Defining a brand's equity has been difficult

Using laddering to for researchers. While we speak of equity in

general terms, it is a consumer-specific
understand and concept that differs from consumer to
leverage a brand's consumer (Aaker, 1991). For this reason,
many of the methods used to better
equity understand brand equity ± such a focus
groups and surveys ± have met with
Brian Wansink disappointing results. Building on means-end
theory (Reynolds and Gutman, 1988;
Gutman, 1982), we describe a method
± laddering ± which has proven useful in
uncovering insights related to the source and
the nature of a brand's equity and why
consumers buy what they buy (Wansink,
2000).
The author Most methods that analyze brand equity
focus on concrete product knowledge and not
Brian Wansink is Founder and Director of the Food and
on how such attributes relate to important
Brand Lab and Jointly Appointed Professor of Marketing,
values for that consumer. One important
Advertising and Agricultural and Consumer Economics at
component of a brand's equity lies in the
University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Champaign,
emotional associations that brand has for a
Illinois, USA.
particular person (Keller, 1996). While
related to product attributes, these abstract
Keywords
associations can have a deeper and more
Brand equity, Leverage, Research profound impact on one's relationship with
objects such as brands (Bannister and Mair,
Abstract 1968). Yet many methods used to gauge a
brand's equity can fail to tap in to the deeper
Understanding a brand's equity is difficult for researchers.
reasons why a person attributes such equity to
Building on means-end theory, describes a method ±
the brand. Even if this is a dying brand,
laddering ± which has proven useful in uncovering
understanding its core seed of equity can
insights related to the source and the nature of a brand's
provide a starting point to revitalize it
equity. Through laddering interviews, a meaningful
(Wansink, 1997).
``mental map'' can be developed that visually links a
A laddering interview is similar to the
brand's attributes, the benefits or consequences of using
classical picture of a psychologist interviewing
it, and the personal values it satisfies. An analysis of
a patient on a couch, revealing insights into
1,200 laddering interviews indicates that a combination
their lives that are not apparent. The
of only seven basic values are at the core of most brand
psychologist is trying to get to the root of the
purchases. A number of illustrations of laddering insights
problem through questioning. Laddering
and their implications for the marketing mix are given to
serves the same function with the exception
show how laddering can help marketers understand and
that the marketer is not searching for the root
revitalize brand equity.
of a problem. Rather, he is trying to find the
root reasons for the customer's purchase of a
Electronic access
particular product. In contrast to surveys
The Emerald Research Register for this journal is ± which trace or assess general consumer
available at sentiment ± laddering assesses deeper reasons
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister why individual consumers buy. Aggregating
these deep perceptions allows more profound,
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is
available at
but still generalizable, insights to be
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/1352-2752.htm
uncovered.

Thanks to Nina Chan for assistance in organizing

this article. More details related to the techniques
Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal
Volume 6 . Number 2 . 2003 . pp. 111-118 described in this article can be found at
# MCB UP Limited . ISSN 1352-2752 www.ConsumerPsychology.com and at
DOI 10.1108/13522750310470118 www.MarketingClass.net
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 Using laddering to understand and leverage a brand's equity Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal
Brian Wansink Volume 6 . Number 2 . 2003 . 111-118

As marketing costs rise, it is critical that needs, often represent the real reason why
marketing operate more efficiently. When people buy high equity brands. On Maslow's
customers perceive personal relevance to a hierarchy, values would be on a higher
product's attributes, it is because it becomes echelon of human needs in comparison to
more strongly and uniquely associated with product attributes and consequences. The
desirable usage consequences (Olson and strength of associations between attributes,
Reynolds, 1983). This article presents consequences, and values have a strong
laddering as a useful method for evaluating influence on favorable intentions regarding a
means-end theory, and for generating deep brand (Reynolds and Gengler, 1991).
consumer insights that help guide marketing
strategy and execution. Attributes only scratch the surface
When first asked why they purchase a
product, consumers typically answer in
The means-end theory simple, convenient, ``knee-jerk'' ways. These
responses are what ``sound right'' to the
Means-end theory suggests that there is a consumer, but they typically reveal little
hierarchical organization of consumer about the reasons for the purchase. These
perceptions and product knowledge (Young responses often describe attributes of the
and Feigin, 1975; Gutman, 1982) that range product, such as taste, price size, brand name,
from attributes to consumption consequences quality, and price or value. While they may
to personal values (attributes ! describe the product accurately, these are
consequences ! values). This basic hierarchy seldom the real reasons people buy products.
starts with product attributes which have Past experiences in interviewing target
consumption consequences (for example, the consumers for various products produced
``diet'' attribute in a cola has the consequence some examples that illustrate how consumers
of deterring weight gain, or the ``convertible'' initially answer with attribute-level responses
attribute of a sports car might have the (Wansink et al., 1994). Consider the following
consequence of adding excitement or feeling quotations from different sets of interviews
of youth to a person). Each consequence, in with females, 35 to 45 years old with two or
turn, supports one or more important values more children at home:
in that person's life (Reynolds et al., 1995). I purchased the Maybelline line of cosmetics
Similar to the Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow, because it is a good brand name at a reasonable
1954), means-end theory seeks to understand price.
human actions ± in this case purchase Oh, Haagen-Dazs tastes great and it's low in fat.
behavior ± as a means of satisfying different I like to eat Honey Bunches because it tastes
levels of needs. Means-end theory suggests good and it fills me up in the morning, so I'm not
that concrete attributes link to self-relevance hungry an hour later.
and more abstract associations. Laddering is Johnson & Johnson's non-allergenic soap is
really gentle on my skin and I can buy it almost
an effective method to evaluate and draw
anywhere I go.
implications about the means-end theory.
Laddering uses a series of progressive Each of these explanations does little more
questions that allow an interviewer to than merely describe the physical
understand how a product's attributes, the characteristics of the product. However, it is
consequences of using it, and the personal from these attributes that an interviewer can
values it satisfies are linked together. The begin to move towards the values behind
hierarchical value map (HVM), shown as a these purchases through probing questions
graphic description of a laddering interview in that examine some of the consequences
Figure 1, consists of attributes, consequences, consumers associate with these attributes.
and values. Attributes describe the physical
properties of the product. Consequences are Consequences provide key marketing
outcomes, derived from attributes, which the insights
customer associates with the use of the The next step in finding the values impacting
product. Values are derived from associations on a purchasing decision is to examine why
between consequences and personal value the attribute-level distinction is important to
systems (Reynolds and Guttman, 1988). the individual. This begins to reveal more
Values, often attributed to deep emotional personal reasons for purchasing a product,
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Brian Wansink Volume 6 . Number 2 . 2003 . 111-118

Figure 1 An illustration of a hierarchical value map

rather than describing the physical The results of asking ``why?'' to the initial
characteristics of the product. This is because answers given by consumers result in
consumers associate certain attributes with statements that begin to reveal more about the
the relevant consequences of using that abstract and emotional qualities the customer
brand, and the purchase decision may result associates with the brand. These are not merely
from hopes of achieving these associated statements about the product, but thoughtful,
consequences. Often the insights gained here personal reflections that are one step closer to
can be directly applied to formulating a finding the personal values people had that
marketing campaign. To continue our drove the purchase. Consequences specify the
example, consider the subsequent follow-up way a value is linked to an attribute of the
questions and answers to the four examples product (Reynolds and Gengler, 1991).
noted earlier: Consequences are the key component to an
I purchased the Maybelline line of cosmetics effective brand marketing platform. It is from
because it is a good brand name at a reasonable the consequences of a laddering interview that
price. ± Why is reasonable price important? ± Well, a marketing campaign is developed.
buying a quality product that isn't high priced Often, there are many consequences
makes me feel good about myself because I am revealed by a consumer about a purchase he
spending my money wisely. has made. Questions are continually asked
Oh, Haagen-Dazs tastes great and it's low in fat. until a value is revealed. This value may
± Why is food low in fat important to you? ± I like to
present itself after as few as two questions or
watch my weight and live a healthy lifestyle.
as many as 20 questions. The process is
I like to eat Honey Bunches because it tastes
good and it fills me up in the morning, so I'm not dependent upon the questions asked by the
hungry an hour later. ± Why is it important that interviewer as well as the consumer's
you are not hungry an hour later? ± First of all, I involvement with the product. An interviewer
have more energy and tend to get more should not expect to find a consumer's
accomplished at my job. And simply not having personal values behind a purchase in three
to stop work to eat something keeps me working abrupt questions. Usually, 30-40 minutes of
and I get more done at work.
time and concentration must be invested into
Johnson & Johnson's non-allergenic soap is
each interview to gain significant results.
really gentle on my skin and I can buy it almost
anywhere I go. ± Why should a soap be gentle on
your skin? ± Since its gentle to my skin, it does Values are the real reason people buy
not dry it up, and I have this self-image of having The reasons for people's purchasing decisions
very soft and delicate skin. are not always apparent. Although a
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 Using laddering to understand and leverage a brand's equity Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal
Brian Wansink Volume 6 . Number 2 . 2003 . 111-118

consumer will quickly respond to found behind these purchases. It is interesting

product-related questions, their responses are to note that most of these purchases are
often not the core reasons for purchasing a related to two to four different values.
product. Often they are not even aware of
these core reasons (Rokeach, 1973). Most
often, in-depth questioning reveals a deeper Using laddering to investigate
reason for purchasing a product. When means-end theory
consumers buy, they attempt to self-justify
the purchase in order to maintain cognitive The object of a laddering interview is to
consistency. When a person buys a brand uncover how product attributes, usage
because it has high equity, they often buy it consequences, and personal values are linked
because it fits an emotional need as well as a in a person's mind. Doing so will help create a
practical one. For example, when a consumer meaningful ``mental map'' of the consumer's
was asked why he bought OB lager, an view toward the target product, and by
imported Korean beer, his initial responses combining the maps of similar consumers a
included the facts that it was imported and large, more exhaustive map can be developed.
had a fancy label. Through further The hierarchical value map (HVM) is a
questioning, however, it was found that his graphical description of a laddering interview
real reasons for purchasing the imported beer that is used to see the relationships between
were a sense of belonging, personal wellbeing, the attributes, consequences, and values.
and the importance of long-term friends that Each attribute, consequence, and value was
are evoked because of the purchase. Values found by questioning the interviewee based
such as these are ± at some level ± related to on previous responses. This allowed the
most product purchases. interviewer to slowly ``climb the ladder'' to get
Through the process of conducting over to the real reason a person buys any given
1,200 laddering interviews, it generally product. Figure 2 illustrates a hierarchical
appears that an average of 2.2 values are value map for Haagen-Dazs Ice Cream.
linked to the product, but some people may Laddering provides a way of peeling an onion
indicate fewer and some people more. Seven in order to get past the superficial down to
general values often prove to be the end goal what is really important. This article will
for purchase behavior: provide a good framework for conducting an
(1) accomplishment; interview.
(2) belonging; The first step in effective laddering
(3) self-fulfillment; technique is to choose a brand champion,
(4) self-esteem; someone who is loyal to the brand and is
(5) family; enthusiastic about promoting the brand.
(6) satisfaction; and Although not representative of the
(7) security.
population, recall that the purpose of the
With the exception of security, most of these laddering interview ± in this context ± is to
values can be associated with the social and show how they can be used to understand a
self-actualization levels of Maslow's hierarchy brand's equity in order to revitalize the brand.
of needs. Table I shows eight different The best strategy to uncover the core
purchases from interviews with eight different associations and elements of this equity is to
individuals, and the seven general values talk to someone who feels strongly about the

Table I Values found behind consumer purchases

Item Accomplishment Belonging Self-fulfillment Self-esteem Family Satisfaction Security
OB lager X X
Ivory soap
Maybelline X X X
Honey Bunches of Oats X X
Diet Coke
J&J's non-allergenic soap X X X X
Haagen Dazs X X X
Sony Playstation X X X

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Brian Wansink Volume 6 . Number 2 . 2003 . 111-118

Figure 2 A hierarchical value map for Haagen-Dazs ice cream

brand ± a champion. Interviewing casual users links between the attributes, consequences, and
or convenience-oriented ``fair weather'' values. Inquiring why an attribute is important
purchasers will provide too few insights as to occurs in the second round of questions.
what the brand has which can be built upon Inquiries about attributes elicit answers about
and leveraged. consequences. Questions that investigate
Although the goal of the laddering interview consequences ± in turn ± aim towards finding
is to extract the abstract, possibly the underlying personal values, the real reasons
subconscious, reasons for purchase behavior, the purchase is made. This requires the
begin with questions that allow the brand interviewee to reflect upon the purchase and,
champion to talk about the product's therefore, it is important to continue
attributes. The consequences that are questioning along the same vein. Stopping and
revealed along the way become the key returning to a consequence at a later time will
insights used in formating a marketing often result in the interviewee losing their train
strategy. Consider the following questions: of thought about a given consequence.
. How long have you used the product? Finding the right questions to ask in any
. How often do you use the product? given interview can only be done through
. Where do you buy the product? experience. Table II offers a few tips for
. What do you like about the product? conducting an interview. It is important to
. Is it a good value for the price? note that the following is merely a short list of
. Have you tried similar products? questions that was compiled in doing the
. What would it take you to switch? interviews for this study. Practice and
The purpose of this first round of questions is experience will offer the best framework for
to find what attributes or properties of the what question should be asked at any given
product cause the interviewee to purchase moment during the interview. However, this
and champion the brand. Once several is a good foundation with which to start
attributes of the product have been identified, conducting laddering interviews.
and questioning is becoming repetitive, it is
time to move on.
Before beginning questioning again, review Laddering insights and marketing
the answers given. The following questions implications
should be based on previous responses given by
the brand champion. In this manner, a Understanding that there exists a core of finite
``ladder'' begins to be constructed, establishing values behind every purchase can be useful in
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Brian Wansink Volume 6 . Number 2 . 2003 . 111-118

Table II Suggestions for conducting a brand equity-based laddering interview

Facilitation techniques Actions to avoid
Ask questions that would reveal personal reasons Don't rush
Ask questions that cause a person think and respond with a Don't ask questions that can be answered in one word
sentence, not yes/no Don't force the interviewee to answer the question in a certain way
Ask "Why?" Don't expect to get to a value in three questions
Question a person's reasons for their responses Don't assume that a person means something other than what they say
Allow the questioning to flow, even if the questions are not Don't force the issue. Some of the consequences may not lead to
directly brand related where you want to go. Change topics and start again
Ask questions that give the interviewee free reign to answer the
question as they see fit
Watch the person's face as they answer the question and listen to
the tone in their voice

helping stimulate implications for the Discussion

promotion, place, price, and product aspects
of a successful marketing campaign. Recall The laddering techniques described here
OB lager. Brand champions for the product allow marketing professionals to dive below
often viewed ``belonging'' as a value they the surface and uncover insights that help
associated with OB lager. To leverage this, better understand the equity of the brand and
OB lager could be sold in upper scale liquor to further build it or extend it. By delving into
stores or offered in conjunction with finer a consumer's psyche and harvesting
dining at an elevated price to give the information regarding their basic motivations
consumer the feel that he or she is a member and personal values, the marketer can
of an ``eÂlite'' group. This would consciously or uncover the unique characteristics of a
unconsciously appeal to potential consumers' specific brand that truly affect those
values of belonging and security, while also decisions. These insights hold the key to
acknowledging attributes of the product that developing successful marketing techniques
are appealing to the consumer. that focus upon and leverage these attributes
The results of laddering could also be used and how they link to usage consequences and
to help salespeople better understand the to values.
customer and their decision making process. Many have suggested that the principal
It has been suggested that implementing an task of marketers is to educate the consumer
adaptive selling technique, through laddering, about a product through the use of self-
results in greater knowledge of sales situations relevant advertising messages (Moriarty,
and customer characteristics. This greater 1983). However, no suggestion was made as
knowledge, in conjunction with adaptive to how to identify ``self-relevant messages''
selling, positively affects sales performance. (Seggev, 1982). For example, Arby's
The ultimate goal of laddering is to develop ``different is good'' campaign suggests that
a successful marketing campaign. Laddering an individual can be unique among their
helps understand why customers really buy peers in choosing a roast beef sandwich as
and helps develop key insights that will serve opposed to a hamburger. Arby's failed to
as the platform on which a marketing identify why ``being different'' was an
campaign can be built. Laddering can tap into important self-relevant message when a
the set of meanings and associations that consumer is looking for something to eat.
differentiate the product from the L'oreal, on the other hand, effectively uses
competition (Reynolds and Gutman, 1984). the ``because I'm worth it'' campaign to
These findings can then be used for designing target the personal value of acceptance,
marketing segmentation and positioning through consequences of better body image
strategies (Gengler et al., 1995) that explicitly and social compatibility.
link the attributes and consequences of a Means-end theory suggests a hierarchy of
product. Table III illustrates some key meanings behind consumer product
laddering insights and their implications for knowledge (Young and Feigin, 1975;
the marketing mix. Gutman, 1982). Laddering provides a
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Brian Wansink Volume 6 . Number 2 . 2003 . 111-118

Table III Laddering insights and their implications for the marketing mix
Product Key laddering insights Marketing implications
Nike soccer shoes and Gives me a sense of belonging to a certain group Sponsor tournament events locally and nationally
clothing Makes me more a part of the soccer community Put premiere soccer players' numbers on shoes
I wish I could live the lifestyle of a professional soccer Buy time in the score box shown on the TV screen during
player games
Offer Nike Soccer newsletters, statistics, and promotions at
POP
Sony Playstation My friends come over and we spend an evening working Set up gaming Kiosks in nightclubs in large cities such as LA
together through a game or playing against each other and New York
Challenging games require more critical thinking and Get Joey and Chandler to play Playstation on Friends
decision-making. It feels more like a puzzle rather than Set up store displays away from other game systems and in
a game untapped outlets such as bookstores
Some games are suited to adults only, so I don't feel like I Target magazines such as Maxim, SI and Playboy with
am playing a "kids' game," but taking part in a high "mature" ads
quality adult entertainment
J&J's non-allergenic It's dependable and trustworthy Free sample size soaps in childbirth bags given out during
soap I am concerned about my skin and keeping it healthy childbirth classes
± J&J takes those worries away Offer the soap in bulk sizes at ``bulk prices'' to appeal to
I guess its because I feel like a responsible parent and that family consumption
is really important to me Sell the soap at health stores
It makes me look as though I spend days at the beauty Have doctors distribute free samples during visits
salon, like I'm a very sophisticated person. I am just Set up POP displays that illustrate a muddy child washing
smart about the products that I use his face while a mother looks on with a smile of approval
I can find it anywhere, so I never have to worry about not
being able to get it

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No. 6, September, pp. 545-60. Vol. 14, pp. 343-51.

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