11
Permeability .........................................................................................................................................6-11
Volume, Pressure, or Temperature of Gas ...........................................................................................6-11
Displacement Velocity .........................................................................................................................6-12
Hydrostatic Pressure.............................................................................................................................6-12
API Gravity ..........................................................................................................................................6-12
Capacity of Pipe ...................................................................................................................................6-12
Volume and Height ..............................................................................................................................6-13
Mud Weights ........................................................................................................................................6-13
Pump Rate ............................................................................................................................................6-14
Effect of Temperature on Steel ............................................................................................................6-14
Weight of Pipe Suspended in Fluid......................................................................................................6-14
Heat Transfer........................................................................................................................................6-14
Fuel Consumption ................................................................................................................................6-15
Unit B Quiz ..........................................................................................................................................6-16
Self-Check Test for Section 6 ..................................................................................................................6-17
Answer Keys............................................................................................................................................6-19

6•1 Essential Math

 Formulas

Formulas
Some rules must be followed to use formulas
correctly.
Introduction

Many times in oilfield applications, you will Objectives

find it necessary to work with formulas, which
are also referred to as equations. The sole reason In this section, you will become familiar with
for using formulas is to save space and time in how to:
writing and working calculations.
• Transpose (rewrite) formulas
Formulas are a form of mathematical shorthand. • Order mathematical operations
Formulas use symbols (letters) where necessary • Work with common oil field formulas
to change the numbers as conditions change. • Cancel numbers and units

Unit A: Working with Formulas

In this unit, you will learn how to: must also do to the other side to keep the scale in
balance.
• Four different mathematical operations
in a formula
• Understand the use of brackets ( ) or [ ] Addition Example
in a formula
• Cancel numbers and units (note: Solve the following equation for x.
canceling numbers was discussed in × + 30 = 45
Section 2)
To solve the equation for x we must get x by
itself on one side of the equation. We can get the
Solving Addition and term x by itself by subtracting 30 from the left
Subtraction Equations side of the equation.
× + 30 − 30 ≠ 45
Solving an equation means finding a value for a
specific variable. To solve an equation the terms The does not equal sign has been included
making up each expression must be rearranged because the two expressions are no longer equal;
until the variable in question is the only term our scale does not balance. To balance the scale,
remaining on one side. we must also subtract 30 from the right side of
the equation.
Inverse operations are used to find the value of
the variable, but you must be careful. An × + 30 – 30 = 45 – 30
equation states that one expression is equal to We find that:
another. Whatever you do to one side of the
equation, you must also do to the other side. If × = 45 – 30
not the two expressions will no longer be equal. × 15
In this way, an equation is like a balance scale.
Whatever you do to one side of the scale you

6•3 Essential Math

 Formulas

This solution can be checked by substituting the To solve this equation for x we first need to
value 15 in for the variable x. When we evaluate eliminate the coefficient 3. Dividing the left side
for x = 15: of the equation by 3 results in:
× + 30 = 45 3x
= 24,000
15 + 30 = 45 3
45 = 45 We know that any number divided by itself is
equal to 1. We also know that multiplying any
Our solution is correct! number by 1 does not change the value of that
Subtraction Example number.
Solve the following equation for y. 3x
≠ 24,000
γ − 12 = 24 3
3
To solve this equation we must get the variable y x ≠ 24,000
3
alone on one side of the equation. We can add
1x ≠ 24,000
12 to the left side and get y alone on the left
side. x ≠ 24,000
γ − 12 + 12 ≠ 24 As we have seen before, the does not equal sign
has replaced the equals sign because the
Again the does not equal side has replaced the equation does not balance. To balance the
equals sign since our scale is no longer in equation we must divide both sides by 3.
balance. To balance the scale we must add 12 to
the right side of the equation. 3x 24,000
=
3 3
γ − 12 + 12 = 24 + 12
3 24,000
γ = 24 + 12 x=
3 3
γ = 36 24,000
1x =
Now the equation is in balance and y is equal to 3
36. x = 8,000
To check our answer we substitute the value 36 Again we check our answer by substituting the
into the equation for the variable y. Evaluating value 6,000 into the equation for the variable x.
for y equal to 36: Evaluating for x equal to 8,000:
γ − 12 = 24 3x = 24,000
36 − 12 = 24 3(8,000) = 24,000
Our solution is correct. 24000 = 24,000
Our solution is correct.
Solving Multiplication
Equations Solving Division Equations
To solve a multiplication equation we divide To solve a division equation we multiply both
both sides by the same non-zero number. sides by the same number.
Solve the following equation for x Solve the following equation for x
3x = 24,000 x
= 20,000
4

6•4 Essential Math

 Formulas

To solve this equation, we can begin by 4 x − 5 = 35

multiplying the left side by 4. However, 4 * 10 − 5 = 35
remember that any operation done to one side
must also be done to the other. Multiplying both 40 − 5 = 35
sides by 4 results in: 35 = 35
x Our solution is correct.
4* = 20,000 * 4
4
x = 80,000 Transposing Formulas
To check our answer, we evaluate the equation
for x equal to 80,000: Formulas are a form of mathematical shorthand.
Formulas use symbols or letters referred to as
x
= 20,000 variables. Variables represent a number that will
4 change or vary from application to application.
80,000 In this way, formulas save space and time when
= 20,000
4 writing and working problems.
20,000 = 20,000 Sometimes it may be necessary to change a
formula, or transpose the terms, in order to find
the unknown quantity. Transposition is carried
Multiple Operation Equations out the same way as solving was carried out
previously. Understanding how to transpose is a
Up to this point we have solve single operation key concept when working with formulas. Being
equations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, able to transpose a formula allows you to
or division). Equations with multiple operations memorize a few formulas and avoid the
require two steps to solve. impossible task of memorizing every form the
1. Simplify addition or subtraction. formula may take.
2. Simplify multiplication or division. Transposing a formula can involve several steps.
It is not necessary to work addition and As we saw with solving, the important rule is
subtraction first, but performing the that our “scale” (or formula) stays in balance (or
multiplication or division first will leave you equal). To maintain the balance, anything we do
dealing with fractions. to one side of the formula we must also do to the
other side.
Solve the following equation for x
Transpose the following formula to solve for the
4 x − 5 = 35
variable d.
First add 5 to both sides of the equation:
a=b+c−d
4 x − 5 + 5 = 35 + 5
In order to solve this formula for the variable d,
4 x = 40 we need to move d to the left side and a to the
Next, divide both sides by 4. right side. This can be accomplished by adding d
to both sides and subtracting a from both sides.
4x 40
= a+d −a=b+c−d +d −a
4 4
x = 10 d =b+c−a
To check our answer, we evaluate the equation Note that transposing terms of a formula from
for x equal to 10: one side of the equals sign to the other changes
the operational sign. In this case the additions
changed to subtractions and vice versa. This fact
allows you to transpose formulas quicker and
easier. To move a term from one side of an

6•5 Essential Math

 Formulas

equation to the other simply use the inverse da cb

operation; subtraction is the inverse of addition =
c c
and addition is the inverse of subtraction. da
=b
Consider the following proportions formula: c
a c
= Which is the same as:
b d
da
b=
Transpose the proportions formula to solve for c
the variable a. Solving the proportions formula
for the variable a requires only one step: Again note that transposing terms of a formula
multiplying both sides by the variable b. from one side of the equals sign to the other
changes the operational sign. To move a term
b*
a c
= *b from one side of an equation to the other simply
b d uses the inverse operation. Looking at the
c cb original formula we see that b is being divided
a = * b or on the left side of the formula, d is being divided
d d
on the right side of the formula, and c is being
Again note that transposing terms of a formula multiplied on the right side of the formula.
from one side of the equals sign to the other
Remember, the inverse of multiplication is
changes the operational sign. To move a term
division and vice versa. When the variable b
from one side of an equation to the other simply
moves from the left side to the right it changes
uses the inverse operation. In this case we
from division to multiplication. When the
multiplied since multiplication is the inverse of
variable d moves from the right side to the left it
division.
also changes from division to multiplication.
Transpose the proportions formula to solve for When the variable c moves from the right side to
the variable b. Solving the proportions formula the left it changes from multiplication to
for the variable b requires several steps. The division.
steps can be performed in a variety of ways and
their exact order is not important since the a c
=
formula use only division and multiplication. b d
ad
We can start by multiplying both sides by the =b
variable b. c

a c Transpose the proportions formula to solve for

b* = *b the variable c using the inverse operation
b d
concept. Solving the proportions formula for the
c cb variable c requires only one step: moving the
a = * b or
d d variable d from the right side to the left side. The
Next we will multiply both sides by the variable variable d is being divided on the right side. The
d. inverse of division is multiplication. To move
the variable d from the right side to the left side
cb we change the operational sign from dividing on
d *a = *d
d the right side to multiplying on the left side.
da = cb a c
=
Next we will divide both sides by the variable c. b d
ad
=c
b
Which is the same as:

6•6 Essential Math

 Formulas

ad like parentheses, to help us organize complicated

c= expressions into simpler ones. For instance the
b
expression below now only has one possible
Transpose the proportions formula to solve for answer.
the variable d using the inverse operation
concept. Solving the proportions formula for the (3 + 4) × 2 = 7 × 2 = 14
variable d requires we move several variables: d, When equations have more than one operation
a, and b. The variables b and d are both dividers (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
so they will become multipliers when we move division), we have to follow some rules of
them. The variable a is a multiplier so it will precedence called the “order of operations”. A
become a divider when moved. common technique for remembering the order of
For the first step we will move the variable d operations is the abbreviation “PEDMAS,”
from the right side to the left side. which stands for Parenthesis, Exponents,
Multiplication and Division, and Addition and
a c Subtraction.
=
b d
PEDMAS tells you the rank of operations:
ad
=c
b 1. First do all operations that lie inside
parentheses.
Notice the variable d went from a divider on the
right side to a multiplier on the left side. For the 2. Next, do any work with exponents or
next step, we will move a and b from the left radicals.
side to the right side.
3. Working from left to right, do all
ad multiplication and division.
=c
b Multiplication and division are at the
cb same rank so perform the operation you
d=
a encounter first working left to right.
Notice the variable b went from a divider on the 4. Finally, working from left to right, do all
left side to a multiplier on the right side while addition and subtraction. Addition and
the variable a did just the opposite. subtraction are at the same rank so
perform the operation you encounter
first working left to right
Order of Operations
Microsoft Excel and many calculators have been
When an equation contains more than one programmed with the Order of Operations
operation, you can get different answers hierarchy. Therefore, you must use parenthesis
depending on the order in which you solve the to define the order of operations if it is inside out
equation. For instance, solve the expression: rather than left to right. One point of confusion
with multiplication and parenthesis is
3+ 4× 2 "multiplication by juxtaposition" (that is,
Working left to right results in: multiplying by just putting things next to each
other, rather than using the "×" sign) indicates
3 + 4 × 2 = 7 × 2 = 14 that the juxtaposed values must be multiplied
Performing the multiplication first results in; together before processing other operations. But
not all software is programmed this way so, to
3 + 4 × 2 = 3 + 8 = 11 avoid ambiguity, make your meaning clear.
Mathematicians have agreed on a certain order
for evaluating expressions, so we all arrive at the
same answers. We often use grouping symbols,

6•7 Essential Math

 Formulas

Examples Example 2

2 2 × 20 / 4 − 7 × 3 + 55 Calculate the exponent

Example 1
4 × 20 / 4 − 7 × 3 + 55 Working from left to
Solve Example 1, by working from left to right right, do all multiplication and division
and performing all the operations as you 80 / 4 − 21 + 55 When there are several
encounter them. of the operations in the same term,
8 − 7 + 3 =1+ 3 = 4 or the order within
When parentheses are used, you first perform the term doesn’t matter.
the operations inside the parentheses, and you'll 4 × 5 − 21 + 55 (4 x 5 and 80/4 both
get a different answer! equal 20).
8 − (7 + 3) = 8 − 10 = −2 20 − 21 + 55 Add and subtract from left to
right.
54 The correct answer.

6•8 Essential Math

 Formulas

Unit A Quiz

Find the answers to the following questions to check your progress in Unit A.

1. Solve the following equation for y:

y + 70 = 100

2. Solve the following equation for y:

y+ z +t = s+r

3. Solve the following equation for y to the appropriate number of significant digits:
74 y = 101

4. Solve the following equation for y:

zy = s + r

5. Solve the following equation for y to the appropriate number of significant digits:
y
= 104
71

6. Solve the following equation for y:

y
=s+r
z

7. Solve the following equation for y to the appropriate number of significant digits:
74 y − 51 = 157

8. Solve the following equation for y:

zy − t = s + r

9. Solve the following equation for Q:

µQL
P=
A(P1 − P2 )

10. Solve the following equation for G:

141.5
A= − 131.5
G

Now look up the answers in the Answer Key.

6•9 Essential Math

 Formulas

Unit B: Oilfield Formulas

In this unit, you’ll review some of the formulas where:
commonly used in the oilfield. You’ll also find
π = a constant whose value is 3.1416
this unit helpful as a reference during your
oilfield work. (π is the Greek letter representing "pi. ")
R = radius of the circle (measurement from
This unit includes formulas for: the midpoint to the circumference)
• area or radius of circle
This formula may be transposed to find the
• capacity of vertical cylindrical tank radius of a circle if the area is known:
• volume of oil in tank (approximation) A
R=
• hydraulic horsepower, injection rate, or π2
injection pressure
• volume of oil recoverable from a lease Capacity of Vertical Cylindrical
• permeability of a formation sample Tank
• volume, pressure, or temperature of a body
of gas The formula for the capacity of a tank (C) in
barrels is:
• displacement velocity
πR 2 h
• hydrostatic pressure C=
5.6
• API gravity of fluids where:
• capacity of pipe R = radius of tank, ft
• volume and height h = height of tank, ft

• mud weights
• pump rate
Volume of Oil in Tank
• effect of temperature on steel This formula is useful for approximating the
• weight of pipe suspended in fluid volume of oil in a tank (V) in barrels:

• heat transfer (heat required to raise V = D2 × 0.14 × H

temperature of fluid) where:
• fuel consumption D = diameter of the tank, ft
0.14 = a constant
H = height of fluid, ft
Area of Circle

One example of formulas for finding the area of

a circle are used in connection tank gauging
tables. The most basic formula for area of a
circle (A) is:
A=πR2

6 • 10 Essential Math
 Formulas

Sample Problem Oil Recovery

What is the approximate volume (in barrels) of a To find the amount of oil recoverable from a
tank with these specifications? lease (R) in barrels:
Diameter = 114.5 ft R = FATpsr (1 - c)
Tank height = 30 ft where:
F = 7758 bbl per acre foot
Solution A = area in the lease, acres
T = average thickness of pay zone, ft
V = D2 × 0.14 × H p = porosity of reservoir rock
D2 = 114.5 × 114.5 = 13110.25 s = shrinkage factor, percent
r = recovery factor depending on type of
13110.25 × 0.14 × 30 ft = 55063.05 bbl drive and other reservoir conditions
The approximate capacity of the tank is 55,000 c = connate water in pore spaces,
bbl. percent

Hydraulic Horsepower Permeability

To calculate the hydraulic horsepower (HHP) To find the permeability of a formation sample
required for a given injection rate and pressure, (P) in darcies:
use this formula: µOL
P=
bbl/min × psi A(P1 - P2 )
HHP =
40.8
where:
where:
µ = viscosity of fluid used, centipoises
bbl/min = injection rate Q = volume of water passing through
psi = injection pressure sample, cc/sec
40.8 = constant (conversion factor) L = length of sample, centimeters
A = area of cross section of sample, sq
Sample Problem cm
P1 = input pressure, atmospheres
An acid frac is performed with an average P2 =delivery pressure of fluid leaving
injection rate of 12 bbl/min and an average sample, atmospheres
wellhead surface pressure of 4600 psi. What is
the hydraulic horsepower?
Volume, Pressure, or
Solution
Temperature of Gas

To find the volume, pressure or temperature of a

HHP = 12 bbl/min × 4600 psi
= 1352.9 body of gas, you can use transpositions of the
40.8 formula below. Note that pressures and
temperatures are absolute. To convert gauge
pressure to absolute pressure, add 14.7 psi to the
gauge pressure. To convert temperature to
absolute temperature, add 460 to °F.

6 • 11 Essential Math
 Formulas

P1V1 T1 3.056 Q cf
= V=
P2V2 T2 D2
where: where:
P1 = original pressure Qb = pumping rate, bbls/min
P2 = final pressure Qcf = pumping rate, ft3/min
V1 = original volume D = inside diameter of pipe, in.
V2= final volume For annulus D2 = D02 - D12
T1 = original temperature where Do = outer pipe inside
T2 = final temperature diameter or hole size, in. and D1 =
inner pipe outside diameter, in.
Sample Problem

A volume of gas fills 1000 ft3 at 80 psi gauge Hydrostatic Pressure

and 80°F. What would be the volume of the gas
at 100 psi gauge and 60°F? To find the hydrostatic pressure (Ph) exerted by
a column of fluid in psi:
Solution Ph = .05195 × ρ × H
where:
Transpose the formula to solve for V2:
ρ = fluid density, lb/gal
P1V1T2
V2 = H = height of column, ft
P2T1
P1 = 80 psig = 94.7 psia
API Gravity
P2 = 100 psig = 114.7 psia
T1 = 80 F = 540°F absolute API gravity is a standard measure related to
crude oil density. To determine the API gravity
T2 = 60 F = 520°F absolute of a fluid, use this formula:
Then substitute the above values in the 141.5
transposed formula: API Gravity = − 131.5
Sp Gr @ 60°F
94.7 × 1000 × 520
V2 = where:
114.7 × 540
Sp Gr = the ratio of the weight of a given
volume of a substance to that of an
V2 = 795 ft3 equal volume of another substance
(water for liquids and solids, air or
hydrogen for gases)
Displacement Velocity

To calculate displacement velocity (V) in feet per Capacity of Pipe

second, use these formulas:
There are several formulas for calculating the
For a pumping rate in barrels per minute (Qb)
capacity of pipe, depending upon the units
17.157 Q b you're interested in obtaining:
V=
D2 capacity in barrels per linear foot =
For a pumping rate in cubic feet per minute (Qcf) 0.0009714 × D2

6 • 12 Essential Math
 Formulas

capacity in linear feet per barrel = • between casing and casing where D = inside
1029.4/D2 diameter of outer casing in inches and d =
capacity in cubic feet per linear foot = outside diameter of inner casing in inches.
0.005454 × D2 The following formulas can be used for
capacity in linear feet per cubic feet = determining V&H between multiple tubing
183.35/D2 strings and the hole (or casing):

capacity in gallons per linear foot = V&H in barrels per linear foot =
0.0408 × D2 (D2 - nd2) 0.0009714

capacity in linear feet per gallon = V&H in linear foot per barrel =
24.51/D2 1029.4/(D2 - nd2)

where: V&H in cubic feet per linear foot =

(D2 - nd2) 0.005454
D = diameter of pipe, in.
V&H in linear feet per cubic foot =
183.35/(D2 – nd2)
Volume and Height V&H in gallons per linear foot =
(D2 × nd2) 0.0408
The following formulas can be used for V&H in linear feet per gallon =
determining Volume and Height (abbreviated 24.51/(D2 - nd2)
V&H) in certain situations:
where:
V&H in barrels per linear foot =
(D2 - d2) 0.0009714 D = diameter of hole, in. (or ID of casing)
d = outside diameter of tubing, in.
V&H in linear feet per barrel n = number of tubing strings
1029.4/D2 - d2
V&H in cubic feet per linear foot =
(D2 = d2) 0.005454 Mud Weights
V&H in linear feet per cubic foot =
183.35/D2 - d2 We will discuss four different formulas relating
to mud weight:
V&H in gallons per linear foot =
(D2 × d2) 0.0408 • formula for reducing mud weight with water

V&H in linear feet per gallon = • formula for reducing mud weight with oil
24.51/D2 - d2 • formula for finding mud weight increase
These formulas apply to these V&H situations: with barite

• between tubing and hole where D = • formula for finding mud volume increase
diameter of hole in inches and d = outside due to the addition of barite
diameter of tubing in inches
• between casing and hole where D = In all four of these formulas:
diameter of hole in inches and d = outside • W1 = starting mud weight, lbs/gal
diameter of casing in inches
• W2 = desired mud weight, lbs/gal
• between tubing and casing where D = inside
diameter of casing in inches and d = outside The first formula is for X, the barrels of water of
diameter of tubing in inches a given density required to reduce mud weight to
its desired level. The formula for reducing mud
weight with water is:

6 • 13 Essential Math
 Formulas

V(W1 - W2) For a duplex pump (formula is based on 100%

X=
(W2 × DW) efficiency):

where: R = 0.00679 SN (2D2 - d2)

V1 = initial or starting volume of W1 For the triplex pump (based on 95% efficiency):
required to give a predetermined final ⎡ πD2 ⎤
volume (VF) Of W2, bbl R=⎢3 S ⎥ × 0.0041× N
⎣ 4 ⎦
DW = density of water or brine to be used in
dilution of mud. where:
When oil is used to reduce mud weight, use the N = revolutions/minute
following formula for XO (the barrels of oil, D = liner diameter, in.
specific gravity = 0.84) required to reduce mud d = rod diameter, in.
weight: S = stroke length, in.
V(W1 - W2)
X0 =
W2 × 7.0 Effect of Temperature on Steel
where:
Vi = initial or starting volume of W1 Steel expands or contracts at 0.0000828 inches
required to give a predetermined final per foot per degree (°F) of temperature change.
volume (VP) of W2, bbl The formula for finding the change in pipe
length, in inches, due to temperature change,
When you want to determine the number of 100 (er) can be stated:
lb sacks of barite required to increase the weight
of 100 bbl of mud (b), use this formula: eT = length × 0.0000828 in./ft/°F × ∆T
1470 (W2 - W1) where:
b=
35.0 - W2 length = length of pipe, ft
The formula for the volume increases due to ∆T = average temperature change, °F
mud weight increase with barite (bbl increase/
100 bbl of starting volume), symbolized by Vb,
is: Weight of Pipe Suspended in
1470 (W2 - W1)
Fluid
Vb =
35.0 - W2
Here is the formula for determining how much a
pipe weighs when suspended in a given fluid:
Pump Rate Pipe weight in fluid lb/ft =
pipe weight in air lb/ft × buoyancy
We will present three formulas for pump rate: factor
• general formula
• formula for a duplex pump Heat Transfer
• formula for a triplex pump
Use this formula to find the amount of heat (Q in
Pump rate will be represented by R (output in BTUs) required to raise the temperature of a
gallons/min.). volume of liquid:
The general formula is: Q = WCp(T2 – T1)
displacement strokes where:
R= ×
Stroke min W = weight of liquid, lb

6 • 14 Essential Math
 Formulas

Cp = specific heat of liquid, BTU/lb - °F 66,700 BTU

T2 = final temperature,°F
T1 = initial temperature, °F
Fuel Consumption
Sample Problem
To find Fuel Consumption(R in ft3) use this
How much heat is required to heat 100 gallons O
R=
of water from 80°F to 160°F? The specific heat E × LHV
of water is 1.0 BTU/lb - °F. where:
Q = heat requirement, BTU
Solution
E = heater efficiency, decimal
LHV = net heating value of gas, BTU/ft3
The weight (W) of 100 gallons of water is:
100 gal × 8.33 lb/gal = 833 lbs
BTU
Q = 833 lbs × 1.0 x (160 - 80)o F =
lb - o F

6 • 15 Essential Math
 Formulas

Unit B Quiz

Answer the following questions to check your understanding of Unit B.

1. In the formula eT = depth × 0.0000828 in./ft/°F × ∆T

where:

depth = depth of pipe, ft

∆T = average temperature change, °F

what is eT if ∆T = 76 and depth = 20,000 ft?

2. Given a full vertical cylindrical acetic acid tank with an inside diameter of 10.1 feet and inside height
of 16.2 feet, what is the approximate volume (bbl) of acetic acid in the tank?

V = D2 × 0.14 × H
where:

D = diameter of the tank, ft

H = height of fluid, ft

3. Calculate the API gravity of an oil with a measured specific gravity of 0.8251 at 60°F.

141.5
API Gravity = - 131.5
Sp Gr @ 60°F

4. Find the volume increase due to the addition of barite to weighting a 200 bbl mud system from 12
lb/gal to 15 lb/gal.

100 (W2 - W1)

Vb =
35.0 - W2

5. What is the pump rate output in gal/min of a duplex pump (100% efficient) with these specifications?

7-1/2 inch diameter liners (D)

1.5 inch rod diameters (d)
10 in. stroke (S)
50 rev/min (N)

R = .00679 SN (2D2 - d2)

Now, look up the answers in the Answer Key.

6 • 16 Essential Math
 Formulas

Self-Check Test for Section 6

Answer the following questions. Show all calculations.
1. A 10-3/4 inch single plug continuous head has an ID of 10.87 inches. With a test pressure of 5000 psi,
how much force is there on the cap?

2. Find the hydrostatic pressure (Ph) exerted by 9750 feet of 12.3 lb/gal fluid using the formula:

Ph = .05195 pH

3. In the equation Z = M + (E × C) - (F ÷ 6), where C = 6, E = 2, F = 18, and M = 27,what is Z?

4. If B = 3, C = 9, D = 12, E = 9, F = 5 and G = 4, what is A for this equation?

(B + C) × (D - E)
A=
F+G

5. If A = (M ÷ 43) + (N ÷ 16) - (P × R × B), what is A if B = .05, M = 172, N = 64, P = 32, and R = 5?

6. If a well has:
1000´ of 15.6 lb/gal slurry and 3000´ of 9.2 lb/gal mud, what is the hydrostatic pressure Ph at the
bottom of the hole?

6 • 17 Essential Math
 Formulas

7. Find the value of A if:

A = (B) + (C × D) - (E ÷ F)

where:

B=4
C=5
D=4
E = 12
F=3

8. Find the value of A if:

A = [B + C] × [D ÷ E]

where:

B=9
C=3
D=4
E=2

9. Solve the following equation for V to the appropriate number of significant digits if k = 0.00965, G =
511, and n = 0.489:
V = 47879 × k × g n-1

10. Solve the following equation for Q.

2
⎛ Q ⎞
P = 0.237 × R × ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ N × D ×C ⎠

11. Write the following equation, using symbols a, b, c, d and e where a= 4, b = 1, c = 5, d = 2, and e = 3.
a + c + b = e + a + b +d

Now, check your answers against the Answer Key.

6 • 18 Essential Math
 Formulas

Answer Keys
Items from Unit A Quiz
zy − t + t = s + r − t
1. y + 70 -70 = 100 – 70 zy s + r − t
8. =
y = 100 – 70 = 30 z z
s+r −t
y=
2. y + z + t – z – t = s + r – z – t z
y=s+r–z–t
µQL
P × A(P1 − P2 ) = × A(P1 − P2 )
74 y 101
= A(P1 − P2 )
74 74 P × A(P1 − P2 ) µQL
3.
101 9. =
y= = 1 .4 µL µL
74
P × A(P1 − P2 )
=Q
µL
zy s + r
=
z z 141.5
4.
s+r A + 131.5 = − 131.5 + 131.5
y= G
z
( A + 131.5) × G = 141.5 × G
G
10.
71 ×
y
= 104 x71 ( A + 131.5) × G = 141.5
5. 71 ( A + 131.5) ( A + 131.5)
y = 7384 ≈ 7400 141.5
G=
( A + 131.5)
= (s + r ) × z
y
z×
6. z
y = (s + r ) × z Items from Unit B Quiz
1. er = 125.8956
74 y − 51 + 51 = 157 + 51 2. V = 231.35 bbl (approximate)
74 y 157 + 51 3. 40° API
7. =
74 74
4. 30 bbl increase (for 200 bbls)
157 + 51 208
y= = ≈ 2.8 5. R = 374 gal/min
74 74

6 • 19 Essential Math
 Formulas

Self-Check Test
1. 464,002.14 lb
2. 6230.103 psi
3. 36
4. 4
5. 0
6. Ph = .05195 × 15.6 lb/gal × 1000´ = 818 psi
+ .05195 × 9.2 lb/gal × 3000´ = 1434 psi
2244 psi

7. A = 4 + 20 – 4 = 20
8. A = 12 × 2 = 24
V = 47,879 × 0.00965 × (511)
0.489−1

9. V = 47,879 × 0.00965 × (511)

−0.511

V = 47,879 × 0.00965 × 0.0413045

V = 19.084 ≈ 19.1

2
⎛ Q ⎞
0.237 × R × ⎜ 2 ⎟
P ⎝ N × D ×C ⎠
=
0.237 × R 0.237 × R
2
P ⎛ Q ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
10. 0.237 × R 2
⎝ N × D ×C ⎠
P ⎛ Q ⎞
N × D2 × C × =⎜ 2
⎟× N × D ×C
0.237 × R ⎝ N × D 2 × C ⎠
P
N × D2 × C × =Q
0.237 × R

11. 4 + 5 + 1 = 3 + 4 + 1 + 2

6 • 20 Essential Math
Section 7

Surface Area and Volume

Calculations

Table of Contents
Surface Area and Volume Calculations .....................................................................................................7-3
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................7-3
Learning Objectives ...............................................................................................................................7-3
Unit A: Surface Area Calculations.............................................................................................................7-3
Conversion Factors.................................................................................................................................7-3
Surface Area of Rectangles or Squares ..................................................................................................7-4
Surface Area of Parallelograms..............................................................................................................7-4
Surface Area of Trapezoids....................................................................................................................7-5
Surface Area of Triangles.......................................................................................................................7-5
Surface Area of Circles ..........................................................................................................................7-6
Surface Area between Two Circles ........................................................................................................7-7
Unit A Quiz ............................................................................................................................................7-8
Unit B: Volume Calculations...................................................................................................................7-10
Rectangular Volumes ...........................................................................................................................7-10
Cylindrical Volumes ............................................................................................................................7-11
Elliptical Volumes................................................................................................................................7-12
Conical Volumes ..................................................................................................................................7-12
Spherical Volumes ...............................................................................................................................7-13
B Quiz ..................................................................................................................................................7-14
Self-Check Test for Section 7 ..................................................................................................................7-15
Answer Keys............................................................................................................................................7-18

7•1 Essential Math

 Surface Area and Volume Calculations

Surface Area and Volume Calculations

the third dimension of thickness (or depth) must
be taken into account.
Introduction

As has been mentioned in previous sections, Learning Objectives

conversion of units is an important aspect of
service company mathematics. Most oilfield Upon completion of this section, you should be
handbooks, such as the Halliburton Cementing familiar with:
Tables, contain conversion factors that can be
simply multiplied by the amount of one unit of • how to use conversion factors
measure to convert it to a different unit. • how to calculate surface areas of objects
with various shapes
The areas discussed in this section include • how to determine the volume of the types of
calculations for surface area and volume. The tanks commonly used in the oilfield
plane surfaces to be discussed in Unit A have
• calculations for pipe capacity
only two dimensions: length and width.
However, when considering volumes in Unit B.

Unit A: Surface Area Calculations

Before beginning surface area calculations, you
need to put the numbers involved in the same Conversion Factors
units of measure to find a correct answer. For
example, adding 10 square feet to 10 square
meters will result in an answer that means To use the tables for conversion shown in Figure
nothing. You must first convert the square 7.1, locate the unit to be converted in the left-
meters to square feet (or vice versa) before hand column. Then locate the desired unit (the
adding the two areas together. unit to which you want to convert) across the
top. The place where the two columns intersect
To begin this section, we will briefly discuss contains the conversion factor.
conversion factors for units involved in area
calculations. Then you will learn how to
Length, Width, Depth, Diameter, and Fillup
calculate these areas in the remainder of Unit A: Desired Unit
Unit To Be
• rectangles or squares
Foot Inch Meter Centimeter Millimeter
Converted (ft) (in.) (m) (cm) (mm)

• parallelograms Foot (ft) 1 12 0.3048 0.003048 0.0003048

•
0.08333 1 0.0254 2.54 25.4
trapezoids Inch (in)
3.281 39.37 1 100 1000
Meter (m)
• triangles Centimeter (cm) 0.03281 0.3937 0.01 1 10
• circles Millimeter (mm) 0.003281 0.03937 0.001 0.1 1

• between circles
Figure 7.1

7•3 Essential Math

 Surface Area and Volume Calculations

Sample Problem Sample Problem

Convert 10 feet (ft) to inches (in.). Calculate the surface area of a rectangle with a
length of 10.1 inches and a width of 3.7 inches.
Solution Express the answer in square inches.

Find “foot” in the left-hand column, and “inch” Solution

at the top of Figure 7.1, the two columns meet at
12. Therefore, 12 inches are in a foot. To Since both dimensions are already in inches, the
convert: length and width can be multiplied together with
no conversion:
10 ft × 12 in/ft = 120 in.
10.1 in. × 3.7 in. = 37.37 sq in.

Surface Area of Rectangles or

Squares Surface Area of Parallelograms

The area of a flat surface is calculated according A parallelogram is any four-sided plane figure
to the shape of the surface. In oilfield with opposite sides parallel. Parallelograms
applications, the shapes are usually rectangular include rectangles and squares. In other words, a
or round. parallelogram with right angles is either a
rectangle or square (depending on whether the
A rectangle is a plane figure of four sides whose lengths of the sides are equal).
opposite sides are parallel and whose adjoining
sides form right angles (90°). In other words, the Figure 7.3 illustrates a parallelogram, its
sides are square with each other. A square is a dimensions and how it can differ from a
special kind of rectangle in which all four sides rectangle.
are equal length.
The surface area of a rectangle or square is
calculated by multiplying the length by the
width: Parallelogram Height
Area of rectangle or square = Length × Width
Figure 7.2 illustrates these dimensions. Keep in
mind that both dimensions must be in the same
Base
units.
Figure 7.3

Rectangle Width The surface area of a parallelogram can be

calculated as follows:
Area of Parallelogram = Base × Height

Length Sample Problem

Figure 7.2 Calculate the surface area of a parallelogram
with a base of 12 feet and a height of 30 inches.
Express the answer in square inches.

7•4 Essential Math

 Surface Area and Volume Calculations

Solution Then calculate the area:

7 in. × l0 in. = 70 in.
First, convert 12 feet to inches:
12 ft × 12 in/ft = 144 in.
Surface Area of Triangles
Then multiply base and height:
144 in × 30 in = 4320 sq in A triangle is a plane figure bounded by three
straight sides. Figure 7.5 illustrates the
dimensions in a triangle.
Surface Area of Trapezoids The surface area of a triangle is equal to one-half
the product obtained by multiplying the base by
A trapezoid is a four-sided plane figure with two the height:
parallel sides. Figure 7.4 illustrates a trapezoid
and shows how it differs from the other plane Surface Area of Triangle = 1/2 Base × Height
figures discussed previously.
To calculate the surface area of a trapezoid, you
must first determine the average length of the
parallel sides (A-C and B-D). To do this, divide Height
the sum of the two lengths by two. Triangle

Parallel Side
A C Base

Height Trapezoid
Figure 7.5
B D
Parallel Side

Figure 7.4
Sample Problem

Then: Find the surface area of a triangle with a base of

18 inches and a height of 6 inches. Express the
Surface Area of Trapezoid =
answer in square inches.
Average Length of Parallel Sides × Height
Solution
Sample Problem
1/2 × 18 in. × 6 in. = 54 sq in
Calculate the surface area of a trapezoid with
parallel sides of 6 inches and 8 inches and a A right triangle contains one 90° angle. The
height of 10 inches. longest side of a right triangle (the side opposite
the right angle) is called the hypotenuse. The
Solution area of a right triangle is calculated in the same
manner as any other triangle.
Calculate the average length of the parallel The sides of a right triangle exhibit certain
sides: relationships that permit calculating the length
of one side if the lengths of the other two sides
(6 in + 8 in) ÷ 2 = 7 in are known. These relationships are expressed as

7•5 Essential Math

 Surface Area and Volume Calculations

“the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum Sample Problem

of the squares of the other two sides.” The
equation for this expression is: Solve for side b in this triangle:
2 2 2
c =a +b
Where
c = Length of Hypotenuse
a,b = Lengths of other two sides 10 in.
6 in.
Figure 7.6 illustrates this expression if the
squares of sides a, b, and hypotenuse c are
known.
b

a2 + b2 = c2 Solution
25 sq in.
b2 = 102 - 62
16 sq in.
5 in. b = 100 - 36
4 in. b c

a
b= 64
3 in. b=8
9 sq in.

Surface Area of Circles

Figure 7.6
More commonly in the oilfield, especially in
downhole applications, the surfaces are round.
Calculate the length of any side of a right Therefore, the surface area of interest is
triangle when the lengths of two sides are normally the area of a circle.
known.
A circle is a closed plane curve in which all
If a and b are known with hypotenuse c points are equally spaced from a point within the
unknown - circle, the center.
if c2 = a2 – b2 , then Figure 7.7 illustrates the dimensions of a circle.
The length of the circle is called its
c = a 2 + b2 circumference. The radius of a circle is a
If a and c are known but b is unknown – straight line from the center to any point on the
circle. The diameter is a straight line drawn
if b2 = c2 - a2, then through the center and connecting two joints on
the circle.
b = c2 - a 2

If b and c are known, but a is unknown –

if a2 = c2 - b2 , then
a = c2 - b2

7•6 Essential Math

 Surface Area and Volume Calculations

or
0.7854 × diameter × diameter
Diameter
Since most round surfaces are referred to by
diameter, we'll use the second formula. The
0.7854 in this formula is derived from the π
Radius
divided by 4.
Circumference
Sample Problem
Figure 7.7
Calculate the surface area of a 2-7/8 inch
diameter circle.
The circumference of any circle is equal to the
diameter (d) times a constant, 3.1416. This
Solution
constant is often symbolized by the Greek letter
pi, which is written π:
7/8 = 7 ÷ 8 = 0.875
C = πd
2-718 = 2.875
Using transposition, you can write the formula
for finding the diameter of a circle when the Area = 0.7854 × diameter × diameter
circumference is known: Area = 0.7854 × 2.875 in. × 2.875 in.
d=C÷π Area = 6.4918 sq in.

Sample Problem
Surface Area between Two
Find the circumference of a cylindrical tank that Circles
has an outside diameter of 10 feet.
You will find it necessary to calculate the flat
Solution surface area between two circles as shown in
Figure 7.8.
C = 3.1416 × 10 ft
C = 31.416 ft
Inside Outside
Sample Problem Diameter Diameter
(ID) (OD)

Find the diameter of a salt water storage tank

with a circumference of 72.25 feet.
Figure 7.8
Solution
To calculate the area between two circles
d = 72.25 ft ÷ 3.1416 (normally referred to as the cross-sectional
d = 22.9978 ft or approximately 23 ft area), calculate the area of the outside circle
(OD), the area of the inside circle (ID), and then
The area of a circle can be calculated in two subtract the ID area from the OD area:
ways:
Cross-sectional Area =
Surface Area of Circle = OD Area - ID Area
3.1416 × radius × radius

7•7 Essential Math

 Surface Area and Volume Calculations

Caution: Never take the difference between the Solution

OD and ID and use it to calculate the cross-
sectional area. This will not work, since the 2-7/8 in. = 2.875 in.
formula for area contains the term diameter
squared (diameter × diameter). OD Area = 0.7854 × 2.875 in. × 2.875 in.
OD Area = 6.4918 sq in.
Sample Problem ID Area = 0.7854 × 2.441 in. × 2.441 in.

Find the cross-sectional area between a 2-7/8 in. ID Area = 4.6797 sq in.
OD and a 2.441 in. ID. Cross-Sectional Area =
6.4918 sq in. - 4.6797 sq in
1.8121 sq in

Unit A Quiz

Find the solutions to these problems to check your progress in Unit A.

0. What is the surface area of a 3.5 in. diameter circle? Express your answer in sq in.

0. What is the cross-sectional area with 3 in OD and 1 in ID circles?

0. Find the number of sq ft in the trapezoid shown:

20 ft

10 ft

30 ft

0. Find the surface area of a parallelogram with a base of 22 ft and a height of 12 feet.

7•8 Essential Math

 Surface Area and Volume Calculations

0. Find the surface area of this right triangle:

8 ft

6 ft

0. Find the surface area of the plot of ground shown:

0. In this right triangle, find the length of the hypotenuse:

8 ft

12 ft

Now, look up the answers in the Answer Key.

7•9 Essential Math

 Surface Area and Volume Calculations

Unit B: Volume Calculations

Like the area of a flat surface, volume is the total
amount of space inside an object. As you learned Sample Problem
in Unit A, areas of plane figures are obtained by
multiplying the length and width and are The tank in Figure 7.10 is 10 feet high, 40 feet
expressed in square inches, square feet, etc. long and 96 inches wide. What is the volume?
Volumes, on the other hand, are obtained by Express your answer first in cubic feet, then in
multiplying the three dimensions; volumes are barrels.
expressed in terms of cubic inches, cubic feet,
etc. Again, as in surface area calculations, all Solution
dimensions must be expressed in the same units
(inches cannot be multiplied by feet, etc.).
First, convert 96 inches to feet:
Most tanks used in the oilfield are either
96 in ÷ 12 in/ft = 8 ft
rectangular or cylindrical. Some cement and
chemical bins are cone-shaped or a combination Now use the formula above to determine the
of circular and conical. Some storage tanks are volume in cubic feet:
spheres, while others are elliptical.
40 ft × 8 ft × l0 ft = 3200 cu. ft
In this text, we will discuss calculating the
To convert cubic feet to barrels, you must use a
volumes of rectangular, cylindrical, spherical,
conversion factor, as shown in Figure 7.10. In
conical, and elliptical tanks.
this case, the appropriate conversion factor is
0.1781 bbl/cu. ft.
Rectangular Volumes 3200 cu. ft × 0.1781 bbl/cu. ft = 569.92
bbl
Looking first at rectangular objects, volume can
be calculated by simply multiplying length,
width, and height:
Volume of Rectangular Object =
Length × Width × Height
Figure 7.9 illustrates these dimensions.

Width

Height

Length

Figure 7.9

7 • 10 Essential Math
 Surface Area and Volume Calculations

Cylindrical Volumes

In the petroleum industry, you may find it

necessary to calculate the volume of cylinders
such as storage tanks, pipes, pump cylinders, etc.
The volume of cylindrical objects is calculated
by multiplying the circular flat surface area of a
cylinder base by the height. You calculate the
area by multiplying 0.7854 by the diameter by
the diameter:
Volume of Cylindrical Object =
Area × Height
or
0.7854 × d × d × h
Figure 7.11 illustrates the dimensions of
cylindrical objects.

Diameter

Height

Figure 7.11

Figure 7.10 Sample Problem

Determine the volume of a circular tank that is

10 feet in diameter and 16 feet high.

Solution

Volume = 0.7854 × 10 ft × 10 ft × 16 ft
Volume = 1256.64 cu. ft

7 • 11 Essential Math
 Surface Area and Volume Calculations

Elliptical Volumes Conical Volumes

The volume of an elliptical tank can be

calculated by multiplying the area of the base (or Cone
elliptical end) by the tank's height (or length):
Sometimes, you will have to calculate the
Volume of Elliptical Object =
volume of a cone-shaped object.
Area × Height
or
V=a×b×π×h h
where:
a = 1/2 the major axis
b = 1/2 the minor axis D
h = height
Figure 7.13
π = 3.1416
Figure 7.12 illustrates the dimensions of an
elliptical tank. The formula for the volume of a cone is
π D2 h
1/2 Major Volume of Conical Object =
Axis (a) 12
where:
1/2 Minor
Axis (b) π = 3.1416
D = diameter of cone base
h = height of cone
Length The dimensions of conical objects are illustrated
in Figure 7.13.
Figure 7.12
Sample Problem

Sample Problem Find the volume of a cone with a base diameter

of 7 ft and a height of 5 ft. Express your answer
Find the volume of an elliptical tank with the in cu. ft.
major axis equal to 8 ft and the minor axis to 6
ft. The length of the tank is 10 ft. Express your Solution
answer in cubic feet.
3.1416 × (7 ft) 2 × 5 ft
V=
Solution 12
V = 64.141 cu. ft
V = (8 ft/2) × (6 ft/2) × 3.1416 × 10 ft
V = 376.992 cu. ft

7 • 12 Essential Math
 Surface Area and Volume Calculations

Frustum of a Cone Volume = 1/3 × 4.333 ft (44.179 ft2 + 2.183

ft2 + 44.179 ft 2 x 2183 ft 2 ) = 1.444 ft
When a cone is cut off at any point below the
top by a plane that is parallel to its base, the part (46.362 ft2 + 96.442757 ft 4 ) = 1.444 ft
below the cutting plane is called a frustum of a (46.362 ft2 + 9.8205273 ft2) = 1.444 ft
cone. (56.182527 ft2) = 81.127568 ft3

b Spherical Volumes

h A sphere is a closed solid whose points are all

equally distant from a point within called its
center. The volume of a sphere is equal to 4/3
B times π times 1/2 diameter cubed:
Volume of Spherical Object =
Figure 7.14
4/3 × 3.1416 × (D/2)3
or
The lower portion of a pneumatic tank or a 660 0.5236 × D × D × D
bulk truck is a frustum of a cone. The volume of
a frustum can be calculated by the following: The dimensions of a spherical object are
illustrated in Figure 7.15.
Volume of Frustum = 1/3h(B + b + B× b )
where:
h = height of frustum
B = area of frustum base
b = area of frustum top D
Figure 7.14 illustrates the dimensions of a
frustum.

Sample Problem

Find the volume of a bunk cement tank frustum Figure 7.15

with a base diameter of 7.5 ft and a top diameter
of 20 inches. The height of the frustum is 4 ft., 4
in. Express your answer in cu. ft.
Sample Problem
Solution
Find the volume of a sphere which has a
20 in. ÷ 12 in/ft = 1.667 ft diameter of 8 ft. Express your answer in cubic
feet.
4 in. ÷ 12 in/ft = 0.333 ft
4 ft + 0.333 ft = 4.333 ft Solution
Area of Base = 0.7854 × 7.5 ft × 7.5 ft =
44.179 sq ft V = 0.5236 × 8 ft × 8 ft × 8 ft
Area of Top = 0.7854 × 1.667 ft × 1.667 ft = V = 268.083 cu. ft
2.183 sq ft

7 • 13 Essential Math
 Surface Area and Volume Calculations

B Quiz
Find the solutions to the following problems to check your progress in Unit B.
0. What is the volume of a reserve pit that is 75 ft long, 40 ft wide and 6 ft deep? Assume the sides are
straight. Express your answer in barrels.

0. What is the annular volume, in gallons, between 5000 ft of 9-5/8 in., 53.50 lb/ft casing and 12-1/4 in.
hole? Use the Red Book to find the appropriate factor.

0. What is the annular volume, in cubic feet, for 7675 ft of 2-7/8 in., 6.5 lb/ft tubing inside 7 in., 26 lb/ft
casing? Use the Red Book to find the appropriate factor.

0. How many cubic feet will the tank shown below hold?

5 ft 10 ft

20 ft

0. An acid transport has an elliptical tank 40 ft long. The major axis is 7 ft and the minor axis is 4.5 ft.
How many cubic feet will the tank hold?

4.5 ft
7 ft

40 ft

Now, check your answers in the Answer Key.

7 • 14 Essential Math
 Surface Area and Volume Calculations

Self-Check Test for Section 7

Use the space provided to calculate the answers to the following questions.

1. What is the surface area of a 9-ft diameter circle? Express your answer in sq ft.

2. What is the cross-sectional area between a 5 in OD and a 1 in ID?

3. Find the surface area of a trapezoid that has parallel sides of 22 feet and 44 feet with a height of 12
feet.

4. Find the surface area of this triangle:

?
3 ft

6 ft

5. Find the length of the third side of this right triangle:

2 ft, 9 in.
2 ft, 3 in.

6. The distance AC has to be measured, but a straight line between the two points crosses an impassable
stream. The fences AB and BC are known to be 450 feet and 600 feet long, respectively. AB and BC
meet in a right angle. What is the distance AC?

7 • 15 Essential Math
 Surface Area and Volume Calculations

450 ft

B 600 ft C

0. A steel tank is 6 ft in diameter at the top (inside measurement) and 7 ft. 10 in. in diameter at the
bottom. The height of the frustum is 3 ft. 8 in. How many cubic feet of water will the tank hold?

0. If you have a right triangle with these dimensions:

9 ft

6 ft

(a) What is the length of side b?

(b) What is the surface area of the triangle?

0. Find the cross sectional area between a 3-1/2 in. OD and a 2.992 in. ID.

0. What is the volume in barrels of a tank that is 40 feet long, 72 inches wide, and 15 feet high?

0. What is the volume of an elliptical tank with a major axis of 16 ft, a minor axis of 7 ft and a length of
10 ft? Express your answer in cubic feet.

0. What is the volume of a bulk cement tank frustum with a base diameter of 6.5 ft, a top diameter of 18
inches, and a height of 6 ft, 6 in.? Express your answer in cu. ft.

7 • 16 Essential Math
 Surface Area and Volume Calculations

0. What is the volume of a sphere that has a diameter of 15 ft? Express your answer in cubic feet.

Now, look up the suggested answers in the Answer Key.

7 • 17 Essential Math
 Surface Area and Volume Calculations

Answer Keys
Use the page numbers provided as references if your answer was incorrect or if you were unsure of
your answer. Then proceed to the next unit.
Refer to
Items from Unit A Quiz Page
0. Area = 9.6212 sq in. 7-3
0. 6.2832 sq in 7-6, 7
0. 250 ft2 7-4
0. 264 ft 7-3
0. Area = 1/2 × 6 ft × 8 ft = 24 ft2 7-3, 4
0. 175,000 ft2
0. 14.42 ft 7-4,5

Refer to
Items from Unit B Quiz Page
0. 3205.8 bbl 7-9
0. 11714 gal 7-11
0. 1302.4475 cu. ft 7-11, 12
0. 1309 ft3 7-13
0. V= 989.604 cu ft 7-13

Refer to
Self Check Test Page
0. Area = 63.6174 sq ft 7-6
0. 18.8495559 in2 7-6, 7
3
0. 396 ft 7-3, 4
2
0. 9 ft 7-4
0. 1.58 ft 7-4, 5
0. 750 ft 7-4,5
3
0. 138.7 ft 7-14
0. (a) b = 6.7082039 ft
(b) 20.124717 sq ft
0. 2.590199 sq in
0. 641.16 bbl
0. 879.648 cu. Ft

7 • 18 Essential Math
 Surface Area and Volume Calculations

Refer to
Self Check Test Page

12. 92.317224 cu. ft

13. 1767.15 cu. Ft

7 • 19 Essential Math
Section 8

Fluid Calculations

Table of Contents
Fluid Calculations ......................................................................................................................................8-3
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................8-3
Learning Objectives ...............................................................................................................................8-3
Unit A: Hydrostatic and Differential Pressure Calculations ......................................................................8-3
Hydrostatic Pressure Calculations..........................................................................................................8-4
Dual Densities Pressure Calculations.....................................................................................................8-5
Differential Pressure Calculations..........................................................................................................8-6
Unit A Quiz ............................................................................................................................................8-7
Unit B: Force and Buoyancy Calculations.................................................................................................8-8
Force, Pressure and Area Calculation ....................................................................................................8-8
Buoyancy Calculations.........................................................................................................................8-10
Interpolation .........................................................................................................................................8-13
Unit B Quiz ..........................................................................................................................................8-14
Self-Check Test for Section 8 ..................................................................................................................8-15
Answers Keys ..........................................................................................................................................8-17

8•1 Essential Math

 Fluid Calculations

Fluid Calculations
psig). A pressure reading that combines
atmospheric pressure and gauge pressure is in
Introduction pounds per square inch (psi absolute).

Pressure is the exertion of force upon a body by In your work in the oilfield, you will deal with
another body when in contact with it. The several forms of pressure. This section breaks
standard measure of pressure is pounds per down this topic into the various types of
square inch (abbreviated lb/in.2 or psi). This pressure. An understanding of pressure
expression means that the pressure being exerted calculations is necessary for cementing,
in the area or space concerned has the indicated stimulation, special tools, drill stem testing and
number of pounds of pressure on each square nearly all other aspects of oilfield service.
inch. For instance, our atmosphere exerts a Therefore, accuracy in pressure calculations is
pressure on each square inch of the earth's critical.
surface of 14.7 lb. It is common to have
pressures both higher and lower than this
atmospheric pressure. A vacuum pump may be
Learning Objectives
used to withdraw some of the air from a closed
container, leaving pressure well below Upon completion of this section, you will be
atmospheric pressure. Pumping more air into a able to:
tire will result in pressure above atmospheric • calculate hydrostatic and differential
pressure. pressures
A regular pressure gauge reads zero when the • understand the relationships among force,
pressure on it is normal atmospheric pressure. pressure, and area
When the pressure reading goes above zero, it is
actually showing the pressure beyond normal • find buoyancy factors
atmospheric pressure, not the absolute total
pressure. As a result, such readings are said to be
in pounds per square inch gauge (abbreviated

Unit A: Hydrostatic and Differential Pressure

Calculations
Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by a time. Differential pressure can only occur when
column of fluid. The size or the shape of the the two unequal density columns are connected
container in which the fluid is stored makes no or related to each other so that the pressures can
difference. The vertical height of the fluid work across a barrier.
column and the density of the fluid (lb/gal) are
the only factors involved in calculating
hydrostatic pressure.
Differential pressure occurs when two fluid
columns with different densities at the same
vertical height are present in a hole at the same

8•3 Essential Math

 Fluid Calculations

Hydrostatic Pressure Conversion Table as seen in Figure 8.3. The

extreme left-hand column of the table gives fluid
Calculations densities in lb/gal and the fourth column
provides pressure in psi for one foot of depth.
All the figures in Figure 8.1 have the same The formula for hydrostatic pressure is:
pressure at their base, 0.433 psi. They are all one
foot deep and filled with fresh water weighing Hydrostatic pressure = psi/ft × depth
8.33 lb/gal at 68°F.
Sample Problem

You have a 500 ft column of water. What is the

hydrostatic pressure exerted at the bottom of the
1 ft column? (Water weighs 8.33 lb/gal)

Solution
Figure 8.1
Look up the psi/ft for 8.33 lb/gal water in Figure
8.3. Then multiply by the depth of the fluid:
Figure 8.2 illustrates that the amount of fluid in 0.4330 psi/ft × 500 ft = 216.5 psi
a container has nothing to do with hydrostatic hydrostatic
pressure. Even though all the figures have
different pressures at their bases, they have the
same volume.

1 ft 1 gallon
0.433 psi

1 ft

0.433 psi
2 ft

3 ft

0.866 psi

1.299 psi

Figure 8.2

Hydrostatic pressure can be calculated at any

depth in a hole or a container. The best method
for calculating hydrostatic pressure is to use a
Hydrostatic Pressure and Fluid Weight

8•4 Essential Math

 Fluid Calculations

Fluid
B 100 ft
100 ft

400 ft

Fluid
A
500 ft

Total Hydrostatic Pressure (HP) =

Fluid A HP + Fluid B HP
Figure 8.4

Do not add the fluid heights together because of

the differing densities. Do not add the psi/ft
together since this will give you a greater
density than you have in the hole.

Sample Problem

What is the hydrostatic pressure at 500 feet

under the conditions as shown in Figure 8.4?
• The first 100 ft of the annulus is filled with
Figure 8.3 8.33 lb/gal water
• From 100 to 500 ft there is 16 lb/gal
weighted fluid in the annulus.

Dual Densities Pressure Solution

Calculations
Determine the psi exerted by each fluid
What happens if you have two fluid densities in independently, and then sum the pressures.
the same hole? To determine hydrostatic Hydrostatic pressure = psi/ft × depth
pressure, you must calculate each pressure
separately and then sum the pressures. Psi from 8.33 lb/gal water:
0.4330 psi/ft × 100 ft = 43.3 psi
Psi from 16 lb/gal fluid: 0.8312 psi/ft × 400
ft = 332.48 psi
Total hydrostatic pressure at 500 ft =
43.3 psi + 332.48 psi =
375.78 psi hydrostatic

8•5 Essential Math

 Fluid Calculations

Differential Pressure
Calculations

A U-tube as compared to a hole condition can be

used to illustrate fluid flow from the effects of
differential pressure. This is illustrated in Figure
8.5. A fluid with a higher density will always try
to push one with a lighter density to an
equalization point.

Figure 8.7
Weighted Weighted
Fluid Fluid

Water Water
Solution

Weighted fluid at 15.6 lb/gal 0.8104 psi/ft

Figure 8.5 Water at 8.33 lb/gal – 0.4330 psi/ft

0.3744 psi/ft
0.3744 psi/ft × 3 ft = 1.1322 psi differential
Figure 8.6 shows an example where no
differential pressure exists. There are equal The hydrostatic pressure at the base of the hole
densities and equal vertical heights. There is is 2.4312 psi (0.8104 psi/ft × 3 ft). The
hydrostatic pressure at the base of this object, differential pressure (1.1322 psi) plus the
but no differential pressure; therefore, the hydrostatic pressure of the water column (0.4330
system is balanced psi/ft × 3 ft = 1.299 psi) is equal to the hydra
static pressure (1.1322 psi + 1.299 psi = 2.4312
psi) at the base of the hole.

Sample Problem

Figure 8.8 illustrates a typical situation. There is

weighted fluid in the annulus and in the bottom
part of the casing. The upper part of the casing is
Figure 8.6 filled with water. Note that the weighted fluid
column for one foot on each side of the barrier is
balanced. Therefore, this part of the fluid
column will not contribute to the differential
Sample Problem pressure. Determine the differential pressure in
the unbalanced part of the fluid column.
The fluid columns in the cased hole in Figure
8.7 have unequal densities (8.33 lb/gal water in Solution
the casing, 15.6 lb/gal fluid in annulus) and
equal vertical heights (3 ft). The pressure Weighted fluid at 15.6 lb/gal 0.8104 psi/ft
exerted by a higher density fluid pushing against
a lower density fluid is recorded at the surface Water at 8.33 lb/gal - 0.4330 psi/ft
on a gauge. What is the differential pressure in 0.3774 psi/ft
this case?

8•6 Essential Math

 Fluid Calculations

the vertical heights of the two fluid columns. To

0.7548 psi = Differential Pressure
keep the weighted fluid from pushing the water
Weighted
Fluid out of the hole, it must be, closed off at the top
of the casing. This pressure (0.7548 psi) would
2 ft
Water
be recorded at the surface on a gauge.
The differential pressure (0.7548 psi) plus the
hydrostatic pressure of the water column (0.4330
1 ft psi/ft × 2 It = 0.8660 psi) plus the fluid column
2.4312 psi = Hydrostatic
Pressure (0.8104 psi/ft x 3 ft across the barrier (0.8104 psi/ft × 1 ft = 0.8104
psi) is equal to the hydrostatic pressure at the
Figure 8.8 base of the hole.
0.7848 psi + 0.866 psi + 0.8104 psi = 2.4312 psi
Because a two-foot portion of the column is Differential pressure occurs in one form or
unbalanced: another in many service jobs and will govern
2 ft × 0.3774 psi/ft = 0.7548 psi differential many things that can or cannot be done in
oilfield operations.
This hole is not balanced because of the
difference in fluid densities and the difference in

Unit A Quiz

For items 1 through 4, fill in the blanks. The remaining items should be calculated, check the
answer to check your progress in Unit A.
1. Hydrostatic pressure is the_____________ exerted by a column of________________.

2. Different-shaped figures may have the same volume, but a_____________ hydrostatic pressure at the
base.

3. For differential pressure to exist, it must work across a _______________.

4. Fluid with a heavier density will always try to push a lighter fluid to an
_____________________________ _______________.

5. What is the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of a 10,000 ft column of 7.3 lb/gal fluid? Use Figure
8.3 as a reference.

You have pipe in a hole that is 600 ft deep. If there is 15.6 lb/gal cement in the annulus and 9 lb/gal
mud in the pipe, what is the differential pressure?

6. Inside 2000 ft of casing there is 30 ft of 16 lb/gal fluid and 1970 ft of 9.5 lb/gal mud. Outside the
casing, there is 2000 ft of 16 lb/gal fluid. What is the differential pressure?

Now, look up the suggested answers in the Answer Key.

8•7 Essential Math

 Fluid Calculations

Unit B: Force and Buoyancy Calculations

Force is the effect of pressure (psi) applied to an
area (sq in.). Force can also be defined as power 100 lb

that tends to cause motion. Force is expressed in 100 lb

pounds and has a direction (indicated by 100 lb
arrows). 100 lb

100 lb
Buoyancy is the upward force exerted by a fluid.
The buoyant force is equal to the weight of fluid 100 lb
displaced when the pipe is run in the hole. 100 lb

This unit will define and discuss the 100 lb

relationships among force, pressure, and area
100 lb
and give examples to help you understand how
900 lb of
they are used. In the last part of this unit, Force
buoyancy calculations will be shown.

3 in.

Force, Pressure and Area n.

1i
Calculation

Force is equal to the pressure multiplied by the

area:
1 in.
Force (lb) = Pressure (psi) × Area (sq in.) 3 in.

or Pressure = 100 lb/sq in.

Area = 9 sq in.
F=P×A
Force = 900 lb
Note that if any two of these quantities are Each square inch has 100 lb exerted
known, the third can be calculated by against it; therefore, the total force is
transposing this formula. Therefore, the formula 900 lb working over 9 sq in.
for pressure is: Figure 8.9
P=F÷A
and the formula for area is:
A=F÷P
Sample Problem

Figure 8.9 illustrates the relationships among What is the upward force created by the
force, pressure, and area. hydraulic cylinder’s piston in Figure 8.10?

8•8 Essential Math

 Fluid Calculations

W eig h t
Solution

Pressure = 5000 psi

Area = 5.12 in. × 5.12 in. × 0.7854 =
3 in . 20.588789 sq in.

3 000 p si
F=P×A
F = 5000 psi × 20.588789 sq in. =
102,943.94 lb⇑
Figure 8.10
If there were no threads to hold the cap on the
head, it would take the physical weight of two
pump trucks to hold the cap down since the
Solution force created is over 102,000 lb.

P = 3000 psi Sample Problem

A = 3 in. × 3 in. × 0.7854 = 7.0686 sq in.
What is the force created on the cap in the 10-
F=P×A 3/4 in. plug container head pictured in Figure
F = 3000 psi × 7.0686 sq in. = 21,205.8 1b⇑ 8.12?
If this were a hydraulic jack, the piston would be
capable of lifting 21,205.8 lb of physical weight
when 3000 psi was applied to the area of this
piston.

Sample Problem

What is the force created on the cap of the 5-1/2

in. plug container head illustrated in Figure
8.11? 5000 psi
10.31 in.

Figure 8.12

Solution

Pressure = 5000 psi

5000 psi
Area = 10.31 in. × 10.31 in. × 0.7854 =
5.12 in.
83.484956 sq in.
F = 5000 psi × 83.484956 sq in. =
Figure 8.11 417,424.78 lb⇑
Compare the force in this sample problem and
the problem immediately preceding it. The force
on the 10-3/4 in. cap (417,424.78 lb⇑) is

8•9 Essential Math

 Fluid Calculations

approximately four times greater than the force • 6 in. plunger

on the 5-1/2 in. cap (102,943.94 lb⇑). Double • 5 in. plunger
the diameter and the force will be four times • 4-1/2 in. plunger
greater. This change in force is due to the • 4 in. plunger
change in area, even the applied pressure (5000 • 3-3/8 in. plunger
psi) remained the same.

Sample Problem Solution

What is the pressure created with 2000 lb of 6-in. plunger:

force on the hydraulic cylinder's piston rod in 180,000 lb ÷ 28.2744 sq in.= 6366.18 psi
Figure 8.13?
5-in. plunger:
180,000 lb ÷ 19.635 sq in. = 9167.30 psi
2000 lb 4-1/2 in. plunger:
180,000 lb ÷ 15.90435 sq in.= 11,317.658 psi
4-in. plunger:
180,000 lb ÷ 12.5664 sq in. = 14,323.91 psi
3-3/8 in. plunger:
180,000 lb ÷ 8.9462 sq in. = 20,120.27 psi
2 in. The pressures calculated above are the
maximum pressures to reach the maximum force
limitations on an HT-400 pump power end. The
636.618 psi recommended working pressure for each plunger
size as listed in the HT-400 pump manual is:
• 6 in. - 6250 psi
Figure 8.13 • 5 in. - 9000 psi
• 4-1/2 in. - 11,200 psi
• 4 in. - 14,000 psi
Solution • 3-3/8 in. - 20,000 psi
The concepts of force, pressure and area cover
Force = 2000 lb⇓ most downhole situations as well as surface
conditions. Short strings of pipe or large
Area = 2 in. × 2 in. × 0.7854 = 3.1416 sq in. diameter pipes can be pumped out of the hole
P = F /A easily. Therefore, it is important to know where
the forces are created. Other factors to be
P = 2000 lb⇓ ÷ 3.1416 sq in. = 636.618 psi considered with the pipe suspended in a hole full
of fluid are the direction of the force created and
Sample Problem the buoyancy of the pipe.

An HT-400 pump can withstand a maximum

force of 180,000 lb against its power end. The Buoyancy Calculations
force that is transmitted to the power end is
created by the plungers working against the fluid As stated earlier in this unit, buoyancy is the
pressure that the pump is pumping. Find the upward force exerted by a fluid. In other words,
maximum pressure that can be applied with the the fluid is trying to float whatever is placed in
following plunger sizes: it. In oilfield applications, this means that even

8 • 10 Essential Math
 Fluid Calculations

very heavy items such as drill pipe and drill Df = Density of the fluid
collars will be lighter in fluid than in air.
BF = Buoyancy factor of the liquid
Calculating the weight of steel tubular goods in
Note: This formula will not work for material
a liquid is easy when you use your Red Book.
other than normal steel.
Figure 8.14 shows the appropriate table used in
identifying the buoyancy factor of a given fluid.
It supplies you with the first critical piece of
information you need to know in finding the
weight of tubular goods in a liquid.
Buoyancy factor can be calculated if the density
and weight per unit volume of the fluid and pipe
are known.
We use pounds per gallon (ppg or lb/gal) as the
weight per unit volume to arrive at the buoyancy
factor of a liquid because we are using a volume
standard that says 1 gal of steel will weigh
65.447 lb/gal and the weight of the steel will be
affected by the buoyant tendencies of the liquid.
The following example illustrates how you
would use your Red Book to identify the
buoyancy factor of a liquid on 1 gal of steel (we
say 1 gallon of steel instead of 1 pound because
we are dealing with liquid and our answer must
reflect this). The steel pipe we are using will be
submerged in 2 % KCL water, which weighs
8.43 lb/gal.
By looking up 8.43 lb/gal on Table 132 (See
right) of your Red Book, you will find that the
pipe is expected to be “buoyed,” resulting in a
factor of 0.8716 lb/gal (the number to the right
of the lb/gal fluid).
Thus, 1 lb steel, submerged in an 8.43 lb/gal
fluid, will weigh 0.8716 lb/gal, i.e., 1 lb of steel
in liquid will weigh 0.8716 lb/gal.
You could then use this information to calculate
the weight of an entire string of pipe submerged
in a fluid.
But what if your Red Book is not available? You
would then be expected to calculate the Figure 8.14 - Section 130, Table 132, Page
buoyancy factor of a liquid on your own. 3 of the Halliburton Cementing Tables (Red
Book) shows you the Buoyancy Factor
Here is a formula for calculating the weight of connected with a fluid’s density expressed
open-ended steel pipe suspended in a fluid of a in lb/gal.
known density:
(Ds - Df) ÷ Ds = BF
To use this formula, let’s say that we are running
Where: Ds = Density of steel
into a hole using 1 ¾ in. O.D. Coiled Tubing

8 • 11 Essential Math
 Fluid Calculations

that weighs 2.169 lb/ft., The hole is full of 8.6 Sample Problem
lb/gal fluid and the tubing will be run to a depth
of 9,500 ft. How much will the tubing string How much does 1400 ft of 5-1/2 in., 17 lb/ft
weigh, top to bottom, when it is run to this casing weigh if it is suspended in 10.3 lb/gal
depth? fluid?
First you need to calculate what the weight of
the string would be in air: Solution
2.169 lb/ft × 9,500 ft = 20,605 lb
17 lb/ft × 0.8426 BF = 14.3242 lb/ft
Now, using the previous formula, you would
calculate the buoyancy factor of the 8.6 lb/gal To find the string's total weight, multiply by its
fluid: length:
(Density of Steel – Fluid Weight) 14.3242 lb/ft × 1400 ft = 20,053.88 lb
÷ Density of Steel = Buoyancy Factor The total weight is 20,053.88 lb. This weight
(65.447 lb/gal – 8.6 lb/gal) ÷ 65.447 lb/gal represents the Weight Indicator Reading. Since
= 0.8686 (rounded) this is the weight of the casing in fluid, and this
weight would have to be overcome by pressure
You can double check this answer by looking up to pump the pipe up or out of the hole, some
buoyancy factor of the 8.6 lb/gal fluid in your on distance, this weight becomes a downward
the chart in Figure 8.14 or in your Red Book. force (lb ⇓).
So, with a tubing weight of 2.169 lb/ft, times
9,500 ft, the pipe would weigh 20,605 lb in air. Sample Problem
To calculate the weight of the string in the 8.6
lb/gal fluid, you would calculate the additional Calculate the pressure to overcome the
factor of the effect of the liquid’s buoyancy 20,053.88 lb downward force created in the
would have on the string: above sample problem.
20,605 lb × 0.8686 (BF) = 17,897 lb
Solution
Sample Problem
P=F÷A
Find the weight of 5-1/2 in., 17 lb/ft casing The formula for area is based on the OD of the
suspended in 10.3 lb/gal fluid. Use Figure 8.14 casing.
as a reference.
Area = 5.5 in. × 5.5 in. × 0.7854 =
23.75835 sq in.
Solution
P = 20,053.88 lb⇓ ÷ 23.75835 sq in. =
17 lb/ft × 0.8426 BF = 844.08 psi
14.3242 lb/ft in fluid Therefore, the pressure required to overcome the
Buoyancy is the force acting upward on the pipe. downward force is 844.08 psi. This pressure will
It is equal to the hydrostatic pressure at the end bring the downward force to zero pounds. Any
of the pipe acting on the area of the wall of the pressure above this 844 psi will lift the casing.
pipe (pipe OD area - pipe ID area). As you can
see, buoyancy can be calculated in several ways. Sample Problem
For simplicity, use the table in the Red Book.
Calculate the upward and downward forces at
the completion of the job illustrated in Figure
8.15. Give the amount of force and direction.

8 • 12 Essential Math
 Fluid Calculations

OD of the casing because the pressure works

Pump Truck
Gauge over the area of the casing end (wall thickness).
The difference in pressure between the fresh
20-in., 94 lb/ft Casi ng water and cement is transmitted to the head or
Water
26-in. Hol e
swage in the top of the casing.
8.33
lb/gal
15.6 l b/gal Cement Area:
20 in. × 20 in. × 0.7854 = 314.16 sq in.

400-ft. Pipe Depth

Upward force:
150.96 psi × 314.16 sq in. =
Figure 8.15 47,425.593 1b⇑
For the resulting force, compare the forces and
their directions. The upward force is 47,425.593
Given information:
lb. The downward force is 32,813.52 lb.
• The hole was full of fresh water when the Therefore, the resulting force is:
casing was run (844.08 psi).
47,425.593 lb⇑ - 32,813.52 lb⇓ =
• Displace the cementing plug with fresh 14,612.073 lb⇑
water.
The force against the chain is 14,612.073 lb⇑.
• Cement back to ground level. The chain must be of sufficient strength to hold
this upward force. The chain anchor point must
Solution also have enough physical strength and weight
to hold this force.
BF for 8.33 lb/gal water = 0.8727
94 1b × 0.8727 BE = Interpolation
82.0338 lb/ft × 400 ft = 32,813.52 lb⇓
The downward force (weight indicator reading) Let's say you wanted to look up the buoyancy
is 32,813.52 lb. This force has to be overcome factor for a fluid that weighs 8.36 lb/gal. You'll
with pressure acting over the area of the OD of notice in the table for buoyancy factors, the
the casing to move the pipe up the hole. densities are listed in tenths (e.g., 8.3, 8.4, etc.).
Do you say that the BF for 8.3 or 8.4 pounds per
Pressure acting over the area of the OD of the gallon fluids is "close enough"? For accurate
casing must now be considered. The hydrostatic calculations, you need to interpolate.
pressure of the water working over the area of
the casing was taken into account through the Interpolation between two numbers or two of
buoyancy factor. However, pressure has been any quantitative values is possible when you
added to the system by placing cement in the know two end points from which to calculate. In
annulus. The added pressure is the difference making an interpolation calculation, assume that
between the pressure exerted by the cement and the relationship is straight between the end
fresh water. points, and that any value can be found between
the points.
Differential pressure:
15.6 lb/gal cement: 0.8104 psi/ft Sample Problem
8.33 lb/gal water: – 0.4330 psi/ft
0.3774 psi/ft If an 8.3 lb/gal fluid has a BF of 0.8732, and an
0.3774 psi/ft × 400 ft = 150.96 psi 8.4 lb/gal fluid has a BF of 0.8716, what is the
BF for an 8.36 lb/gal fluid?
The pressure acting over the casing end is
150.96 psi. The area to be used is based on the

8 • 13 Essential Math
 Fluid Calculations

Solution from 0.8732 to 0.8716, or 6/10 of 0.0016

subtracted from 0.8732:
0.8732⎤ 0.8732 – (0.6 × 0.0016) = 0.87224
⎥ 0.0016
0.8716⎥⎦ The BF for 8.36 lb/gal fluid is 0.87224.
8.36 is 6/l0ths of the distance between 8.3 and
8.4. Therefore, BF should be 6/l0ths of the way

Unit B Quiz

Fill in the Blanks to check your progress in Unit B

1. Force can be defined as _______________ which tends to cause ________________.

2. Buoyancy is an_________________ force exerted by a fluid.

3. To calculate the pressure to overcome a downward force, use the formula: P = ______ divided by
_________________.

4. Interpolation between two numbers is possible when you know the two _________ _________ from
which to calculate.

5. If you run 7 in., 32 lb/ft casing to a total depth of 5100 ft in a 9 lb/gal fluid, what does the casing
weigh?

6. What is the pressure required to bring the downward force to zero if the casing in item #5 is run in
8.95 lb/gal fluid?

7. If you cement 200 ft of 16 in., 84 lb/ft casing with 16.4 lb/gal cement and displace the entire casing
with water, what is the amount and direction of the resulting force.

Now, look up the answers in the Answer Key.

8 • 14 Essential Math
 Fluid Calculations

Self-Check Test for Section 8

Find the solutions to these problems.
1. What is the hydrostatic pressure of a 300 ft column of 9.0 lb/gal brine water?

2. What is the differential pressure of a 3000 ft column of 9.0 lb/gal mud and a 3000 ft column of 16.4
lb/gal cement?

3. What will the recorded pressure be at the pump truck when the fresh water is in the tubing in this
situation?

Tubing is
2-3/8 in., 4.7 lb/ft, EUE J-55 to 8000 ft
Casing is
5-1/2 in., 17 lb/ft J-55 to 8500 ft

Well fluid is 10 lb/gal

Tubing will be filled with fresh water
(8.33 lb/gal)

4. What is the pressure required to lift a 70,000 lb block on a hydraulic cylinder if the cylinder diameter
is 1 ft?

5. What size hydraulic cylinder would you need to lift 50,000 lb with a pressure of 250 psi?

6. With open-ended tubing suspended in well fluid, what is the required pressure to bring the tubing
weight to zero?

Tubing is 3-1/2 in., 9.3 lb/ft EUE J-55 to

3500 ft

Casing is 7 in., 20 lb/ft J-55 to 4000 ft

Perforations are 3500 ft to 3510 ft

Well fluid is 2% KC1 water

8 • 15 Essential Math
 Fluid Calculations

7. Interpolate the buoyancy factor for 15.55 lb/gal mud.

8. What is the hydrostatic pressure in the annulus at 1000 ft under these circumstances?

• The top 300 ft of the annulus is filled with 8.33 lb/gal water.
• From 300 ft to 1000 ft, there is 15.2 lb/gal well fluid in the annulus.

9. What is the differential pressure under these conditions?

Well
Fluid
8.33
lb/gal 15.4 l b/gal Cement

800 ft

10. Calculate the upward and downward forces at the completion of this job (see figure below) and the
resulting force.

Give the amount of force and direction.

The hole was full of 9 lb/gal fluid when casing was run.
Displace the cementing plug with 8.33 lb/gal fluid.

Cement back to ground level.

Mud 9 lbs/gal

Water
8.33 15.2-lb/gal Cement
lb/gal
7-in., 20 lb/ft Casing

1,000 ft

11. What is the accurate buoyancy factor for a fluid that weighs 12.46 lb/gal?

Now, look up the suggested answers in the Answer Key.

8 • 16 Essential Math
 Fluid Calculations

Answers Keys
Refer to the pages provided as references if you answered any of these items incorrectly, or if you were
unsure of your answers.
Refer to
Items from Unit A Quiz Page
1. pressure/fluid 8-2
2. different 8-2
1. barrier 8-5
2. equalization point 8-4
3. 3792 psi 8-3
4. 205.74 differential 8-4, 5
5. 665.269 psi 8-4, 5
Refer to
Items from Unit B Quiz Page
1. power/motion 8-7
2. upward pressure 8-7
3. F/A 8-7
1. end points 8-13
2. 140,760 lbs 8-11
3. 3,660.76 psi 8-9
4. 19,595.57 lbs⇑ 8-12, 13
Refer to
Self-Check Test Page
1. 140.25 psi 8-11
2. 1153.2 psi 8-6
3. 692 psi 8-6
4. 618.93444 psi 8-10
5. 200 sq in. 8-10
6. 2949.1247 psi 8-10
7. 0.76235 BF 8-11
8. 682.62 psi
9. 293.6 psi
10. 3718 lb⇓
11. 0.8096 BF for 12.46 lb/gal fluid
Refer to the page numbers provided as references if you answered any of these items incorrectly, or
if you were unsure of your answers. Now review to prepare for the final test.

8 • 17 Essential Math